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Its all about the material: Ten questions to answer before selecting a bulk storage vessel
Bill Neighbors Tank Connection

Choosing a bulk storage vessel based on your materials characteristics is the best way to ensure that the vessel will contain and discharge your material without problems. Here are 10 questions to answer about your material before you select a tank or silo, along with information about these vessel types, examples showing how vessels were selected for different materials, and a sidebar describing discharge patterns in storage vessels.

About tanks and silos Tanks are typically constructed of coated carbon steel, stainless steel, or, less often, aluminum, while silos are made of concrete. The tank and silo types most commonly used in bulk solids applications are described in the following information. Which vessel can best handle your material depends primarily on your materials characteristics and the volume of material you must store. [Editors note: The vessel capacities listed here are for hopper-bottom, rather than flat-bottom, vessels, because bulk solids storage vessels typically have hopper-bottom designs.] Shop-welded tank. A shop-welded tank, which consists of welded steel panels, as shown in Figure 1a, has a relatively small capacity of less than 10,000 cubic feet. The shopwelded tank is suitable for storing plastic resins, dry chemicals, food products, minerals, wood waste, and other dry bulk materials. This tank is constructed entirely in the suppliers factory and is then shipped on a truck trailer to the job site, where the tank is lifted by crane from the trailer and placed on a foundation. Shop construction allows tight control of the tanks welding quality and factory application of liquid surface finishes (such as a coating on the interior wall to prevent abrasion or corrosion, or a primer followed by an acrylic finish coat on the exterior wall for weather protection). The cost of shipping the one-piece tank to the job site is higher than for shipping parts for a site-built vessel, but the shop-welded tank has lower field installation costs. Bolted flat-panel tank. A bolted flat-panel tank (also called a bolted smooth-wall flat-panel tank to differentiate it from a tank with corrugated walls) has a capacity from 250 to 80,000 cubic feet. The bolted tank handles plastic resins, dry chemicals, minerals, wood waste, some food products,

ne of the most common mistakes in tank and silo selection is choosing a vessel based on a preference for a certain vessel type rather than on the stored materials requirements. While this approach may be easy for the vessel supplier Im just giving my customers what they want! it can lead to unreliable discharge from the vessel, as well as other problems, including vessel wall damage and deformation and even complete vessel failure. A better approach is to base vessel selection on a sound understanding of your dry bulk materials characteristics and to work closely with the supplier to design a vessel that can handle these characteristics. The result will be a bulk storage vessel that gives many years of trouble-free containment and smooth, reliable discharge.1

Before discussing the questions you need to answer about your material, lets start by reviewing some tank and silo basics.

and other dry bulk materials. The tank, as shown in Figure 1b, consists of flat steel panels (each typically about 5 by 10 feet) that are constructed in the suppliers shop with predrilled bolt holes and then shipped to the job site, where theyre bolted together to form ring-shaped assemblies. (The flat, rather than flanged, panels produce a tank with no interior ledges, eliminating this potential source of material buildup.) The ring assemblies are then stacked and bolted together to form the tank with the aid of synchronized hydraulic screw jacks stationed at grade level, a method that keeps the installation crew safely on the ground. The shopconstructed panels allow tight manufacturing control and shop application of powder coatings over all panel surfaces, including the bolt holes, to provide high-quality, durable finishes. Shipping the panels to the job site is cheaper than shipping a one-piece tank, which offsets the bolted tanks higher field installation costs. Field-welded tank. A field-welded tank, as shown in Figure 1c, can store large volumes of material from 10,000 to 250,000 cubic feet. The tank can store minerals, aggregates, dry chemicals, and other dry materials. The fieldwelded tank consists of large steel panels (each typically about 10 by 35 feet) that are shipped to the job site, where the installation crew welds the panels together to form ring-shaped assemblies. The crew works from elevated platforms as they weld the ring assemblies together to form the tank. The panels shop construction allows tight control of their manufacturing quality. Although each field-welded tank requires a large number of panels, shipping the panels is cheaper than shipping a one-piece tank. However, field-welding the panels into ring assemblies and the assemblies to form the tank increases the installation time and cost. The tanks exterior surface finish

(typically a painted primer followed by a painted finish coat) must be applied in the field, which also adds cost. Because the installation crew is elevated on platforms above the ground, worker safety is a greater concern with this tank than with a shop-welded or bolted tank. Slip-form concrete silo. A slip-form concrete silo, as shown in Figure 2a, also has a large capacity, typically from 10,000 to 250,000 cubic feet, and is built entirely at the job site. The silo is suitable for storing minerals, grains, wood waste, and other dry bulk materials. The slip-form concrete silo is constructed in one continuous pour of concrete, which produces a strong, high-quality structure. Workers create a monolithic wall by placing rebar into a silo form and pouring concrete continuously into the form until the silo is completed. As the silo grows taller, workers are supported on elevated platforms. The exterior wall can be treated with a painted surface finish for additional weather protection. Compared with tanks, the slip-form concrete silo takes longer to build. For the same capacity, the slip-form concrete silo has an installation cost comparable to that of a field-welded tank. Jump-form concrete silo. A jump-form concrete silo, as shown in Figure 2b, also provides from 10,000 to 250,000 cubic feet of capacity and is built entirely at the job site. The silo handles minerals, grains, wood waste, and other dry bulk materials. The jump-form concrete silo is constructed in formed sections, which results in a lower-quality structure. To form a section, workers pour concrete into jump forms, then remove the forms and set them in place above the finished section and pour again, forming a cold joint between the sections. This process is repeated until

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Figure 1
Steel tanks
a. Shop-welded tank b. Bolted flat-panel tank c. Field-welded tank

the silo reaches the desired height. The jump-form concrete silo takes longer to build than a shop-welded or bolted tank. For the same capacity, the jump-form concrete silos installation cost is comparable to that of a bolted tank. Custom features. Many features and accessories are available to customize your tank or silo. Major features include

Figure 2
Concrete silos
a. Slip-form concrete silo

various hopper geometries (find more information in the sidebar, Flow fundamentals: Discharge patterns in storage vessels), discharge devices (such as screw, belt conveyor, vibrating, fluidizing, and bin activator discharges), flow aids (such as air cannons and fluidizing discs), and support structures. Various accessories also allow the vessel to be integrated into your installations bulk handling system, including flange connections for a bin vent to provide dust control, nozzles or couplings for bin level control devices, and pressure-vacuum relief valves. You can also select access doors to the silo roof and hopper areas, maintenance access platforms, caged ladders, spiral stairways, and perimeter guardrails to provide safe worker access to the vessel. Ten questions to answer The single most important factor in choosing a storage vessel for your application is having a good understanding of your material and its characteristics. Answering the following 10 questions about the material will help you determine which vessel type and features are best suited to handling your material and storage requirements. 1. How much dry bulk material (in cubic feet) do I need to store? For less than 10,000 cubic feet of material, a shop-welded or bolted tank will do the job. Both tanks are used interchangeably for applications of this capacity and offer similar advantages. The tanks have comparable total installed costs including costs for construction materials, freight, and field installation. For 10,000 or more cubic feet of material, youll typically require a field-welded tank or concrete silo. These vessels require significantly more field installation time than shop-welded and bolted tanks. The total installed cost of a slip-form concrete silo is comparable to that of a fieldwelded tank, and the cost for a jump-form concrete silo is comparable to that of a bolted tank. 2. Does my material have any unique characteristics that may affect its storage or discharge behavior? Any of several material characteristics can produce storage or discharge problems. For instance, if your material contains both coarse and fine particles such as coal that contains 2-inch lumps as well as fines the particles may lock together during storage, creating arching problems, or may segregate during discharge. To prevent such problems, you need to select a hopper geometry that will promote functional mass-flow discharge from the vessel. Be aware that some vessels are called mass-flow vessels because theyre designed to withstand mass-flow loads. However, such a vessel may not provide functional massflow discharge that is, operate reliably, every time it discharges, with first-in first-out flow. To achieve functional mass-flow discharge, the hopper slope, hopper out-

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b. Jump-form concrete silo

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Flow fundamentals:

Discharge patterns in storage vessels

force material to flow along it. Friction develops between the wall surface and the material, preventing the material from sliding along the walls and causing some material to remain stationary while other material flows. A narrow flow channel forms in the vessel, usually right over the outlet, and the first material to flow into the vessel is typically the last to flow out (called first-in last-out flow). Two common problems with funnel-flow vessels are: 1) the formation of a stable rathole, which can happen if the flow channel empties out, and which will decrease the vessels live capacity, and 2) the formation of an arch over the outlet, which can happen if the stored material has enough cohesive strength, and which will stop flow. Mass flow. A mass-flow vessel can handle cohesive materials, materi-

als that degrade over time, easily segregated materials, and fine powders. The mass-flow vessel typically has a taller hopper than a funnel-flow vessel does. The mass-flow unit can have a steep conical hopper with a circular outlet or a wedgeshaped transition hopper with a slot-shaped outlet, as shown in Figure B. The hopper is typically made of stainless steel or coated steel to provide a smooth interior wall. The smooth, steeply angled hopper wall overcomes the friction between the wall surface and the material, so that all material is in motion when any material is discharged. The first material to enter the vessel is the first to flow to the outlet (called first-in first-out flow). Expanded flow. An expandedflow vessel is suitable for virtually any material, but because of its high fabrication costs, the design is cost-effective only for vessels 25 feet in diameter or larger. The expanded-flow vessel, as shown in Figure C, has a combination hopper that consists of an upper funnel-flow section on a lower mass-flow section. The mass-flow pattern in the massflow section expands into the funnel-flow section, creating a discharge pattern that combines the best properties of funnel-flow and mass-flow vessels: the funnelflow vessels headroom savings with the mass-flow vessels first-in first-out flow. With a properly designed funnel-flow section, the material will move in a funnelflow pattern but wont form a stable rathole because this sections outlet is large enough to destabilize a rathole. The mass-flow section must have a steep enough wall angle and large enough outlet to provide mass flow. PBE

bulk storage vessel can be designed for one of three material discharge patterns: funnel flow, mass flow, or expanded flow. Funnel flow. A funnel-flow vessel is typically limited to handling coarse, free-flowing materials that dont degrade over time, as well as materials (such as plastic pellets) that feed processes in which segregation is acceptable. The funnel-flow vessel typically has a shallow carbon steel conical or pyramid-shaped hopper, as shown in Figure A, to meet low headroom requirements and reduce fabrication costs. The conical hopper usually has a wall angle of 60 degrees or less. The hopper wall isnt steep or smooth enough to

Figure B
Mass-flow vessel
With conical hopper With wedge-shaped transition hopper

Figure A
Funnel-flow vessel
With conical hopper With pyramidshaped hopper

Figure C
Expanded-flow vessel
Large-diameter outlet in funnelflow section Funnel-flow section Mass-flow section

let size, and hopper surfaces coefficient of friction (that is, the hoppers surface profile) must be selected to match your materials characteristics. Depending on your material, you may also need to select other flow-promoting features or accessories, such as a flow aid for the hopper or a smooth liner for the hoppers interior wall. 3. What vessel construction material is best suited to my materials characteristics? If you have a free-flowing granular material thats not abrasive and has no other difficult characteristics, you can choose either a steel tank or concrete silo, and the vessel may not require an interior surface finish. But to handle an abrasive or difficult-to-flow material, youll need to pay close attention to the vessels construction materials and interior finish, as well as carefully choose the vessels hopper geometry. For instance, to store a food product, you may choose a steel tank made of carbon steel with an FDA-approved interior surface coating or a tank with alloy construction. Or to store a highly abrasive material, you may choose a carbon steel tank that has either a hopper with increased wall thickness to provide abrasion resistance or an abrasion-resistant hopper liner made of abrasion-resistant steel, UHMW material, or stainless steel. 4. Whats my materials compacted density? Your materials compacted density will help determine how to design the tank or silo to handle the materials maximum load at full capacity. The compacted density also plays a role in designing the vessels hopper. Examples of materials with low compacted density are wood chips (at 25 lb/ft3) and plastic resins (at 35 lb/ft3); at the opposite extreme are cement powder (at 85 to 90 lb/ft3) and slag and barite (at over 120 lb/ft3). 5. Is my material likely to degrade during storage? Not all materials are subject to degradation or spoilage during storage. But one that is, such as a food product, will require a storage vessel with a carefully designed hopper and discharge device. For instance, to store flour, youll need to select a hopper geometry and discharge device that will provide first-in first-out flow so no flour can remain in stagnant areas in the vessel and contaminate other material. 6. Is my material likely to segregate during storage? A material containing both coarse and fines can segregate by particle size during discharge. This tendency can be prevented by choosing a storage vessel that has a hopper designed for mass-flow discharge, an appropriate discharge device, and, if necessary, a flow aid mounted on the hopper. 7. What type of discharge pattern (funnel flow, mass flow, or expanded flow) does my application require? While a difficult-to-flow material requires selecting a storage vessel that provides mass-flow discharge, including a

mass-flow hopper with appropriate discharge device, some materials will flow easily in a funnel-flow hopper. The funnel-flow hopper is the most economical to build, and it can solve certain handling problems, as well. For instance, highly abrasive aggregate, which is a free-flowing material, can be stored in a vessel with a funnel-flow hopper so that the material will flow on itself during discharge, rather than along the hopper walls. This eliminates the high cost of using an abrasion-resistant material or liner for the hopper. 8. Will the storage vessels hopper require a flow aid to promote reliable material discharge? Materials that are difficult to flow, such as fine, cohesive powders, or those that are likely to degrade, such as food products and some chemicals, will most likely require a storage vessel with a flow aid. By preventing flow stoppages during discharge, the flow aid keeps the material flowing and prevents stagnant areas from developing in the vessel. 9. Should my materials flow characteristics be tested? This depends on how well you know your material and application requirements and, in some cases, whether theres a standard vessel in your industry for storing the material. If youre storing a material that youve handled successfully in the past, no material testing may be required. But if your material is a new product or is unfamiliar to you and the storage vessel supplier, its best to test the materials flow characteristics. To do this, youll need to send a material sample to an independent solids flow consultant or lab that provides flow testing; the supplier can typically recommend one to you. The test results will be used to determine the correct hopper slope, outlet size, and surface profile for your materials flow characteristics. The vessel supplier will use these parameters to design a properly functioning storage vessel for your material. 10. Based on what I know about my materials characteristics, will I need a guarantee from the storage vessel supplier that the vessel will perform reliably in my application? You should expect the storage vessel supplier to guarantee that the vessel built at your site works the way its been designed to work, no matter what your material is like. Two vessel selection examples Here are examples of two applications requiring new storage vessels, with details about how vessels were chosen to suit each dry bulk materials characteristics and storage requirements. Small volume of free-flowing material. A municipal water treatment plant needed to store 2,500 cubic feet of

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hydrated lime. The small material volume indicated that a shop-welded or bolted tank would be suitable; either offers several advantages in terms of cost, quality construction, and relatively low installation costs and times compared with other storage vessels. The tank supplier chose a shop-welded tank, as shown in Figure 3a, because its the industry standard for this application. And while the hydrated lime is difficult to flow, the tank supplier had experience with this material in many similar applications, so no material testing was required. Based on this experience, the supplier determined that the tank would require a flow aid to reliably discharge the lime. The supplier specified the standard flow aid for municipal lime tank applications a vibrating bin activator. The activator, which has a diameter half the tanks diameter, was installed on the tanks hopper section to provide a funnel-flow discharge pattern, which was acceptable for this application. Once

the tank was installed, it discharged the hydrated lime without problems. Large volume of segregating material. A power utility needed to store 15,000 cubic feet of Powder River Basin coal. This material tends to segregate by particle size during discharge and then stagnate at the vessels sidewallhopper transition, where heat buildup can create a potential fire or explosion hazard, so the plant wanted a vessel design that minimized these problems. Because the required capacity exceeded that of a shop-welded tank, the plant staff and tank supplier selected the larger-capacity bolted flat-panel tank, as shown in Figure 3b, which is also the industry standard for this application. They had the material tested by a solids flow consultant so that they could design the hopper to provide functional mass-flow discharge with minimal segregation. After the tank was installed, it reliably discharged the coal without problems. What to do with your answers You may not be able to come up with answers for all 10 questions listed in this article, but you should be able to cover the basics. The next step is to enlist the aid of a solids flow consultant and a knowledgeable storage vessel supplier to help you translate this material information into a storage vessel design. The consultant can help you test your material, if necessary, and will work with you and the vessel supplier to design a vessel with the right features and accessories to contain and reliably discharge your material for many years to come. PBE

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Figure 3
Example applications
a. Shop-welded tank for small volume of free-flowing material

Endnote 1. In this article, the term vessel refers to an atmospheric dry bulk storage vessel rather than a pressure vessel.

b. Bolted flat-panel tank for large volume of segregating material

For further reading Find more information on bulk storage vessels and solids flow in articles listed under Storage and Solids flow in Powder and Bulk Engineerings comprehensive article index at www.powderbulk.com and in the December 2006 issue.

Bill Neighbors is president of Tank Connection, 1801 South 21st Street, Parsons, KS 67357; 620-423-3010, fax 620-423-3999 (bill@tankconnection.com, www.tankcon nection.com). He has more than 25 years experience in dry bulk storage applications.