Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal

Emerald Article: Evaluating responses to celebrity endorsements using projective techniques Nisachon Tantiseneepong, Matthew Gorton, John White

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To cite this document: Nisachon Tantiseneepong, Matthew Gorton, John White, (2012),"Evaluating responses to celebrity endorsements using projective techniques", Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Vol. 15 Iss: 1 pp. 57 - 69 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13522751211191991 Downloaded on: 11-12-2012 References: This document contains references to 42 other documents To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com This document has been downloaded 1876 times since 2011. *

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Evaluating responses to celebrity endorsements using projective techniques

Nisachon Tantiseneepong and Matthew Gorton
Newcastle University Business School, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK, and

Responses to celebrity endorsements 57

John White
Plymouth Business School, Plymouth, UK
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to utilise projective techniques as a method to capture and understand consumer reactions to celebrity-endorsed perfumes. The paper illustrates how projective techniques can aid practitioners in their selection of celebrity endorsers. Design/methodology/approach The paper is part of a wider tradition of returning to qualitative methods when research based on existing theories offers only partial or little support for them. In total, 16 females participated in the study, which utilised a range of projective techniques, including picture association. For the latter, participants were exposed rst to advertisements for two leading perfumes alone and then these advertisements incorporating four contrasting celebrity endorsers. Associations and reactions to the advertisements with and without celebrity endorsers were compared. Findings The analysis identies that celebrity endorsers may have a signicant impact on the perceived target market for a product, highlighting their potential role in repositioning a brand. However, the celebrity may crowd out the endorsed product. The role of personal liking is critical, although this is ignored in existing source models of celebrity endorsement. Originality/value The application of projective techniques demonstrates their usefulness in capturing responses to celebrity endorsements. The paper uncovers some of the reasons why previous research has generated results that only partially support the existing main theoretical frameworks. Keywords Consumer behaviour, Advertising, Product endorsement, Perfume, Celebrity endorsement, Market research, Projective techniques Paper type Research paper

Introduction Celebrity endorsement has long been used by marketers to enhance a brands appeal, where a celebrity endorser is commonly dened as a recognisable person who is contracted to advertise for a product or brand (McCracken, 1989). Advocates for the use of celebrity endorsers argue that compared to non-celebrities, the former can improve the effectiveness of marketing communications, by enhancing a products image, attracting attention and improving recall rates (Seno and Lukas, 2007). A celebrity endorser may be particularly useful in making an advertisement stand out, cutting through clutter (Dean and Biswas, 2001). A globally recognised celebrity may also ease international market entry, overcoming cultural and language barriers (Erdogan, 1999). Choi and Rifon (2007) argue that the power of celebrities in marketing communications rests on their ability to generate what Caughey (1984) terms para-social relationships, feelings of a personal relationship despite the lack of direct contact with consumers. The recognition of the special powers of celebrities encouraged extensive academic research on the extent to which, and how, a celebrity endorsers image is transferred

Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal Vol. 15 No. 1, 2012 pp. 57-69 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1352-2752 DOI 10.1108/13522751211191991

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to endorsed products, and the impact of this on sales and a brands image. Academic theory, such as the source models and match up hypothesis discussed below, also seeks to aid practitioners in their selection of celebrity endorsers. However, despite extensive empirical research, which has been overwhelmingly quantitative in nature, our understanding of the inuence of celebrity endorsers on consumers attitudes and behaviour remains incomplete. As Erdogan (1999) noted in his review of the literature, empirical ndings are equivocal and at best only support partially the main theories advanced. More recent research has not resolved these issues, with no clear picture emerging regarding the importance of the degree of congruence between product and celebrity (Till and Busler, 2000; Lee and Thorson, 2008) or the characteristics that celebrities should possess to make them effective endorsers (Choi and Rifon, 2007). As a result, academics continue to struggle to present empirically validated and theoretically sound models that can underpin practitioners decision making. To contribute to the literature this paper takes an alternative, qualitative approach. The objectives are two fold. First, we utilise projective techniques as a method, demonstrating how they can aid practitioners in their selection of celebrity endorsers. Second, drawing on an application of projective techniques for understanding consumer reactions to celebrity endorsements for perfumes, we identify lessons for the academic literature. The paper is, therefore, part of a wider tradition of returning to a qualitative approach where, as in the case of the celebrity endorsement literature, existing models appear incomplete and offer only partial understanding (Carson et al., 2001; Mariampolski, 2001). Such a situation calls for a critical re-examination of the validity of current conceptual frameworks. The application of projective techniques helps identify why some of the inconsistencies between existing models and empirical results occur, in keeping with the objective of generating insights that are empirically grounded for revising theory (Eisenhardt, 1989). Literature review The literature on consumer responses to celebrity endorsement is extensive. The three most inuential contributions are source models (La Ferle and Choi, 2005; Ohanian, 1990; Spry et al., 2011), McCrackens (1989) meaning transfer model and the match up hypothesis (Erdogan, 1999). This section examines each in turn. Ohanian (1990) drew on Hovland et al.s (1953) synthesis of research on communicator credibility and McGuires (1985) analysis of source research to produce an integrated source model. It posits that the effectiveness of the source depends on three constructs (expertise, attractiveness and trustworthiness). Expertise, also referred to as authoritativeness, relates to a sources competence, qualications, knowledge and experience. The attractiveness construct focuses on physical attractiveness. To capture the construct, Ohanian (1990) includes items relating to the following descriptors: attractive, classy, handsome/beautiful, elegant and sexy. Trustworthiness refers to the honesty and sincerity of the source. Ohanian (1990) found that all three constructs were signicant for explaining intention to purchase for one chosen celebrity (Tom Selleck), but not for the other (Linda Evans). Subsequent applications generated similarly mixed results. La Ferle and Chois (2005) study supports the source models tricomponential structure and Eisend and Langner (2010) found the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers to be linked to both attractiveness and expertise. However, other studies are less clear-cut with the role of attractiveness being particularly contentious (Caballero et al., 1989; Till and Busler, 2000).

McCracken (1989, p. 320) criticises the conceptual validity of source models, arguing that the latter approach:
[. . .] prevents us from seeing that celebrities are in fact highly individualised and complex bundles of meaning. It also prevents us from seeing that endorsement consists in the transfer of these meanings from the celebrity to the product, and from the product to the consumer.

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According to McCracken (1989), source models make assertions about the credibility and attractiveness of the celebrity but are blind to the endorsers role as a medium; and what shapes perceived continuity of messages between advertisements. He reasons that source models cannot explain why a particular celebritys image can work with one product but fail when transferred to another brand. As a result, from applying a source model a researcher can establish that a particular celebrity is attractive but not make sense of the specic meanings she/he lends a product. As an alternative, McCracken (1989) contends that celebrity endorsements must be understood as part of a three-part meaning transfer process. In the rst stage, the meanings that originate in the dramatic roles, political campaigns and/or athletic achievements of the celebrity come to reside in the celebrities themselves. In the second stage, as a result of celebrity endorsement, some, but often not all, of the meanings of the celebrity are transferred to the product. In the nal stage, the meaning transfers, often incompletely, from the product to the consumer. While McCrackens (1989) paper is much cited, few recent studies investigate factors that facilitate/impede the transfer of meaning in the content of celebrity endorsements. One strong theme in both the academic literature and guides for practitioners is the importance of t between product and celebrity, which is often referred to as the match up hypothesis. The latter suggests that endorsers are most effective when there is a high degree of t between the endorser and the endorsed brand/product (Kamins, 1990; Biswas et al., 2006). To a large extent, empirical research on the match up hypothesis concentrates on the physical attractiveness of the endorser (Till and Busler, 2000; Kim and Na, 2007), considering the impact of highly attractive celebrities on products linked to beauty in contrast to goods which are not used primarily to enhance ones attractiveness. The conceptual argument is that attractive celebrities are more effective endorsers for products which are used to enhance ones physical appearance (Till and Busler, 2000). Evidence for the match-up hypothesis remains equivocal. Kahle and Homer (1985) found that pairing a product (razor blades) with an attractive (rather than unattractive) celebrity endorser resulted in more favourable brand attitudes. However, Till and Busler (2000) criticise Kahle and Homers (1985) research design, claiming that as the latter only considered one product, which they argue is used to enhance ones attractiveness, the study cannot assess the effect of attractive celebrities on goods not employed to enhance ones attractiveness. A later study by Kamins (1990), which did include a good not used to enhance ones attractiveness (home computer), found the predicted interaction between celebrity attractiveness and product type in only two out of seven dependent measures. Till and Buslers (2000) own study found that while an attractive spokesperson had a positive effect on brand attitudes, there was no evidence of a product type by endorser attractiveness interaction consistent with the match up hypothesis. They conclude that physical attractiveness is not a strong match-up factor because the link from attractive endorser to product used to enhance ones attractiveness may not be readily apparent (Till and Busler, 2000, p. 12).

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Other research queries the emphasis placed on attractiveness and the match-up hypothesis. Bower and Landreths (2001) study suggests that normal-looking endorsers may be preferable to highly attractive ones even when a product is linked to enhancing ones attractiveness. This is because a normal-looking endorser may be perceived as more trustworthy, provoking a better connection with the average consumer because of greater perceived similarity. Marshall et al. (2008), based on responses to advertisements for lipstick, argue that highly attractive endorsers may generate greater post-purchase dissonance, as the gap between the consumers actual self-image and projected product image is too wide. Lee and Thorsons (2008) experiments suggest that moderate mismatch between a products and a celebritys image generates more favourable intentions to purchase than either extreme mismatch or exceedingly high congruence. The authors speculate that moderately incongruent endorsements may generate greater interest in, and curiosity toward, an advertisement, whereas those with high perceived t fail to stimulate as they are perceived as too familiar and typical. It is not just academic studies which question the validity of existing theory. Several recent, successful celebrity endorsements appear at odds with the source models and the match up hypothesis. For instance, Dairy Crest attributed a rise in sales of 85 percent for its Country Life brand of butter to a campaign featuring John Lydon (formerly Johnny Rotten of the punk band The Sex Pistols) (Teather, 2009). It is difcult to see how John Lydon matches with butter, or how the source brings expertise, attractiveness and trustworthiness to a dairy product. A similar problem confronts the interpretation of Ozzy Osbournes successful endorsement of I Cant Believe Its Not Butter. Victorias Secret, a lingerie retailer, attributed a spectacular rise in sales to the appearance of Bob Dylan in one of its commercials (Coulson, 2004). This would appear at odds with the match up hypothesis and the contention that attractive celebrities are more effective endorsers for products used to enhance ones physical appearance. While care should be taken in interpreting individual cases, particularly with the lack of thorough investigation of attitudinal responses and behavioural effects, it is nonetheless apparent that practitioners often select and use celebrity endorsers in ways which are at odds with existing academic theory. Given the lack of consensus in empirical ndings, and the extent to which ndings have not been consistent with theory, this study returns to a qualitative approach. Specically the study utilises projective techniques to understand responses to celebrity endorsements. Projective techniques are suited to uncovering the multiple associations and salient characteristics of celebrities, brands and products. This ts with Lee and Thorsons (2008, p. 447) call for future research to capture the multidimensionality of celebrity endorsers, assessing the broader meanings associated with an endorser. Overview of projective techniques Projective techniques are one, often underutilised tool, for qualitative market research. They seek to uncover feelings, attitudes, beliefs and motivations that may remain sub-conscious or difcult to express (Donoghue, 2000) by studying responses to ambiguous stimuli. An array of techniques exist, which Will et al. (1996) classify into ve types: association, construction, completion, choice ordering and expressive. The rationale for projective techniques is that individuals will respond to ambiguous and unstructured stimuli by projecting their personality, attitudes and mindsets

on to such material to create structure and meaning (Hussey and Duncombe, 1999). The use of ambiguous stimuli, eschewing responses specically in the rst person, constitutes an indirect form of questioning. This indirect approach may overcome blocking strategies whereby individuals do not communicate thoughts and attitudes to avoid the anxiety of embarrassment or fear of appearing stupid or diminished in some other way by others (Pettigrew and Charters, 2008; Hofstede et al., 2007). The use of projective techniques in marketing dates back to Haire (1950) since when their popularity has waxed and waned. While some researchers question their reliability (Yoell, 1974), several studies demonstrate their utility for generating insights regarding consumers motivations and image management, yielding relevant lessons for marketing strategy (Cooper and Tower, 1992; Hofstede et al., 2007; Hussey and Duncombe, 1999). For qualitative market researchers, projective techniques offer a way in to the invisible layers of the mind (Chandler and Owen, 2002, p. 100), allowing one to unlock and clarify meanings that are out of conscious reach or deep or difcult to express verbally (Wardle, 2002, p. 64). They enable researchers to probe inconsistencies in consumers reasoning and between stated preferences and actions, which is often essential for understanding market dynamics and possible future scenarios (Chandler and Owen, 2002). Methodology This study involved four projective techniques: word association, choice ordering, sentence completion and picture association. Given the interest in celebrity endorsement, this paper focuses on responses to the last technique. After the application of projective techniques, the interviews garnered more general information on participants use of perfume and reported motivations for purchase. Picture association tests drew on six advertisements, comprised of two perfume advertisements and four pictures of perfumes and celebrity endorsers. The two perfume advertisements were real, commercial examples without endorsers. The four other pictures were created by the lead author of this paper, combining images of celebrity endorsers and perfumes to create hypothetical advertisements. Photoshop software was utilised. The perfumes chosen for this research were: Gucci Envy Me and Christian Dior Jadore. These are well-established brands with high recall and recognition (Mintel, 2007). The image of Gucci Envy Me was associated with Jennifer Aniston and Amy Winehouse[1] to create two other advertisements. The Christian Dior Jadore advertisement was edited with images of Queen Latifah and Emma Watson to create the two other hypothetical advertisements with celebrity endorsers. The four celebrities were chosen based on the likelihood of contrasting associations. At the time of the research (Summer 2009) none of the celebrities chosen had endorsed any perfumes. Participants discussed rst associations with the non-endorsed advertisements. Subsequently the hypothetical celebrity-endorsed advertisements were introduced one at a time. In line with other applications of picture association (Prebensen, 2007), respondents rst described their initial associations (top of the mind), then what they believed to be the message of the advertisement and the likely outcome. Respondents were encouraged to describe the type of person the product is aimed at (perceived target market). Participants were prompted to describe the thoughts, feelings and personality of the endorser. Responses to the non-endorsed and celebrity-endorsed advertisements were compared, as well as similarities and differences elicited by different celebrities to a common brand, to assess the degree and type of meaning transfer.

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In total 16 females aged between 20 years and 35 years, all regular perfume wearers, participated in the study. This age group are the heaviest users of perfume (Mintel, 2007). At the outset of the research, the number of interviews was not predetermined. However, by the 15th and 16th interviews conducted, little or no new insights were generated. The research at this point thus encountered theoretical saturation (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) and data collection ceased. Interviews, conducted individually, lasted for approximately two hours. Each was recorded and transcribed. Data were evaluated using quantitative and qualitative content analysis. This followed established procedures for coding/indexing, segmentation of the texts and the analysis of word occurrence (Dey, 1993; Wilkinson, 2004). Findings Table I summarises background information on the age of respondents and factors affecting the purchase of a particular perfume for their own use (i.e. excluding gifts for others). The latter information emerged from the open-ended interview questions asked after conducting the projective techniques. All but one respondent identied the pleasantness of the fragrance as being a critical factor in selecting a particular perfume for purchase. One half of the respondents identied the degree of t between the perfume and their self-image as being important. Seven participants identied that the perfume should make them feel happy. Three respondents identied the brand name as being salient and ve respondents discussed that the perfume selected should make them feel more attractive and appealing to their boyfriend/husband. None identied celebrity endorsements as being important. However, the application of the projective techniques revealed a more complicated picture. Table II details the main associations for the perfume advertisements with and without celebrity endorsers. The gures in brackets refer to the number of respondents identifying a particular association.
Appeal to boyfriend / husband X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Respondent Age Pleasant Fit with Make more code group fragrance self-image attractive A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P 30-35 30-35 30-35 20-24 20-24 20-24 20-24 30-35 20-24 20-24 25-29 25-29 25-29 30-35 30-35 20-24 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Feel Appeal happy Novelty of brand X

Table I. Overview of respondents and stated motives involved in purchasing perfume

Note: X indicates salient factor identied in interview questions

Perfume plus Amy Winehouse Initial associations: Gucci Envy Me Initial associations: pink Amy Winehouse (14), (9), Gucci (5), sweet (3), badness (7), music (7), girly (3), handbags (3), drugs (4) Personication: Personication: beautiful (6), slim (4), Amy Winehouse (12). young woman (4). Perceived target market: Perceived target market: teenagers (7) 20women in their 20s (10) somethings (8) Perfume plus Queen Perfume plus Emma Latifah Watson Initial associations: Queen Initial associations: Jadore Initial associations: Emma Watson (8), Christian Dior golden colour (7), glow (4), Latifah (6), earrings (3), dress (3), Harry Potter (3), glow (3) cosmetics (3), luxury (3), perfume (3) clothes (3). Personication: Personication: Personication: Queen Latifah (9), black elegant (4), mature (3), Emma Watson (11). classy (3). Perceived target woman (3). Perceived Perceived target market: target market: 20s (6), market: 20s (3), 30s (3), teenagers (7), 20s (8) 30s (7) 40s (7), 50 to 60 (3)

Perfume

Perfume alone

Perfume plus Jennifer Aniston Initial associations: Jennifer Aniston (7), friends (6), celebrity not match perfume (4) Personication: Jennifer Aniston (7). Perceived target market: 30/40 year olds (9)

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Table II. Summary of main associations for fragrances alone and with celebrity endorsements

Gucci Envy Me When confronted with the advertisement without a celebrity endorser, participants initial associations centred on the colour of the packaging and the brand name. The most ubiquitous associations were with the colour pink, Gucci and handbags. The majority perceived the product as being aimed at 20 something females and if the perfume were a person it would be a beautiful, slim, and young woman:
This brand would be an independent, beautiful, smart, and simple career woman, good at her job, who wears high heel shoes and a beige suit (respondent F).

Initial associations of the advertisement incorporating Jennifer Aniston focused on the actor. Four of the participants openly said that Jennifer Aniston did not match with the perfume, and two interviewees remarked that there was a good match. Regarding personication, respondents now linked the perfume with Jennifer Aniston rather than general descriptors of beautiful, slim and young. Five respondents linked the name of the perfume to Jennifer Aniston:
No wonder its called Envy me. Jennifer Aniston is [. . .] envied by many people (respondent E). If you want to be envied like Jennifer Aniston, then wear the perfume (respondent I). Jennifer Aniston is popular and Envy me means the girl who wears this perfume will be popular so she will be envied by other girls (respondent J).

The linkage of a celebrity with Envy Me as a brand name was disliked by three respondents:
I do not like someone who says envy me (Respondent F).

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With the advertisement endorsed by Jennifer Aniston the perceived target market was signicantly higher (women in their 30s and 40s) compared to the non-endorsed version (women in their 20s). Reactions to the Envy Me advertisement incorporating the image of Amy Winehouse, focused almost entirely on respondents views of the singer. As a result, participants images of the perfume changed almost completely due to the hypothetical celebrity endorsement. This was in terms of both associations and personication:
It is aggressive [. . .]. The perfume is just like Amy Winehouse. It seeks excitement and likes to try everything including dangerous activities and very subjective, she doesnt take most peoples opinions into consideration, she cares about herself, she does not care about anything (respondent L). Join forces with Amy Winehouse. Im a wild girl and I like this sort of perfume, if you have the same nature like me, this would be the best one for you (respondent P). I would buy it, to know how Amy Winehouse smells like (respondent D). Become a bad girl. Buy me if you want to be bad (respondent H).

Four participants thought that the endorser did not t with the perfume and ve participants thought there was a good match. The age of the perceived target market was also noticeably younger than with the Jennifer Aniston version (teenagers and women in the 20s). Jadore Christian Dior Confronted with the non-celebrity-endorsed advertisement, respondents focused on the golden colour of the perfumes packaging, the black background of the advertisement, the glow of the bottle and the brand name (Table II). Regarding the brand name, participants linked it principally to clothes and cosmetics, rather than perfume. With regard to personication, respondents described an elegant, mature and classy woman although one participant (respondent O) thought that that the fragrance was for men. Some descriptions were remarkably detailed or specic:
It is for a career woman who is beautiful, independent, exible, thin, self-sufcient, and doing well in her job and private life. She has a good appearance, sexy and successful in the way that she is loved and she loves herself, she is not desperate (respondent F). She has inner beauty and she wears a pair of glasses (respondent I). Maybe she is not beautiful but she has a lot of knowledge and experiences in life. She has a decent job and knows a lot about her job, and she knows how to represent her feeling. She is elegant, charming, rich, self condent, talkative but likes to keep silent but she has a lot of good points in her mind. She has white skin, a lot of guys fall for her but she has a higher standard (respondent M).

The perceived target market was rather varied (from females in their 20s up to 60 years old) with the most common response being career women in their 40s. Some respondents responded to the non-endorsed advertisement, by arguing that the perfume was only for older women:
It is too old for me (respondent F). I would not try it I am not yet forty (respondent A).

The incorporation of Queen Latifah into the advertisement resulted in a shift in associations. The main associations were with Queen Latifah (style, earrings, facial expression) rather than the perfume. Ten of the 16 participants felt that Queen Latifah matched with the perfume. Overall the celebrity was perceived as likeable and this affected both personication of the brand and the perceived target market. In this case the perfume was perceived as friendly and successful, aimed at women in their 20s and 30s:
This product is for a condent woman or the girl who wants to be like her (respondent K). If you want to become as condent, beautiful and sexy as her, then just buy it, use it and then you will become her (respondent I). Someone as strong, beautiful, and elegant as Queen Latifah is using this perfume, so if the product has captured her attention, then it must be worthy of buying. If you are between the age of 30 to 50 and if you are female, if you are a woman, if you are married or not that doesnt matter, but if you want to have a good time, if you want to look expensive, if you want to be rich, wear this perfume (respondent P).

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The inclusion of Emma Watson into the Jadore advertisement also dramatically changed participants associations of the brand and the perceived target market. Their initial reactions focused on the endorser (her style, dress, etc. and Harry Potter). Eight participants believed that Emma Watson and the perfume matched while ve felt there was a mismatch. Those favourably predisposed to the celebrity, became more enthusiastic toward the product:
I like Emma Watson [. . .] This fragrance [would] boost my condence and make my night life more enjoyable, I would try it (respondent A). This perfume would be tender as the endorser seems to be peaceful. Gorgeous because she is sexy, educated, and she has good shape (respondent D).

Regarding, personication and the perceived target market, most respondents took Emma Watson as a cue. In particular, the brand was seen as a much younger person than that described in response to the non-celebrity-endorsed version. The perceived target market was mainly teenagers and women in their 20s. Discussion In response to interview questions on factors affecting choice of perfume, no respondent discussed the role of celebrity endorsers. However, the application of the projective techniques revealed that celebrity endorsement may have a signicant effect on the associations of a brand. Four important effects are discussed in this section (changing the perceived target market, the role of personal liking, the potential for the celebrity to crowd out the product, and the role of brand families). These effects have important lessons for practitioners interested in using celebrity endorsements and for academic researchers seeking to understand their effects. A noticeable effect of celebrity endorsers is their ability to alter the perceived target market of a product. For instance, when respondents were confronted with the Jadore advertisement without a celebrity endorser and asked who is this product for, answers varied enormously (women aged between 20 and 60 years), with most viewing the product for professional women aged in their 40s. When faced with the Jadore advertisement with Emma Watson, however, the perceived target market was noticeably younger teenagers

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and women in their 20s. The addition of Queen Latifah to the Jadore advertisement also lowered the perceived age of the target market, albeit to a lesser extent than with the case of Emma Watson. Celebrity endorsement could, therefore, play a role in repositioning a brand, so that it better ts with an existing or new target market. Reactions to the advertisements typically involved respondents discussing their degree of personal liking for the celebrity. The source model incorporates three constructs to model persuasiveness (trustworthiness, expertise and attractiveness). Attractiveness largely focuses on physical aspects (e.g. items relating to handsome/beautiful, elegant and sexy). The source models do not, therefore, explicitly capture personal liking and the latter should be seen as a distinct construct from attractiveness. As one respondent remarked:
She looks good but I dont like her (respondent F).

Acknowledging the salience of personal liking recognises that endorsers elicit affective as well as cognitive responses and the possibility of para-social relationships. McCrakens (1989) model assumes that the meanings of the celebrity are transferred to the product, and then to the consumer, albeit often imperfectly. The projective techniques suggest that some celebrities may completely overshadow the product/brand. This was most evident when Amy Winehouse was introduced with the fragrance Gucci Envy Me; few commented on the perfume or even the degree of t with the celebrity. Rather responses focused on whether the celebrity was a bad person and her associations with music and drugs. There was little or no meaning transfer from the celebrity to the product; the advertisement was not treated primarily as an endorsement. Assessments of celebrity endorsement often implicitly treat the product and celebrity as equally dominant (Lee and Thorson, 2008). Yet in practice they are unlikely to ever be entirely equal and following recent experimental studies it is important to recognise that when one part of a stimulus dominates, other aspects recede into the background (Samu and Wymer, 2009). A nal theme emerging from the projective techniques, for studying responses to celebrity endorsements, is the importance of overarching brand families. For example, a common association for the Gucci Envy Me fragrance was handbags. Similarly for Jadore, the primary associations with Dior were clothes and cosmetics, not perfume. However, tests of the match up hypothesis typically treat the brand/product as a single cue. This, however, ignores the importance of brand extensions and how established brand names are utilised to enter new product categories. In this case it may be that respondents evaluate the degree of t with the celebrity not only in terms of the specic perfume, if at all, but also against other Gucci/Dior products with which they are familiar. Future research should allow for multiple cues and assess the importance of consistency across them. Conclusions This paper utilises a qualitative approach to demonstrate how projective techniques may inform practitioners in their selection of celebrity endorsers. This approach helps capture the multiple meanings of celebrities and endorsed products, and the degree of meaning transfer, while avoiding too narrow a focus on single attributes. Indirect questioning helps overcome blocking strategies (Cooper and Tower, 1992) and consumers likely resistance to admitting the role endorsers may play in the selection of products. Overall, the study illustrates how projective techniques are appropriate tools

for gaining greater insight into how celebrity endorsements are interpreted, and how they can be more effectively understood by both practitioners and academics. The study highlights four main effects relating to celebrity endorsements (impact on the perceived target market, the role of personal liking, the potential for the celebrity to crowd out the product and the role of brand families). Celebrity endorsements may play a particularly useful role in repositioning a brand, for instance appealing to a younger market. However, practitioners in selecting a particular endorser need to consider the likeability of the celebrity, a factor which is downplayed in source models that focus on physical attractiveness, expertise and trustworthiness. The latter factors, while important, are likely to be insufcient, if personal liking is absent.
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