Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Extreme Wind Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Anchors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Slack Spans (Reduced Tension Spans) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Pole Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Selection of Pole Top Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Pole Line Design Parting Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Street Lighting
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Factors Contributing to Roadway Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Roadway Lighting Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Roadway Lighting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 State Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Example of Roadway Lighting System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Power Supply and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Street Lighting Voltage Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Voltage Drop Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Lighting System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Closing Thoughts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Line Protection
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Fuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Distribution Transformer Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Fuse-Fuse Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
vi
Reclosers and Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Recloser Recloser Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Sectionalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Recloser Sectionalizer Fuse Coordination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Switches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Surge Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
System Grounding
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Types of Grounding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Earth as a Grounding Medium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 The Grounding Electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Pole Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Grounding of System Neutral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Pole Grounding for Line Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Improving System Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Substation Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Electric Shock and the Human Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Capacitors
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Power Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Capacitor Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Capacitor Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Distribution Line Capacitor Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Design of Line Capacitor Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Substation Capacitor Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Protective Relaying
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Fault Current Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Relay Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Instrument Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Overcurrent Relaying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Zone/Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Differential Relaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Miscellaneous Relaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Other Transformer Protection Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
vii
10
Distribution Automation
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Basics of Distribution Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 SCADA Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Fault Detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Power Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Distribution Sensing, Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Distribution Automation Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Communication Systems for Distribution Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Automation Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Benefits of Distribution Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Environmental Conditions to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
11
Underground Distribution
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Overhead vs. Underground. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Engineering URD Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Code Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Design of URD Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Installation of URD Facilities Some Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Operating the URD System Some Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
12
Transformer Connections
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Transformer Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Paralleling Single-Phase Distribution Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Phase Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Ferroresonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Single-Phase Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Considerations for Polyphase Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Common Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Banks With Two Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
13
Metering
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Basic Construction and Operation of an Induction Watthour Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Demand Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Reactive Power Metering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
viii
Standard Metering Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Special Metering Installations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 Automated Meter Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Safety Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
14
Dispersed Generation
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Distribution Generation Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Commonly Applied Distributed Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 New and Emerging Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Switching and Protection Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 Overview of the DG Utility Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 Requirements of IEEE 1547 Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Glossary of Interconnection Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 DG Interconnection Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
15
Engineering Economics
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Cost Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Cost Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Introduction to Engineering Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Time Diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Inflation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
ix
NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS
18. For uncontrolled water flow areas, the surface area shall be that enclosed by its annual high-water mark. Clearances shall be based on the normal flood level; if available, the 10-year flood level may be assumed as the normal flood level. 19. The clearance over rivers, streams, and canals shall be based upon the largest surface area of any 1-mile-long segment that includes the crossing. The clearance over a canal, river, or stream normally used to provide access for sailboats to a larger body of water shall be the same as that required for the larger body of water. 20. Where an overwater obstruction restricts vessel height to less than the applicable reference height given in Table 232-3 in the NESC, the required clearance may be reduced by the difference between the reference height and the overwater obstruction height, except that the reduced clearance shall not be less than that required for the surface area on the line-crossing side of the obstruction. 21. Where the US Army Corps of Engineers, or the state, or surrogate thereof has issued a crossing permit, clearances of that permit shall govern. 22. See Rule 234I for the required horizontal and diagonal clearances to rail cars. 23. For the purpose of this Rule, trucks are defined as any vehicle exceeding 8 feet in height. Areas not subject to truck traffic are areas where truck traffic is not normally encountered nor reasonably anticipated. 24. Communication cables and conductors may have a clearance of 15 feet where poles are back of curbs or other deterrents to vehicular traffic. 25. The clearance values shown in this table are computed by adding the applicable Mechanical and Electrical (M&E) value of Table A-1 to the applicable Reference Component of Table A-2a of Appendix A in the NESC. 26. When designing a line to accommodate oversized vehicles, these clearance values shall be increased by the difference between the known height of the oversized vehicle and 14 feet.
See Table 1-2. Not less than 16.5 ft (open wire) 16.0 ft (multiplex)
See Table 1-2. Not less than 12.5 ft (open wire) 12.0 ft (multiplex)
Street
Residential driveway
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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS
L 2
S Y
Figure 2-3. Point of maximum sag and low point can be different.
X =
L H 1 2 4S
2
H Vertical distance: Y = S 1 4S
Where: X = horizontal distance to low point in sag from the lower support, ft Y = vertical distance to low point in sag from the lower support, ft L = span length, ft H = difference in attachment elevations, ft (if higher, the value is positive and if lower, it is negative) S = conductor sag in question (any sag), ft Note: If the value of (1 H/4S) is negative, the low point in sag (theoretical) occurs beyond the lower support and thus not in the given span. In this case, the low point in sag is at the attachment point of the conductor at the lower support.
Anatomy of a Span
Figure 2-4 depicts the important terminology associated with components of conductor sag. These components are used constantly when designing overhead utility lines.
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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS
L (guyed)
L (guyed) 2
FWS (guyed)
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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS
Prestressed s Spiral wire Concrete cover Longitudinal wire (if required) Non-tensioned reinforcement (if required) Seam line 5/8 in. minimum As required
Here are brief descriptions of the major components that make up a prestressed concrete pole:
Prestressed Strands
Prestressed strands are the main strength members of a concrete pole. The number of prestressed strands, their size and location depends on the manufacturer and the class and/or strength requirement of the pole. For ease of drilling, the location of these prestressed strands can be specified. The prestressed strands are loaded to a specific tension to insure the concrete stays in compression. Strands are generally located symmetrically, which makes it fairly easy to avoid them when drilling. Prestressed strands are made of high strength carbon steel and can only be cut with a torch. Due to their importance in the overall strength of the pole, they should never be drilled, cut, or left exposed. Poles with this type of damage should be removed from service.
Spiral Wrap
Spiral wrap wires are smaller than the prestressed strands and are made of mild steel. They are wrapped helically around the prestressed strands for the full length of the concrete pole. Although they provide some strength to the concrete pole, cutting the spiral wrap wires for boltholes does not generally have a significant effect on the strength of the pole.
Non-Tensioned Reinforcement
Non-tensioned reinforcement is nothing more than mild steel rebar. It is often used at the ground line to provide extra strength in this area. It is placed beside the prestressed strand and normally will not be located where it might be cut.
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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS
Air flow spoiler Downlead cushion & lattice tower clamp Spiral vibration damper OR Suspension
Support
Figure 4-8. Typical hardware for optical ground wire (OPGW). Courtesy: Preformed Line Products.
Dielectric damper
Cable abrasion protector Downlead cushion & mounting accessories Splice case within steel ballistic shield
Figure 4-9. Typical hardware for ADSS cable. Courtesy: Preformed Line Products.
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NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS
30'
Sidewalk
P2
Sidewalk
P2
From Table 5-5, we determine the roadway surface classification as R1. The residential area in question is classified as a low pedestrian conflict area as listed in Table 5-3. From Table 5-6 we see that the average maintained illuminance value (footcandles) for a major roadway in a low pedestrian conflict residential area is 0.6 footcandles. To calculate the average maintained footcandles, we assume the Lamp Depreciation Factor to be 90% and the Luminaire Dirt Depreciation to be 80%. Using Figure 5-3 (American Electric Roadway Luminaire) photometric data, the Coefficient of Utilization graph shows the CU to be 43%, based on this calculation:
180
LINE PROTECTION
40 30 20
Inrush Curve
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Damage Curve
600 540 480 420 360 300 240
Time in Seconds
120
180
60 54 48 42 36 30 24
Transformer Fuse
18
1.2
5 6 7 8 9 10
20
30
40
50 60 70 80 90 100
200
300
400
Fuse-Fuse Coordination
Fuse link coordination can be achieved by the use of TCC curves, coordination tables, or industry established rules of thumb. When fuses are installed in series on a power system, the down-line fuse is referred to as the protecting link and the up-line fuse is referred to as the protected link. To achieve coordination, the protecting link should operate for faults in its zone of protection without causing damage to the protected link.
203
CAPACITORS
SYSTEM GROUNDING
500
0.01
0.6
LINE PROTECTION
1.8
STREET LIGHTING
12
STRUCTURES
100 90 80 70 60 50
NESC OVERVIEW
NESC OVERVIEW POLE LINE DESIGN STRUCTURES FIBER OPTIC CABLE STREET LIGHTING LINE PROTECTION SYSTEM GROUNDING CAPACITORS
Chemical Treatments
In some extreme cases, the soil surrounding the ground electrode must be chemically treated to reduce the ground resistance. This method also helps to reduce the change in soil resistivity during wet and dry seasons. The major disadvantages of this method are that it is expensive and is not generally permanent (chemicals are washed away by rain). However, it may be the only solution for areas with underlying rock layers preventing the use of deeper or even multiple rods. The materials used for this purpose are generally referred to as Grounding Enhancement Material or GEM, and this abbreviation is used in some trade names. Buried electrodes are sometimes placed in Bentonite clay which has a favorable resistivity.
Substation Grounding
The function of a substation ground is to provide proper operation of electric equipment and to provide personnel safety. These functions can be met by using the lowest practical resistance between the circuit neutrals and the earth. Typically, a ground grid that is designed to meet the safety standards for personnel will also be satisfactory for equipment operations. The substation ground grid generally consists of driven ground rods tied together with buried cables and equipment ground mats, which are all tied to the system neutral. Current flows into the ground from lightning surges, ground faults. Switching surges can cause potential
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PROTECTIVE RELAYING
IF = 6,400 A A B
Time
6000 A IF @ B
6400 A Current
8000 A IF @ A
As can be seen, the two are properly coordinated. However, instantaneous relaying can be applied at breaker A to increase its sensitivity without mis-coordinating with breaker B. This is accomplished by setting the instantaneous relay to see 80-85% of the distance to B. This can be easily calculated as a ratio of fault current decrease to line length since this can be approximated as a linear relationship. IInst = 8000 - [(8000 6000) 0.8] = 6,400 amps The instantaneous relay can, for all practical purposes, be drawn as a vertical line at the 6,400 amps location. This time-overcurrent curve can be indicated with a dashed line for all currents greater than the instantaneous setting. Figure 9-17 has been redrawn in Figure 9-18 with a tap at point C that is protected by a fuse.
333
ENGR. ECONOMICS
DISPERSED GENERATION
METERING
TRANSFORMERS
UNDERGROUND
DIST. AUTOMATION
RELAYING
Time
RELAYING DIST. AUTOMATION UNDERGROUND TRANSFORMERS METERING DISPERSED GENERATION ENGR. ECONOMICS
B C
A Source
A C
6400 A IF @ B
7200 A IF @ C
8000 A IF @ A
As can be seen, for a fault with a magnitude of 7,200 amps on the tap at C just beyond the fuse, the instantaneous trip setting on breaker A will operate faster than the fuse. The only way to alleviate this problem is to set the instantaneous relay above 7,200 amps or to remove the instantaneous relay. However, this greatly reduces the sensitivity of the breaker relay scheme to high-magnitude, close-in faults. Application of instantaneous relaying can be accomplished by utilizing a reclosing relay with an instantaneous trip lockout feature. After a preset number of reclosers (usually one or two), this device locks out the instantaneous relay from operation. Thus, breaker A can be set to operate twice on instantaneous and then revert to time delay for two additional operations. As a result, an intermittent (transient) fault on the tap at C can be cleared without the fuse blowing. It is estimated that two-thirds of all faults are transient in nature, this results in a considerable reduction in outage time for the consumer. If the fault is persistent, the instantaneous relay will be locked out and, under time delay at breaker A, the fuse will clear the fault providing correct coordination. For a persistent fault on the main feeder, the time delay of the final two operations can be undesirable. However, due to the small percentage of persistent faults and, by liberal application of fuses on all taps off the main feeder, this problem can be reduced to an acceptable level.
334