Determination of The Paris Curve For A TWIP Steel For Body-in-White Applications

Determination of the Paris curve
for a TWIP steel

for Body-in-White applications
Matteo deGiovanetti
Politecnico di Torino
A thesis submitted for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Automotive Engineering
2012 07
1. Reviewer: Ing.Paolo Matteis
Day of the defense: 07-24-2012
ii
Abstract
The purpose of this thesis is to outline the results obtained in fatigue
experiments performed on a TWIP steel, a material expected to be
soon employed in Body-in-Whites.
It is indeed compulsory to explain why such data are needed, and so
a discussion on fracture mechanics and fatigue behaviour is included.
An insight on the steels currently employed for Body-in-Whites works
as an introduction to a more detailed disquisition on TWIP steels.
Finally, results are presented, discussed and compared with literature,
where relevant.
Research is what Im doing when
I dont know what Im doing.
Wernher von Braun
viii
To my family
ii
Contents
List of Figures v
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Steels in automotive industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 TWIP steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Paris curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Purpose of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Steels for automotive application: an overview 9
2.1 Most common steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Treatments and coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3 TWIP steels 21
3.1 Microstructure and strain hardening mechanism . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Production processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Fracture and fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4 Fracture mechanics 29
4.1 The energy balance approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2 The stress intensity approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Fracture and R-curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.4 Fatigue and Paris curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
iii
CONTENTS
5 Standard test methods 49
5.1 ASTM E-647: Standard test method for measurements of fatigue
crack grow rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2 Recommended data reduction techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6 The experiment 57
6.1 Preparation of the equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2 Precracking and crack growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7 Conclusions 65
A Experimental values 69
B Inuence of material selection on chassis performance and man-
ufacturing 73
References 77
iv
List of Figures
1.1 BMW 5-series Body-in-White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Volvo XC-90 Body-in-White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Volvo V60 Body-in-White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Comparison in engineering stress-strain curves between three steels 15
2.3 TRIP Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Steel properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Galvannealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 TWIP Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1 Fracture diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 Sample for fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.3 Plastic zone in a specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.4 Example of R-curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.5 Example of Paris curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.1 C(T) sample in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.2 C(T) sample in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.1 Paris curve for second TWIP sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2 Partial Paris curve for third TWIP sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.3 Combined Paris curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.1 Data Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.2 Paris Curve Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
v
LIST OF FIGURES
vi
1
Introduction
When reading a press release for a new car from a major automotive manufac-
turer, there is a high possibility that the most used word is lightweight: reducing
the mass of vehicles, keeping unaltered general performance and ride comfort, or
even improving them, is arguably the biggest challenge in contemporary automo-
tive design.
This new pathway is being widely adopted in car industry, and it seems that
lightness will be the main goal for a long time: this happens because pollutions
regulations are becoming increasingly stringent (without a real reason in much
cases, but the motivations are not to be discussed here).
In last ten-fteen years, both petrol and diesel engine have been thoroughly
rened, thanks especially to our much improved understanding in combustion
processes and consequent technological amelioration, i.e. direct injection, turbo-
chargers with virtually no lag, and engines eciency has been stretched, maybe
even to its limits. As of today, drivetrain development alone is not capable to
make cars meet the emissions standards set by lawmakers: see, for example, the
massive reduction in NO
x
required for diesel engines by EURO6 with respect to
EURO5.
Car makers have even been intensely studying homologation cycles, in order to
obtain the highest eciency out of their cars exactly in such conditions, and, at
least to some extent, this is the reason why such amazing improvement in toxic
emissions reduction took place in last years (see, for example, the criticism on
1
1. INTRODUCTION
NEDC
1
).
Nowadays, the best way to reduce pollution and match incoming regulations is
to decrease the mass of new cars, in order to t them with smaller engines (the
much cited downsizing) without penalizing straight-road performance; it is obvi-
ous that mass reduction carries with it a positive eect on behaviour in cornering,
especially if these modications mean a more rened design for sprung and un-
sprung masses.
A number of formulae has been proposed to set a correlation between mass re-
duction and fuel consumption: in general, a 10% diminution in weight is matched
to a 5% decrease in fuel consumption (1), with obvious advantages on emissions.
Several new materials have been introduced in car industry in the last period:
aluminium employment is spreading, new types of plastics are being utilized in
highly innovative ways, carbon bre, despite its cost, is starting to be used also
in middle to high-range saloons, beside its consolidated application in supercars.
In this process, it is beyond question that safety must stand as the rst issue to
take care of, and no other aspect should be regarded as prominent. Front and
side crash have to be considered both in part design and material choice, in order
to prevent fatal harm to occur and, not by happenstance, earn a good score in
safety tests such as the notorious EuroNCAP, which can be a tie-breaker for the
customer.
Other requirements in chassis design are to be found in vibrational comfort and
acoustics (see, for example, the importance of eigenfrequencies in chassis design)
and in the values of torsional and bending stiness
2
.
Steels, which went hand in hand with automotive industry since its early
birth, were supposed to be at their best and expected to be technologically sur-
passed in a short time, especially by 5000 and 6000-series of aluminium alloys for
BIW applications (2), and generally overlooked by car manufacturer craving for
improvements in materials.
1
NEDC: New European Driving Cycle, the ocial pattern to assess car fuel consumption
in the European Union.
2
See also Appendix B.
2
1.1 Steels in automotive industry
Paradoxically, some research showed that it is not true that lighter materials carry
with them, automatically, a better environmental impact: life cycle assessments
stated that non-steel materials, such as carbon composites and magnesium, have
a similar or even worse repercussion if we consider the entire story of production
(3).
In more recent years, advance in steel composition and processes, both probably
unexpected, shed a new light on them: in the ranks of modern BIW employment,
we nd hot-formed, dual-phase, TRIP (TRansformation Induced Plasticity) and
TWIP (TWinning Induced Plasticity) steels.
Figure 1.1: BMW 5-series body (E60). Aluminium parts in blue, steel in grey.
c BMW AG.
1.1 Steels in automotive industry
Steels are the main component of almost every vehicle produced: steels employ-
ment in a BIW can reach up to 100%, while only a few cars currently in production
benet from a body made only of aluminium or carbon bre. In general, high-
end cars tend to show a hybrid design in which Al is used for a bunch of relevant
parts.
It is neither easy nor completely correct to give a classication of steels used in
BIWs; indeed, it is without any doubt useful to try to subdivide them with re-
spect to yield strength (Y S) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS), with the latter
commonly used also in commercial names to identify the dierent alloys.
Very high strength steels (also Higher strength or Ultra-high strength).
3
1. INTRODUCTION
Dual Phase (DP) steels.
TRIP steels.
Complex Phase steels.
Hot-rolled ferrite-bainite steels.
Steels for hot stamping
High strength steels
High strength low alloy steels (HSLA).
Bake hardening steels.
Interstitial free (IF) steels.
Solid solution steels.
Deep Drawing steels.
Another important feature is the coating applied on the steel and the correspon-
dent process: for example, zinc coatings, applied by means of either electrogalva-
nization or galvanannealing, to prevent corrosion, can also aect the mechanical
properties of the starting alloy.
Moreover, innovative processes permit less stringent and more eective design,
allowing to have dierent properties in varying zones of the same piece: for ex-
ample, AUDI is now using on the new A6 a new type of form-hardening (partial
quench and temper) on B-pillars, which gives optimal protection in case of side
impact by shifting deformation in places where it can give no harm to the pas-
sengers (4).
In order to assess material suitability is also signicant to know how the piece has
to be worked and formed, and understand the consequent response to afterward
applied external forces, for example in case of impact.
1.2 TWIP steels
TWIP steels are currently under great attention in automotive industry, as a
consequence of their combination of very high UTS (even greater than complex
4
1.2 TWIP steels
Figure 1.2: Example of steel employment in a luxury car (Volvo XC90, P2 plat-
form). c Volvo Personvagnar AB.
phase) and ductility, with values close, under this category, to mild steels. High
manganese austenitic steels were rst introduced by Sir Robert Hadeld in 1888
(5), but experienced no fame, at least in automotive eld, for almost one cen-
tury
1
, with only a few remarkable publication during this period. In the early
90s, an increased interest in TWIP steels led to dierent patents from Japanese
steelmakers (Kobe Steel, Sumitomo and Nippon Steel) and Korean Posco Cor-
poration (6). Today, the strain hardening mechanism shown by these steels is
persuading carmakers to follow their development; this is aimed at the introduc-
tion of new process technologies in order to produce lighter parts.
Nevertheless, so far just a handful of car parts made of TWIP steel have been
commercialized, inasmuch as some properties would not exactly t in the desired
application.
Although there is not an exact denition of TWIP steel, up-to-the-minute re-
search suggest the following rules for a FeMnC steel to exhibit in order to be
considered as such:
Respect the Schumann Equation: wt%Mn = 20wt%C + 32 (7).
Display a carbon content smaller than 1.2% (8).
1
High-Mn content steels have been extensively made use of for safe-deposit boxes produc-
tion.
5
1. INTRODUCTION
A lower limit for Mn of 15-17%, to avoid ductile-to-brittle transition.
A Mn content lower than 35%, to avoid intergranular fracture (9).
1.3 Paris curve
One of the most important elements to assess the suitability of steels to the de-
signed role is their fatigue behaviour, i.e. the maximum force they can withstand
at a theoretical condition of innite cycles and their reactions to cracks; all this
is focused on preventing dramatic failures and consequently fatal outcomes.
Regarding crack formation and growth, the most used model is the Paris equa-
tion (also known as Paris-Erdogans equation), which correlates crack growth rate
under fatigue to stress intensity factor, thus putting forward a relationship with
tensile stress; this equation allows, on the condition that some specic parame-
ters of the materials are known, to predict the number of cycles remaining before
failure (10).
The usual representation of Paris equation is the following:
da
dN
= CK
m
i
Actual meaning of the symbols and implications of this theory will be deeply
examined in the appropriate section.
1.4 Purpose of the study
The introductory paragraphs shed light on the aim of this experimental research:
provide a acceptable prediction of TWIP steels behaviour under determined fa-
tigue conditions, by determining the Paris curve.
Crucially, experiments will be carried out on specimens not conforming to the
minimum thickness prescribed by standard test methods; nevertheless, the result
will still be relevant, since the parts that could be theoretically employed in the
automotive eld would have a thickness close to the specimen; it is, that being
the case, intelligible why a test run in conditions abiding by the standard would
be, on the ip side, futile or even non-conservatively misleading.
6
1.4 Purpose of the study
At rst, the most used type of steels will be enumerated and explained in their
distinctive features; next, a deeper insight on TWIP steels, including both pro-
duction and employment informations will be presented.
A theoretical approach on fracture mechanics is essential to fully and correctly
interpret the experiment, and will be the subject of the subsequent section.
A brief recall of the test method will work as introduction to the actual experi-
ment report; a conclusion on obtained results and comparison with previous ones
will end the dissertation.
7
1. INTRODUCTION
8
2
Steels for automotive application:
an overview
2.1 Most common steels
As discussed before, a whole lot of dierent steels is currently used in automotive
industry; hereafter, a signicant and almost comprehensive selection is presented,
and each type is briey analyzed.
Figure 2.1: Middle-sized saloon (Volvo V60 Y20 platform), materials and yield
strength. c Volvo Personvagnar AB.
9
2. STEELS FOR AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATION: AN OVERVIEW
2.1.1 Low carbon, Interstitial Free and mild steels
As suggested by their name, these are carbon steels with a generally accepted C
content lower than 0.15%. They are used where high ductility and formability are
needed, and notable concern for cost reducing plays a part in selection criteria;
UTS can reach values up to 350 MPa, with a typical reduction if the steel is cold
rolled.
Moreover, these types of steels can be heat treated (but not quenched and tem-
pered) to increase strength and ductility, reducing the inuence of cold embrit-
tlement, thus boosting welding possibilities (11).
Given these fundamental premises, it is not unfathomable the reason why low
carbon steels have seen their contribution dropped from close to totality, this
happening still in the eighties for small family cars, to a gure of 20% or less in
cost-competitive vehicles, to almost not being used in middle-sized saloons. A
non-acceptable level of passive safety represents the main issue.
Deep drawing steels account for a branch of low carbon steels: they have similar
compositions but undergo dierent treatments in order to make deep drawing and
extra deep drawing easier, therefore allowing to obtain precise pieces of complex
shape. Obviously, none energy-absorbing or specic load-carrying part is made
from these steels.
Hereafter the core properties to correctly recognize deep drawing steels are de-
picted: C content lower than 0.1%, Mn presence up to 0.5%, Si contained up to
0.1%. They can be both hot and cold rolled and, in the former case, reach a UTS
of 400-450 MPa.
The so-called Interstitial Free (IF) steels are also used for deep drawing applica-
tions: their peculiarity is an almost negligible C content; the remotion of carbon
atoms is performed in oxygen steelmaking by means of two main techniques: top
blown or bottom blown. Both ensure C to be removed using gaseous carbon
monoxide or dioxide. Often, after this process, a vacuum degasser is employed to
reach the requested C percentage, which is usually close to 0.005.
Among the many characteristics, it is worthwhile to remember the high strain
hardening coecient which, along with a low YS/UTS ratio and a high strain
ratio, insures excellent deep-drawing usability. Depending on dierent grades,
10
the main applications shift from visible parts to more convoluted and signicant
ones, but usually not in deformation structure, because of a UTS not higher than
500 MPa.
In order to increase mechanical properties, Niobium and Titanium can be added,
thus further improving drawability and enhancing coating adhesion (12), showing
somehow unexpectedly a reduction in planar isotropy (13).
These additions provide hardening as a consequence of the improved precipita-
tions of alloy carbides.
2.1.2 High Strength Low Alloy steels
High strength low alloy (from now on HSLA) steels show a low carbon content and
are enhanced thanks to the addition of interstitial elements in low-to-moderate
quantities, and obtained by both hot and cold rolling.
Beside the interstitial elements, Manganese can be added in higher quantities as
solid solution; hardening is usually performed by precipitation and consequent
grain size renement, in a range of values between 5 and 10 m. Because of the
obtained impact strength, weight can be reduced even in important structural
components such as longitudinal crossmembers and energy-absorbing parts, and
reinforcements are seldom needed; indeed, UTS can climb up to 750 MPa if the
HSLA steel is hot rolled.
A secondary phase can be obtained also by adding Niobium as micro-alloying
element, thus obtaining higher strength as a result of Nb(CN) carbonitrides
precipitation. Attention must be paid to Nb percentage, in order to achieve a
sucient level of austenite conditioning to form ne enough ferrite grains (14).
Good fatigue strength makes them suitable also for dierent sub-assemblies, such
as suspensions and wheels; cost-eectiveness is guaranteed by remarkable cold
forming performance and low-temperature brittle fracture strength.
Another important advantage of HSLA steels is the absence of grain coarsening
and weld zone softening in hot-spot welding.
Major drawback is represented probably by the extended elastic-plastic transition
zone which sets some issues in practical application, especially if some specic
requirements from safety point of view are involved.
11
2.1.3 Ferritic-Bainitic steels
This type of steels provides some advantages, with respect to HSLAs, in strain
hardening exponent and total elongation: this makes FB steels specically suit-
able where Stretch Flangeable (SF) or High Hole Expansion (HHE) properties
are required, in order to obtain an improved edge stretch capability.
FB steels enjoy a bainitic second phase hardening, and can also be upgraded
by grain renement. For normal applications, FB steels are hot-rolled and cold
drawn.
Because of said properties, along with a very good weldability, FB steels are em-
ployed where good performance are required even when holes are drilled: a clear
example is represented by a suspension lower arm, which has to accommodate coil
spring and damper mountings without compromising the stiness of the entire
sub-assembly.
2.1.4 Martensitic steels
Martensitic steels are not widely used in automotive industry; nevertheless, when
very high UTS (up to 1700 MPa) is prescribed, and brittle failures do not stand
as an issue, they can be employed. As can be easily agreed-upon, such a high
strength is detrimental from a ductility point of view, but recently introduced
post-quench tempering treatments allow to obtain quite an acceptable ductility
even at these UTS values, with a very little loss of martensitic structure, which
would happen in conventional tempering.
Martensitic steels are obtained with a very fast-paced cooling, which enables
austenite to be completely turned in martensite during quenching; the obtained
martensitic matrix steel encapsulates small amounts of ferrite and bainite. Com-
plex Phase steels follow a similar cooling pattern, but customarily retain more
austenite and do not show the typical ne precipitate characterizing Martensitic
steels. It is possible to add carbon to martensitic steels to improve hardenability,
along with small quantities of Mn, Si, Cr, B, V.
Martensitic steels are generally used were very good crash performance is needed,
for example in anti-crash rods (15).
12
2.1.5 Hot Formed Boron steels
Hot formed steels play a key role in automotive industry, especially where com-
plex shapes are required in association with optimal mechanical properties, but
no springback issue is allowed to arise. Desired strength is obtained through
quenching and austenitization, a process demanding temperatures higher than
850
C and a high cooling rate; furthermore, the addition of very small quantities
of boron (not more than 0.005%) can led to UTS above 1350 MPa, and facilitate
the quenching operation.
Two main hot-forming processes exist, direct and indirect, but they do not aect
in a signicative way the nal mechanical properties, except for some dierences
in elongation and ductility.
Overall, this type of steel could represent a major innovation and is already
widespread in automotive industry for some load-carrying parts: conceivably,
boron steel are among the materials which can guarantee the highest weight re-
duction, as a result of the improved as-delivered hardness, as well as increased
toughness and weldability (because of limited carbon content).
Boron steels can be also convenient from an economic point of view: usually they
are cheaper than medium carbon alloys they replace (16).
Nonetheless, they suer from some recurrent problems, briey explained in the
following paragraphs.
First of all, given the specic properties, it is almost impossible to drill them by
conventional means.
They also suer from huge sensibility to heat, which makes them denitely weaker
when heated, therefore not allowing galvanization to be performed: as a re-
placement, a covering Al-Si layer is applied before drawing, in order to improve
strength.
Yet, the major issue is probably represented by the total impossibility of being
repaired in any way if damaged, which would make a car extremely expensive to
be xed after a crash if all safety components were made of boron steel.
13
2.1.6 DP steels
Dual phase steels are, in all likelihood, the most widely employed material for
BIW and chassis application, by virtue of their unique union of cost-eectiveness,
proper weldability, strength and drawability, almost unmatchable in car environ-
ment; arguably, the only major drawback of these steels is to be found in the
springback eect.
They consist of a hard martensitic (in rarer cases bainitic) phase, with a shape
recalling circular islands, immersed in a soft ferritic matrix (up to 90%). The size
of the second phase can be controlled, thus allowing a variation of the resulting
strength of the steel.
The soft and continuous ferritic phase contributes to excellent ductility; drawa-
bility is enhanced by good strain redistribution capability, which derives from
an excellent strain hardening capacity. Work hardening rates give birth to steels
with a much higher UTS at similar YS, with respect to conventional ones, thereby
eventually leading to more appropriate YS to UTS ratios, even if compared with
HSLA steels (17).
Concerning the production of these steels, two main procedures exist today: one
is the controlled cooling from the austenitic phase obtained after hot-rolling; the
second is from a biphasic ferritic-austenitic region, attained in continuously an-
nealed cold-rolled and hot-dip coated products. The former process insures an
elevated resistance to stretching on a blanked edge by means of signicant quan-
tities of bainite.
Customarily, the choice is based upon nal destination, and related thickness, of
the sheets: cold rolling is employed for BIW parts, where hot rolling is preferred
for rims.
Dual phases are reported with a 20% higher dent resistance than conventional
HSS, allowing a weight reduction around 15%.
DP steels are particularly indicated for usage where strain hardening is consid-
ered; if not, they are not in position to determine a clear advantage. Nevertheless,
a new range of DP steels is being studied to provide good performance even in
simple parts.
14
Figure 2.2: Comparison in engineering stress-strain curves between three steels
(18).
2.1.7 TRIP steels
TRansformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steels are seeking for increasing em-
ployment in automotive industry, as a result of their acclaimed properties, and
despite their cost. The structure is composed of islands of residual austenite
(minimum 5% wrt volume, caused by high silicon and carbon content), with
carbide-free bainite sheathed in a soft ferritic matrix; from up-to-date evidence,
it seems that during the bainite transformation is essential to prevent carbide
precipitation, which can be avoided by means of silicon and aluminium addition,
thereby increasing the residual austenite content.
The main advantage of TRIP steels conguration lies in the distinctly increased
work hardening rate: much like in dual phase (see later), dispersion of second
phases opposes the dislocation; conversely, in TRIP steels the residual austenite
transforms progressively into martensite, thus increasing work hardening rate at
high levels of strain; as a result, the achieved elongations associated with the dif-
ferent phases account for the remarkable combination of strength and ductility.
Residual austenite can aect TRIP steels in two ways: if the carbon content is
relatively low, the deformation impacts very early the transformation, and the
residual austenite is transformed in martensite, hence increasing, even in a pre-
liminary phase, work hardening rate and positively inuencing formability. At
higher carbon contents residual austenite persists even after sheet forming, being
15
eventually led to martensitic transformation only in event of a crash: it is then
self-evident why parts which have not been heavily formed are preferred in struc-
tures with energy-absorbing target as primary.
Work hardening rates make possible to design a part taking into consideration the
as-formed properties and capitalizing them, since they persist at extreme strains:
as a result, they show a response that is remarkably better than Dual Phase (see
later), especially in the most severe stretch forming.
TWIP steels exhibit outstanding performance on the whole. Ultimate Tensile
Strength can be as high as 900 MPa if the carbon content is of 0.25%, with a
matching YS of 550 MPa; elongation and n coecient are middle-range, with
values respectively of about 23% and 0.18 accepted as minima. Welding is pos-
sible with multiple techniques: resistance-spot, MAG arc and laser are the more
widely used. Fatigue strength is also exceptional, with values that can almost
double the ones of conventional steels (19)
Figure 2.3: TRIP Microstructure (18).
2.1.8 Complex Phase steels
In the range of CP steels it is possible to nd dierent structures; the most com-
mon one is represented by a ferrite/bainite structure with variable amounts of
martensite, bainite and retained austenite contained in it. In order to secure high
UTS and good ductility, a very precise grain renement is promoted by retarded
crystallization or micro-alloying elements precipitation (Ti, Cb), thus also im-
proving energy-absorbing capability.
16
2.2 Treatments and coatings
By virtue of their inherent properties, this type of VHSS is suitable for safety
components which require almost no deformation in production process.
Both hot-spot and laser welding can be performed without signicant problems.
Summarizing, CP steels have very good characteristics which make them partic-
ularly satisfactory for weight reduction; unfortunately, the intricate process used
for production makes them also quite expensive (20).
Figure 2.4: Comprehensive diagram on steels main properties (18).
Sometimes, to improve steel behaviour in determined conditions, some treatments
are performed or coatings applied, especially where obtaining same properties
with dierent methods would imply a considerable modication in composition
and production techniques.
Here, the most important are presented.
17
2.2.1 Aluminized steels
Aluminized steels are covered with an Al coating, resistant to heat, corrosion
and high temperature oxidation (up to 800
C); such a treatment is virtually

perpetual. This coating is used for thermal insulation applications, where other
materials are discarded for weight or price reasons, and it is suitable also in
corrosive atmosphere.
These steels are covered with two layers of 90% Al and 10% Si: the inner ternary
layer works as interface, while the overlay of binary Al-Si is the main coating.
Thickness ranges from 10 to 35 m. Usually deep drawing capabilities are also
enhanced, allowing the employment for fuel lters and tanks.
2.2.2 Bake hardening
Bake hardening is a controlled aging phenomenon designed to insure a remarkable
increase in YS during heat treatment. Considering BIW applications, said heat
treatment coincides with paint curing. Higher strengths can be achieved, espe-
cially for DP steels, with a gain quantied in at least 50 MPa, licensing smaller
parts to be used, thereby further decreasing weight.
Bake hardening mechanism can be described as the action of carbon atoms block-
ing dislocations movement during and after forming, thus increasing YS. This
allows to have good formability and, at the same time, good mechanical strength
when in action.
BH mechanism is also carried out during aging, where aluminium and nitrogen
combine to form aluminium nitride.
2.2.3 Zinc coatings
Zinc coatings are applied on visible and non-visible parts to improve corrosion
resistance and surface quality. Several types exist, each varying for procedure,
results and performance.
Hot dip galvanizing is probably the best way to apply a zinc coating: in the
wake of multiple stages of optimization and annealing, a cold-rolled steel stripe
is continuously moved into a bath of lead-free, cyanide-free molten alkaline zinc.
18
Special controls and inspections during all phases can lead to exceptional quality
and performance.
The zinc layer thickness is then adjusted and iron atoms are moved from substrate
to zinc layer by means of heat treatment; iron presence aects the hardness
and the drawability: under particularly severe deep drawing operations the so-
called powdering eect can happen. As a general consideration, all the normal
welding and adhesive bonding processes can be accomplished without signicant
drawbacks.
In order to reduce costs and simplify post-galvanizing treatments, up to a value
of 5% of Al can be added to the molten zinc bath; the other side of the coin is
represented by a slightly decreased resistance to corrosion.
Electrogalvanization is also possible: a layer of pure zinc is deposited on the
steel, and no iron atoms diusion takes place; as a consequence, the steel oers
superb corrosion resistance even if damaged. Principal drawback is in the enlarged
friction coecient, important especially for deep drawing.
If particular weldability and formability are required, thin organic coatings can
be employed: a thinner zinc layer is covered with an organic layer of about 5 m,
including lubricants and metallic particles to improve respectively drawability
and weldability (21).
Figure 2.5: Galvanannealing process (22).
19
20
3
TWIP steels
TWIP steels could represent a cardinal breakthrough in automotive industry;
still, recent results call for additional research, in order to solve the problems that
today preclude these steels from being employed. Hereafter, main characteristics
and an insight on relevant future applications are put forward.
3.1 Microstructure and strain hardening mech-
anism
TWIPs are austenitic steels with addition of variable quantities of Manganese
(17-30%); carbon is present depending on the initial steel while Al can be seldom
added to improve behaviour in tensile stress values.
In 1936, a formula was proposed to ensure fully stabilization of austenitic phase
(23):
wt.%Mn + 13wt.%C 17
What is absolutely special with these steels is their astonishing strain hardening
mechanism, which is encountered in no other type of steel. A good number of
theories to explain them has been developed in recent research programs, and the
outstanding mechanical properties seem to be well described only by the action of
twins as obstacles to glide dislocations: this outcome derives from the fact that in
absence of twinning no special property is observed, while even in case of binary
alloys with twinning taking place in the structure, a remarkable strain-hardening
21
3. TWIP STEELS
is secured.
Twinning mechanism is believed to happen in certain favourable conditions: for
example, a temperature low enough to allow this process to be energy-competitive
with respect to dislocation glide; nonetheless, the temperature must be high
enough not to let -martensite form. However, the latter is a minor problem,
since an extrinsic stacking fault is needed as a nucleus, and the energy required
for this process to occur is 1.5 times greater than the energy needed for an extrinsic
stacking fault leading to twinning. (24).
A low stacking fault energy (SFE) seems then to be an important parameter for
twinning: this explains the required high content of Mn, which lowers SFE, and
the necessity of avoiding high carbon contents that would increase SFE; anyway,
no twinning eect has been observed with C content lower thank 0.3% (25).
Besides SFE inuence, other parameters play an important role: for example,
dislocation glide must be thermally activated and so requires an excess in ow
stress that makes TWIP (or even TRIP) more energetically ecient; moreover,
at a rst stage, Dynamic Strain Ageing (DSA) was supposed to play another
important part in induced plasticity, especially because the so-called A-type PLC
band appearing in stress-strain diagram are consistent with DSA; lately, a much
reduced inuence for DSA has been suggested, with an induced increment, for
UTS, in the range of 20/30 MPa (26).
Solid solution hardening is also believed to exhibit more powerful twins, able to
obstacle dislocation movement and therefore further increasing TWIP eect.
3.2 Production processes
TWIP steels can denitely benet from dierent techniques, principally to in-
crease yield strength.
Probably, the easiest and most employed one is grain renement: using the usual
Hall-Petch relationship, and set as demanded a value of YS of 700 MPa, the grain
size required is about 1 m; unfortunately, industrial processes, specically cold
rolling and controlled annealing, only make possible to reach a grain size of 2.5
m, leaving the YS limited to a maximum value in the range of 450 MPa, thus
restraining practical applications.
22
3.2 Production processes
Figure 3.1: EBSD image of the microstructure of a TWIP steel (27).
Pre-straining by rolling could also be used, but it is almost ignored because of two
main problems: a dramatic reduction in strain hardening coecient, which nul-
lies all the TWIP steel bonuses, and the appearance of remarkable anisotropy.
Strain hardening has a considerable eect on the stress-strain curve, and has a
variable eect depending on strain rate, with also mixed results on density of
deformation twins (28).
Recrystallization looks as an optimal solution, along with a milder recovery, for
pre-strained steels. Annealing, in fact, has been shown not to be a factor in grain
growth, but dislocations are far more raried in recrystallized grains with respect
to un-crystallized areas; the main interest is therefore in nding the correct tem-
perature which allows stability for existent twins and, at the same time, prevents
cementite formation.
Experimental results manifest an optimal temperature of 500
C and 600
C; in
addition, highly pre-strained steels seem to better respond to this process: for
23
3. TWIP STEELS
example, for some recrystallization processes, a YS higher than 1000 MPa can be
kept, with a correspondent elongation of 15%. As a drawback, TWIP steels show
a high sensibility to temperature variations, and great attention has to be made
in order not to induce complete recrystallization.
In order to fully grasp recrystallization mechanism, a brief digression on TWIP
steel prominent texture is essential. After cold-rolling process three main textures
are present: Brass (typical of deformed low SFE materials), Goss and Copper; the
recrystallization process is not considered to induce modications, since structures
appears to be the same, with comparable intensities. This led to the following
explanation: recrystallization depends only on the nuclei orientation after rolling,
a mechanism called oriented nucleation.
These separate textures cause an anisotropic behaviour in the steel, which can
be unquestionably detrimental.
Precipitation strengthening has been considered, but it gives rise to several
problems: iron carbides precipitation can happen, as well as pearlitic phase for-
mation, thus decreasing stacking fault energy (see -martensite) and lowering
toughness and ductility.
Main precipitating elements are Vanadium, Niobium and Titanium. The latter
is the quickest way to improve YS of about 150 MPa; however, it tends to sat-
urate after this empirically found limit, causing large TiC precipitations. Nb
precipitations have coarse grain, meaning an almost neglectable strengthening is
obtained. Current research is directing its attention towards Vanadium, which
has much higher solubility in austenite, allowing ner precipitates as well as a YS
increase in the 400 MPa range, without noticeable loss in ductility (8).
The actual mechanism that rules precipitation and twinning interaction is, in-
deed, yet to be studied and completely understood, distinctly at high strains;
hence we will not draw any conclusion on precipitation eects.
3.3 Fracture and fatigue
Arguably, the foremost reason TWIP steels are not widespread is to be searched
in their fracture ad fatigue features.
24
3.3 Fracture and fatigue
Actually, under tensile deformation, TWIP steels happen to systematically fail
before necking, in the uniform deformation zone; no thinning takes place, con-
trarily to what could be expected, and the specimen fails in a manner similar to
Magnesium and Aluminium alloys. As of today, neither explanations nor solu-
tions exist, hampering automobile applications.
Several methods have been introduced to explain this behaviour, from a simple
and, to some extent, simplistic, Tresca criterion, to more complex ones, taking
into account also shear stress applied before failure.
Uniaxial tension failures can misleadingly bring to the conclusion a Portevin-
LeChatelier (PLC) band is the main cause. Here, needless to say, another suc-
cinct digression is needed.
PLC eect is the theory describing a jerky stress ow in a material undergoing
plastic deformation, and is inuenced greatly by negative strain rate sensitivity.
This eect starts at a critical strain and produces a strange wavy stress-strain di-
agram, obviously not compatible with normal measurements. Parameters known
to aect this eect are strain rate, temperature and grain size, while three main
types of bands (waves) exist: A, B and C, depending on what can be dened
as the frequency and the amplitude of the excursion. PLC eect can slightly
increase strength, but brings with itself major problems regarding ductility, also
introducing brittleness and even producing an increased roughness surfaces (8).
The results of this eect gave, at rst, the impression of perfect matching with
experiment on TWIP steels; rather surprisingly, biaxial tension tests show no
PLC bands, suggesting that PLC eect cannot be considered as a comprehensive
explanation. Moreover, the exact correlation between negative strain rate sensi-
tivity and PLC bands is not unambiguous; in any case, no conclusions on PLC
bands have been drawn until now, and debate is still open.
Some researches evince a localized necking to occur before fracture, by means of a
microvoid convalescence. This conclusion is supported by very up-to-date X-ray
microtomography experiments (29).
Other authors refuse this explanations, arguing that primary carbides make pos-
sible the nucleation of large voids and this causes failure. Although no nal
interpretation is already possible, it is almost certain that twinning, dynamic
25
3. TWIP STEELS
strain aging and strain rate sensitivity all play a fundamental role in this be-
haviour.
Literature on manganese austenitic steels fatigue behaviour is not extensive.
As it could be expected, a pre-straining treatment is benecial to fatigue resis-
tance, and it is possible to set a trade-o between strength and part life thanks
to monotonic pre-straining in axial tension-compression or tension-tension. The
proportion between fatigue limit and UTS is much similar to stainless steel one,
uctuating from 0.40 to 0.50.
What is really fascinating in TWIP steels fatigue is that, although no intense
twinning is present in cyclic loading test, they can reach as high as a 400 MPa
fatigue limit, with no apparent explanation.
Recent TEM analysis showed again that twin formation and growth is not, in
any way, aected by cyclic stress, even with ne grains, which can considerably
increase fatigue limit.
3.4 Employment
All the considerations made up to now belong to a quite theoretical territory;
it is therefore well-founded to analyze where TWIP actual development lies in
the pattern of industrial specications and demands. As stated before, scarcely
any automotive part is currently employing this steel: too many issues arise from
the uncommon behaviour in tensile stress, which is still not justied, with the
possibility of dramatic failure when in use, and almost no room for prediction.
TWIP steels, moreover, present very high post-forming residual stresses, which
make them very sensitive to hydrogen-induced fracture and corrosion cracking,
while anti-corrosion coating eect has not been explored yet. Further attention
is needed since TWIP steels are reported to contain signicant percentages of
phosphorous.
Concerning formability, response to stretch forming is still under investigation,
but it can be safely stated that the behaviour, especially in hole expansion, is
not as predictable and as desirable when compared to IF steel. This is reported
to be an eect of missing post-uniform strain (30). Little studies have been done
26
3.4 Employment
on welding: it is possible to summarize them saying that the spot-welding range
is generally reduced with respect to the normal one (in terms of kA), being the
melting temperature lower, and excellent results have been obtained for cross
tensile resistance.
Studies on reaction to welding adhesive bonding are not known by the author to
be in progress and will probably be delayed until the whole set of characteristics
is clear.
Last but denitely not least in importance, Zn coatings can be applied, taking
special care as MnO surface layer can be formed in hot-dip galvanizing. Probably,
electrogalvanization could be a better method to apply Zn coating on TWIP
steels.
27
3. TWIP STEELS
28
4
Fracture mechanics
Historically, mechanical parts design and dimensioning has been based on the
belief materials, and correspondent manufacturing, were ideal, thus leading to
the analysis of perfect parts that were expected to strictly obey to even the most
uncomplicated formulae. As time went by, this approach proved itself to be com-
pletely wrong, especially considering all the unexpected failures that happened
in most stressed components.
At the beginning of Twentieth century, scientists and engineers began to be con-
cerned about geometrical discontinuities, which are obviously inherent in every
blueprint; further inquiry displayed an anomalous stress concentration where very
sharp radii were featured, both on a 2D and 3D basis. This led to crack formation
in the most stressed zone and, eventually, to dramatic failure, even if unpredicted
by conventional dimensioning methods.
Additional studies showed that crack presence decisively modies local stresses,
making usual elastic stress analysis completely ineectual and, therefore, com-
pletely misleading. At a certain crack length, which varies according to several
factors, even a low macroscopic stress could induce high local stress and conse-
quently result in fracture.
Another factor that inuences response to solicitation is the microstructure of
the material taken into consideration, especially if steel: inhibiting the dislo-
cation motion is preferable for high stresses but, normally, leads to unwanted
brittleness; this causes very quick and unannounced crack propagation. Indeed,
one main attribute of TWIP steels is their outstanding combination of UTS and
29
4. FRACTURE MECHANICS
elongation, and proving it on an experimental and practical basis, allowing a di-
rect comparison with competitors, and even quantifying it, could end in a leap in
knowledge.
Given these premises, it is undoubtedly crucial to study behaviour of parts when
cracks are present. The discipline of solid mechanics which analyses the presence,
inuence and reaction of crack growth is called Fracture Mechanics. Its main ob-
jective is to nd mathematical relations between crack length, material intrinsic
resistance to crack growth and critical stress, in order to prevent failure. For sake
of precision, Fracture Mechanics has been always divided in two branches: linear
elastic (LEFM) and elasto-plastic (EPFM). The former applies to brittle-elastic
materials such as HSS and concrete, while the latter better ts the behaviour of
low-carbon and stainless steels, some aluminium alloys and polymers.
Most recent understanding of fracture mechanics induced a proper revolution in
aeronautical design, introducing the so-called damage tolerance design methodol-
ogy and philosophy; nowadays, mainly because of economical reasons, this prin-
ciples are extending also to automotive industry. A brief history of fracture
mechanics, with the most germane results, follows
1
.
4.1 The energy balance approach
One of the very rst approaches to fracture mechanics was the one theorized by
Inglis in 1913, regarding elliptical holes under plain stress. He concluded that the
only factor aecting noteh root stress was the the value of the radius of curvature,
which was proportional to the stress concentration factor to be applied. Inglis
computation exhibited, however, a major problem: at the theoretical limit of a
perfectly sharp crack, the stresses tend to innity, implying a material strength
close to nought. This, as can be easily seen, bears no resemblance to reality.
A.A. Grith played an outstanding role in fracture mechanics, with a break-
through intuition: he applied the energy-balance principle, in addition to Inglis
results, to crack growth theory, suggesting that residual elastic potential energy
in the material can be discharged to enlarge the crack surface while maintaining
1
All the remaining part of the chapter was written with reference to the following
books:(31)(32)(33)(34)(35).
30
equilibrium.
The rst approach was to dene the work performed per unit time (i.e. the aver-
age energy applied) as equal to the rates of change of elastic and potential energy,
kinetic energy of the whole body, and energy used for crack propagation:
W =

U
e
+

U
p
+

K +

Assuming the crack growth is small enough to allow kinematic energy change to
be considered null, it is possible to derive said equation with respect to the crack
area
A
=
U
p
A
+

A
with
= U
e
W
If the material is brittle, the energy change due to plastic deformation can be
neglected. Furthermore, introducing the concept of energy used to form new
material surface , it is possible to state
A
=

A
= 2
and then to introduce a sort of ctitious crack extension force G
A
= G
Back to the initial system, the total energy can be dened as
U
tot
= (W + U
e
) +
The Clapeyron
s theorem of linear elastostatics says that a body under constant applied load
follows
W = 2U
e
leading therefore to
U
tot
= U
e
+
31
Grith plugged the results obtained by Inglis in the equation he derived, obtain-
ing
U
tot
=
a
2
2
B
2
+ 4aB
where a is the crack halfwidth, B is the plate thickness, is the constant stress
applied, E is the Youngs modulus, and is the energy per unit area used to
expand crack surface (considered to be a material property). Said function is a
Figure 4.1: U
tot
vs. crack length
linear combination of two other functions, a parabola and a line. It is straight-
forward, from mathematical analysis, to state that such a function has an only
maximum.
This means that after the maximum value, the energy is lowered by the crack
growth, and so the crack would enlarge until total rupture.
Deriving with respect to a, it is possible to write both the critical stress given a
dened crack
c
=
_
2E
a
and the critical crack half-length known the applied stress
a
c
=
2E
32
These results carry with themselves two important informations: the critical
stress reduces with crack length, and directly depends on the material.
It should be noted that these outcomes apply faultlessly only to systems charac-
terized by linearity; even so, for our purposes, steel can be considered as such.
It is noteworthy to point out that both critical values of crack and applied stress
are absolute, independent of length, thickness and width of the specimen; this
means that, in some limit cases, narrower pieces can be more resistant simply
because they are not large enough to contain a critical-length crack.
An additional term can be introduced to better understand crack behaviour: the
compliance, i.e. the displacement per unit load and, consequently, the reciprocal
of stiness. Compliance is further dened (referring to 4.2) as
C =
u
P
with u as the innitesimal increment in the distance between the two points load
application.
In order to nd the total strain energy it is mandatory to know the load condi-
Figure 4.2: General shape of a sample.
tions, i.e. how displacement and load vary with time.
33
Two common situation are present in literature, constant load and constant dis-
placement. The former is governed by
=
1
2
Pu
while the latter by
U
e
=
1
2
uP
In any case, if A tends to nothing, as it is, both formulae, which express a
potential energy release rate, can be rewritten, with some manipulations, as
U
e
=
1
2
CPP
suggesting similar behaviour under stated conditions.
The compliance of a specimen can be measured as a function of crack length.
Dierentiating the curve of compliance vs. crack length, we obtain
G =
1
2
P
2
C
a
It is also signicant to introduce the concept of critical strain energy release rate
G
c
=
1
2
P
2
C
a
a=a
c
Now, known the exact relative arrangement of crack and stress, it is possible to
obtain analytical expressions for deection. For example, assuming the sample
to be a double cantilever beam, it is possible to recall
u
2
=
Pa
3
3EI
which leads, if we substitute in the critical strain energy release rate formula (also
assuming linearity), to
G
c
=
12P
c
2
a
2
b
2
h
3
E
which nally relates the critical release of energy with only geometrical and phys-
ical properties.
34
4.2 The stress intensity approach
What has been analyzed until now is just one condition for a load to be applied
on a cracked body, more specically what is called normal opening. In literature,
other two modes are presented, both implying shear sliding: in-plane, and out-
of-plane tearing.
Westergaard provided an analytical solution using the so-called semi-inverse func-
tion; the stress function is
= Re
_
Z
_
+ yIm
_
Z
_
The solution, obtained by trial-and-error, has been found to be
Z(z) =

_
1
_
a
z
_
2
In a neighbourhood close enough to the tip, given polar coordinates are adopted,
the following solution has been analytically derived and experimentally proven:
Z =

2r
e
3i
2
For a general crack in a theoretically innite plane, the stress can be expressed
as
ij
=
K
2r
f
ij
()
while the displacement is
u
i
=
K
2
_
r
2
g ()
K is the stress intensity factor; subscripts indicate the modes of stress (K
i
, K
ii
,
K
iii
). It includes in itself the geometrical and loading conditions, and the depen-
dance on conguration can be expressed as
K = Y
a
where Y is the geometric factor, equal to 1 in case of nite center crack in an
innite plane. Geometry, as said, induces modications in the stress eld. The
35
geometric factor can be considered as a function of both crack length and piece
width
Y = f (a, w)
Values of Y are found mainly either by means of numerical methods, chief among
which the nite elements method, or combining together experimental evidence
with semi-theoretical computations. Tables exist for the most poles apart cong-
urations.
During the design process, K
ic
(critical stress intensity factor) value is introduced.
It can be considered as a meter of the material toughness, and it is the maximum
stress intensity a material can withstand, above which microstructural mobility,
especially in ductile materials, does not guarantee crack extension: the crack zone
cannot broaden farther and the energy constraint loses its capability to stop crack
growth.
In order to nd this value we know that
f
=
K
ic
a
We also recall from energy balance approach
f
=
_
EG
c
a
Equating the two formulae we obtain
K
ic
2
= EG
c
for plane stress. Plane strain implies also the presence of Poisson ratio
K
ic
2
= EG
c
_
1
2
_
which, indeed, generates no major modication in metals. Heading back to pre-
vious DCB example, it is within the realms of possibility to correlate also K to
only geometrical and load terms, by replacing G:
K = 2
3
P
1
2
a
Bh
3
2
36
for plane strain conditions. If dependance on displacement is required
K =
3E
4
1
2
uh
3
2
a
2
This last formula shows how the crack growth would, at a denite value, cease
to increase were the displacement kept constant.
When the stress formulae are used to predict values very close to crack tip they
tend to innity, which is of course not possible in reality. It is then needed to
nd a dierent way to dene stress in these points. It has been experimentally
shown that the limit for stress is K
ic
itself, and it is applicable for
r
a
0.02
The zone where this approximation holds is called singularity-dominated. This
sparked o new theories regarding plasticity that will be later elucidated.
Just as a hint, it has to be underlined that the assumptions of linearity allows
the system to be applied superposition on, both in case of heterogeneous modes
or dierent stresses.
4.2.1 Plastic yielding at crack tip
All the methodologies suggested until now imply a not relevant plasticity. In real
conditions, however, local plastic yielding at crack tip and ensuing elastic-plastic
deformation must be inspected, for better comprehension of fracture mechanism,
especially concerning steels.
One approach is the Irwins model, which assumes that the material has a perfect
separate elastic plastic behaviour. The local perpendicular stress is
yy
=
K
i
2r
as derived before. The zone aected by yield can be found substituting in the
equation an equivalent stress obtained by means of a determined yield criterion.
Considering plane stress, the equivalent stress is the uniaxial yield strength; the
area impacted by yielding is assumed circular with a radius
r
i
=
K
i
2
2
2
ys
37
Energy conservation principle implies stress exceeding yield must redistribute in
the material, therefore forcing the plastic zone to enlarge. A second order ap-
proximation enables a force balance, assuming that the elastic stress distribution
has the same magnitude through time
ys
r
p
=
_
1
0
K
i
2r
dr
Accordingly,
r
p
=
K
i
2
2
ys
The same result can be obtained considering a ctitious crack extending to the
centre of the plastic zone. Plane stress and plane strain conditions allow dierent
values of applied stress before yielding: in the conguration used until now, the
rst permits some 14% of the yield stress, while the last allows until 35%.
The strip yield model
Another framework proposed to assess the size of the plastic zone is the strip
yield model, rstly introduced by Dugdale and Barenblatt.
A strip yield plastic zone is dened with theoretical dimensions of a and (see
4.3), with the latter chosen such that the stress singularity vanishes at the end of
the eective crack.
K
+ K
= 0
At the two dierent ends of the crack, if the reference frame origin is set in the
center of the fracture, the intensity factors are
K
a,b
=
P
a
_
a x
a x
which are equal for opposite values of x. The innitesimal closure force is
P =
ys
dx
Consistently with our initial hypothesis, we set the end of crack opening at a
value c, such that it represents the singularity-aected zone limit. This value is
then equal to a + . Integrating to obtain the total closure stress intensity
K
=

ys
c
_
c
a
_
_
c x
c + x
+
_
c + x
c x
_
dx =
2

ys
cos
1
_
a
c
_
38
Figure 4.3: Plastic zone on specimen.
It is known that this value is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the
remote tensile stress induced stress intensity.
K
= K
c
Equating the two results, then approximating to a rst order series development,
the requested value of is then
=
K
2
8
2
ys
if is low enough; anyway, this is exactly the condition we are taking into con-
sideration, and then such an outcome is still worth of attention.
Comparison with Irwin s method shows that the obtained value is higher of
about 23%, resulting in a more conservative approximation.
Correction factors are introduced in these formulae if the condition is of plane
stress, plane strain or nite thickness. Dierent conditions usually overlap when
concurring to the denition of the shape of the plastic zone, but this assumption
does not hold in all cases.
39
4.3 Fracture and R-curve
In almost every automotive application where crack growth is of relevance, the
actual stress exceeds the yield stress, and plasticity cannot be neglected.
What is far more concerning is the critical stress and strain directly at the crack
tip, i.e. when only slight plastic deformation is allowed, because of geometrical
or micro-structural reasons, this inducing brittleness in the material.
The resistance to fracture, and consequently the toughness of the material, has
been shown to be strongly dependent on thickness, in a non-linear manner.
The concept of a critical stress intensity depending on load conditions is intro-
duced with the symbol K
m,c
, where m indicates the dierent mode, as explained
before.
If the material is considered to fail when the stress intensity reaches the critical
one, the residual strength of the component being
=
K
c
Y
a
where Y is the usual geometry correction factor. Fracture mechanics derived
design methodologies customarily assume the conservative case of K
c
= K
i,c
.
The geometry correction factor is a function of crack length, and equations to
derive its value can only be solved by means of numerical iteration. A formula
commonly employed to know the value for crack length, declared the load, is
a
c
=
1
_
K
c
W
Y a
c
_
2
All the formulae and solution provided until now hold valid if LEFM is still
involved, i.e. the net section stress level is far below the material yield stress;
if not, the failure will be more probably caused by plastic collapse; the value of
plastic collapse stress limit, from undemanding geometrical considerations, is
pc
=
W 2a
W

ys
Two failure modes are then possible: brittle fracture and plastic rupture; expec-
tations are based on toughness, crack length and width of the specimen.
The two modes can be drawn as curves with the ratio between fracture length
40
4.3 Fracture and R-curve
and piece width as the independent variable, and residual strength as dependent.
This leads to better knowledge of dierent modes prevalence by inspecting the
intersection point. As a result, plastic collapse is dominant when
W 2a
W

ys
>
K
c
a
_
sec
_
a
W
_
Be that as it may, the rigorous superposition of these eects is better investigated
by means of EPFM.
Up to this point, had a brief conclusion to be drawn from the fracture me-
chanics overview presented, the most remarkable result is the concept of a general
external energy that has to overcome the material capability of energy absorption
in order to enlarge the crack.
The surface energy needed to open the crack is, according to the previously men-
tioned Clayperons theorem
W = 2U
e
Plasticity must be taken into account for engineering materials, leading to the
following equation, which is expressed in modern terminology as
G = 2W
f
= R = 2 (
p
+
f
)
where G is the energy required for crack growth,
p
and
f
are respectively the
plastic work per unit area and the surface energy, with the latter almost neglected
in case of metal alloys. R is purely introduced for the sake of clarity.
To gain better comprehension of material behaviour, it is possible to plot G and
R values versus crack size, obtaining, in order, a resistance curve (R-curve) or
a driving force curve. This last is dependent on structure geometry and loading
conditions, while the R-curve is also aected by temperature, geometry, load
conditions and other parametres.
The R-curve is especially useful to nd the fracture toughness because, in case
of slow-stable crack, growth (obtained with nite stepped increments in load),
this is equal to the material resistance found experimentally. The R-curve thus
denes the resistance of a material as the plastic zone extends. There are two
41
graphically dierent types of R-curves: the ones obtained for brittle materials
and the ones for ductile materials (see 4.4). The crack grows when
dG
da
>
dR
da
which guarantees that the external energy cannot be absorbed by the material,
and
G R
which guarantees that the driving force overcomes the resistance of the material.
Graphically, the conditions are satised at the tangent line.
Figure 4.4: R-curve for brittle (left) and ductile (right) materials.
4.4 Fatigue and Paris curve
4.4.1 Constant amplitude load
All the discussion presented until now is based on instantaneous fracture, i.e.
nding the conditions under which the sample fails, no matter what he withstood
before. Nevertheless, also smaller stress can cause rupture, if they are constantly
applied. One of the simplest fatigue modes is when a constant range of cyclic
42
stress is applied; the parametres dening each cycle are two: the stress range
= (
max
min
)
and the stress ratio, which can be found in literature either as
R =

min
max
or
R =

max
min
Image 4.5 makes use of the latter denition, while the rest of this thesis is con-
sistent with most recent papers, and uses the former.
The type of loading can be expressed also as the range of stress intensity factors
related to the two limit stresses
K = (K
max
K
min
)
This means that, exactly as fracture can exist with a value of the maximum stress
well below the yield of the material, it takes place with a value of K
max
lower
than K
ic
too. Assuming that crack growth occurs only in the crack tip under
plasticity deformation, fatigue crack growth can be related to K.
When the innitesimal crack growth with respect to number of cycles is plotted
against the stress intensity factors range, we obtain a Paris curve; usually, for the
sake of clarity, both axis are in logarithmic scale.
This approach assumes that all the loading conditions can be actually summed
up in an unique and univocal parametre; as a matter of fact, this technique seems
to work properly.
A relationship is now sought, in order to correctly relate Kto crack growth. In
the second portion of the graph, the linear section can be expressed, given the
plastic zone is little enough to obey completely to elastic singularity zone rules,
as
da
dN
= CK
m
where C and m are functions of multiple agents, such as material, external con-
ditions and stress rate.
43
If K is low enough, crack will not grow anymore, in a condition similar to
the maximum stress for innite life encountered in Wohler curve; the value un-
der which no fracture occurs is called K
th
; it is still not clear the reason of this
phenomenon, but two main explanations have been made: the rst is that the
induced compressive stress are able to screen the crack tip from the rest of the
material, disabling crack growth; the second, less famed but still valid, is that
the crack tip plastic deformation cannot penetrate micro-structural barriers.
Another of the actual challenges is to correctly relate K to also in case of com-
pressive stress; today, the most common solution in this case is to consider the
minimum stress intensity as null.
More comprehensive equation are now studied, in order to achieve better correla-
tions between theoretical computations and experimental data. One of the most
interesting development is in the Pridle equation, a more complicated and wide-
ranging version of the Paris equation, in which the crack growth is a function of
more variables.
da
dN
= f (K, R, K
c
, K
th
) = C
_
K K
th
K
c
K
max
_
m
The actual application is to be found in the determination a priori of the number
of cycles before failure, known material, load and geometrical conditions, given
an initial crack length a
0
N
f
=
_
a
f
a
0
da
C (K)
m
=
_
a
f
a
0
da
C [Y (a)
a]
m
Assuming the geometry correction factor constant within the interval,
K = K
0
_
a
a
0
= Y (a
0
)
a
_
a
a
0
Solving in the interval
N
f
=
2a
0
(m2)C (K
0
)
m
_
1
_
a
0
a
f
_m
2
1
_
If m = 2, as it can sometimes happen, the singularity result of the integral is
N
f
=
a
0
C (K
0
)
m
ln
_
a
f
a
0
_
44
In any case, this provides only an approximated result, biased by the actual vari-
ation in the geometry correction factor. Only numerical methods allow precise
predictions. Another interesting modication was introduced by Elber, who noted
that for asymmetric loading a plastic zone smaller than expected is formed, prac-
tically decreasing the eect of the external load. The concept of eective stress
intensity factor range is introduced as
K
eff
= K
max
K
op
where K
op
is the highest factor for which two faces do not part one from another.
Eective stress ratio U is dened as
U =
K
eff
K
and it is usually found in literature as a linear equation depending on R.
Figure 4.5: Example of Paris curve.
45
4.4.2 Variable amplitude load
In real-life cases constant amplitude load is nigh on inexistent: external loads
vary on an almost randomly basis, and real behaviour parts systematically from
the expected one.
However, uctuating loads are not the only discrepancy from reality: also crack
retardation due to overload, acceleration due to underload and highly variable
conditions must be counted as important factors.
Constant amplitude load approximation can still be kept valid when similitude
conditions apply, i.e. when load conguration does not part signicantly from
theory. In cases of variable load spectrum, simple linear combinations are used to
predict part life; these outcomes have been demonstrated to be very conservative
projections, often leading to unnecessary repairs or even overhauls, remarkably
increasing costs.
The basics of the models used today date back to 70s; further developed through
the years, now the model is considered quite accurate, also by virtue of com-
putational numeric techniques. Anyway, the Paris equation has proven itself
essentially right, with some modications adopted to better t experimental re-
sults.
Studies on plastic wake and crack closure stress have led to the following formula
da
dN
= C
__
1 S
0
S
max
(1 R)
_
(K)
_
m
which, as can be seen, closely resembles in structure Paris equation; S is the
applied stress, R is the stress ratio, and S
0
stands as the only unknown, and
represents the crack opening stress level.
A good trade-o between simplicity and accuracy is embodied in the Wheeler
model; it deals with overload, and starts o with the known equation for plastic
zone size
r
po
=
1
_
K
0
ys
_
2
while the rupture would be reached, in constant load, at
r
pc
=
1
_
K
max
ys
_
2
46
where is a coecient depending on type of loading.
Wheeler assumed that an overload retardation eect exists, unknown in mag-
nitude; he also supposed that this vanishes when the newly induced plastic zone
reaches the boundary of the previous one. Two parametres put into numbers this
concept
1
=
a + r
pc
r
p
o
;
2
=
r
p
c
r
po
a
Retardation factor is thus dened as
=
where is a tting parametre depending on material properties and loading

spectrum, and can actually be obtained only experimentally. The new crack
growth rate is now dened as
_
da
dN
_
OL
=
_
da
dN
_
0
The main disadvantage of this approach is in its blindness: being highly sensitive
to load spectrum and variations, it is mandatory to calibrate every experiment
on actual usage, thus requiring a reliable and accurate prediction of the state of
operation.
Despite all the diculties presented, nowadays design methodologies are widely
based on damage tolerance, especially in aerospace environment. This requires
more complicated computations and theories, and prescribes strict inspections of
all the parts; nonetheless, great advantages are achieved in life prediction and
money saving.
47
48
5
Standard test methods
Every study we mentioned has probably been carried out on ever changing sam-
ples: scientists were not really concerned with a qualitative uniformity, usually
working with the samples they were provided with; a sort of continuation and
correlation in ideas and procedures was pursued and considered to be relevant,
instead of a standard method.
Indeed, when it all came down to practical applications, the necessity to have
consistent and homogeneous results quickly arose, and the denition of standard
methods was perceived as a priority.
Nowadays, the most important standards in metal testing are set by ASTM
(American Society for Testing and Materials), which foundation dates back to
1898. Other organization involved in imposing regulations are BSI (British Stan-
dards Institute), DIN (Deutsches Institut f ur Normung), AFNOR (Association
Francaise de Normalisation) and ANSI (American National Standards Institute);
the last three are active members of ISO, the International Organization for Stan-
dardization, which is probably the most important and famous organization for
standardization. Anyhow, in most cases ISO itself relies on ASTM for regulations
concerning the eld which is dealt with here. In the following sections, standards
method for the denitions of Paris curve will be briey explained and the main
features listed.
49
5. STANDARD TEST METHODS
5.1 ASTM E-647: Standard test method for mea-
surements of fatigue crack grow rates
As suggested by the title, said regulations cover the denition of crack growth
rates in the central part of the Paris diagram, i.e. from the threshold stress to
the instability region.
An excerpt from the test method follows, outlining its purpose
1
:
This test method involves cyclic loading of notched specimen which have been ac-
ceptably precracked in fatigue. Crack size is measured, either visually or by an
equivalent method, as a function of elapsed fatigue cycles and these data are sub-
jected to numerical analysis to establish the rate of crack growth. Crack growth
rates are expressed as a function of the stress intensity factor range, K, which
is calculated from expressions based on linear elastic stress analysis.
Of course, for every specic doubt or clarication it is preferable to refer directly
to the whole text of the test method; in any case, for the sake of clarity, main
points are hereinafter introduced and discussed. The specimen is, as a very rst
presumption, assumed to be suciently planar to guarantee that elastic defor-
mation is predominant; the second prescription is related to the rst one, and
requires the sample to be thick enough to preclude buckling.
The test method than counsels to keep in the correct perspective the inuence
of temperature, environment, geometry, crack closure and residual stresses; it is
also recalled that results holding for long cracks can dier noticeably from the the
ones of small cracks: factors having a strong impact on the denition of small are
microstructural dimension and scale of local plasticity; this considerations fail to
apply when crack is shorter than 1 mm and thus considered physically small; this
memoranda are included in section 5, which encompasses a broader denition of
the purpose of the directive.
Section 6 is a succinct indication on the apparatus needed for the experiment:
the importance of good gripping and perfect alignment is emphasized; it is also
prescribed the employment of rigid, non-rotating joints to reduce lateral motion,
along with an optimization of the force train length, to reduce the arm of the
1
In this section, all the parts in italic are direct quotes from the test method (36).
50
crack grow rates
eventual resulting force.
Section 7 establishes the basic conguration, size and preparation for both C(T)
and M(T) types of sample. At this stage, only theoretical advices are given, and
for practical prescriptions reference must be made to Annex I.
Of great importance is the adoption of geometrical expedients to prevent the
residual stress acting perpendicular and parallel to the direction of crack growth
from biasing results. Symmetrical specimen are generally a satisfactory measure
to avoid residual-stress-induced clamping on crack growth measurement; peculiar
shapes allow to steer clear o crack curvature and irregularities.
For high-strain hardening materials, a new eective yield stress can be introduced
to meet the uncracked ligament requirement. It is dened as ow strength:
fs
=

ys
+
uts
2
This modication tends towards conservative predictions, which is anyway better
than overestimation. Further indications are provided, regarding notch prepa-
ration procedure, which can be achieved by various means: electric discharge
machining, mill, broach, grind, sawcut.
The most substantial part, concerning the actual procedure, is the following sec-
tion, namely number 8.
The rst advice is to perform the highest number of tests possible, in order to min-
imize, and eventually neglect, the inuence of external factors, especially when
studying low crack growth rate (da/dN 10
8
m/cycle).
Paragraph 8.3 is an extensive description of precracking, which objective is to
provide a sharpened fatigue crack of adequate size and straightness which ensures
that 1) the eect of the machined starter notch is removed from the specimen
K-calibration, and 2) the eects on subsequent crack growth rate data caused by
changing crack front shape or precrack load history are eliminated.
Fatigue precracking must be conducted with the specimen already fully heat
treated and with an equipment that guarantees the force distribution to be sym-
metrical with respect to the machined notch, and can be applied with any known
loading frequency that enables a 5% accuracy to be achieved. Supplementary
indications follow, regarding the K-decreasing test condition and the symmetry
of the crack extension during the test; this part will be investigated in the section
51
concerning the actual experiment, marking any dierence that should arise.
Paragraph 8.5 is a series of detailed indications for constant-force-amplitude test;
this type of test is suggested to be carried out at constant force range and at
xed set of loading variables (i.e. stress ratio and frequency); anyway, when sev-
eral informations are needed and only a few samples are available, force range
can be modied, provided a set of rules are applied to avoid undesired factors to
aect the outcome: transient grow rates should be avoided by reducing relative
incremental increase and steering clear of force range shrinking; sucient crack
extension must be allowed when environmental eects are remarkable; last, long-
duration interruptions must be avoided since they could result in unacceptable
relaxation or modication in the material.
Paragraph 8.6 deals with K-Decreasing procedure, valid when da/dN assumes a
value under 10
8
m/cycle. This method is only applicable in such a case because,
if not, prior leading history could alter near-threshold fatigue crack growth rate
behaviour. Test should be conducted until the lowest K or crack growth rate
of interest is achieved; the test may then continued, if demanded, to obtain com-
parison data.
Force shedding in K-Decreasing procedure is more tting if continuous; if stepwise
reduction is adopted, eort must be made to preclude anomalous data coming
from a not gradual diminution. Should not these indication be respected, specic
hints on the course of action are presented. Additionally, 8.7 gives a guideline
on alternative K-control test procedures; this is not of much interest for our case
and therefore is not further discussed.
An important paragraph on measurement of crack size follows.
It is, as rst, required the use of an instrument capable of resolving extensions
of 0.10 mm or 0.002W, whichever greater. Reference marks, grids or scales are
highly recommended for more precise values and is preferable to have the possi-
bility of measuring without stopping the experiment.In case the cyclic loading is
interrupted, strict care must me taken to avoid the introduction of any signicant
extraneous damage or transient crack extension; the suspension must be limited
in time and, in case a static force is maintained for the purpose of enhanced crack
tip resolution, it should be carefully controlled.
Measurements must be executed in order to have data nearly evenly distributed
52
crack grow rates
with respect to K.
A minimum a of 0.025mm is recommended; in any case, the minimum a must
be at least 10 times the crack size measurement precision; the data to be put
into computations are the average of two measurements, on the two sides of the
sample; should the crack deviate from the straight line of a value higher than
20
, test must be considered invalid for non-meeting of symmetry conditions.

Branching crack could occur; this condition is cleared for report utilization, pro-
vided it is explicitly declared.
Section 9 deals with calculation and interpretation of results; at the end of the
test, it is prescribed to examine the fracture surface in, at least, two points, to
determine the extent of through-thickness crack curvature (also called crack tun-
nelling). The dierence obtained between the average through-thickness crack
size and the actually measured crack size is called crack curvature correction; in
case this value results in a greater than 5% dierence in calculated stress-intensity
factor at any crack size, then this is the value to be used when analyzing recorded
data; it is also suggested to use a linear interpolation if the magnitude of crack
curvature correction increases or decreases with crack size.
Paragraphs 9.2, 9.3 and are about the determination of, respectively, crack growth
rate, stress-intensity factor range and fatigue growth threshold; being highly sig-
nicant topics, they will be analyzed in a later subsection.
Section 10 gives instruction and recommendations on report drafting. Key data
of the sample must be compulsorily included, such as geometric features, ma-
terial characterization and treatment, mechanical properties; regarding the in-
struments, description of test machine and general equipment must be provided,
including the measuring devices and their resolution. Test loading variables are
obviously needed: R, K, P, initial crack size, cyclic frequency and waveform.
As previously observed, environmental variables can aect the outcome of the
test; consequently, crucial values (temperature, humidity, pressure) should be re-
ported, especially in the case they vary appreciably from normal STPs.
Further information must be supplied regarding the analysis method and the in-
strument calibration. As a nal indication, any anomalous situation occurred
during the test must be accurately detailed. The last section covers precision and
bias; it is clear that a small error in the measurement can reect in climacteric
53
errors when determining the Paris curve. The test method reports an average
reproducibility of 27%, and a range from 13% to 50%, with the repeatability
at 32%; these values are standard errors based on residual standard deviations
about the mean response determined from regression analysis. This variability is
believed to derive from random crack size measurement errors, given the high
homogeneity of the employed material (10 Ni steel); near threshold regime show
much lower values.
Studies on variance and covariance of Paris curves have been accomplished (37),
but are more mathematical assessments than physical deductions.
Finally, it is recalled that the highest part of variability of da/dN is due to inher-
ent material variability, i.e. variations in chemical composition, microstructure,
etc.
There are not any indications on bias, because no accepted standard value for
da/dN versus K exist.
Various annexes follow; where relevant, they will be mentioned in the section
regarding the actual experiment.
Figure 5.1: 3D representation of the specimen.
54
5.2 Recommended data reduction techniques
5.2 Recommended data reduction techniques
The appendix X1 (along with sections 9.2 and 9.3, as previously mentioned) of
the test method E-647 gives information on how to derive valid crack growth
rates from known measures.
The rst one is known as secant method, and it is specically indicated for a K-
decreasing procedure: this technique, also known as point-to-point, simply pre-
scribes the computation of the slope of the straight line connecting two adjacent
data points on the a versus N curve:
_
da
dN
_
a
=
_
a
1+i
a
i
N
1+i
N
i
_
K is usually calculated using the average crack size
a =
1
2
(a
1+i
a
i
)
The other technique that can be employed is the incremental polynomial method;
this procedure involves tting a second-order equation to sets of (2n+1) consec-
utive points, where n is usually between 1 and 4. The local t is
a
i
= b
0
+ b
1
_
N
i
C
1
C
2
_
+ b
2
_
N
i
C
1
C
2
_
2
where
1
_
N
i
C
1
C
2
_
+1
and
C
1
=
1
2
(N
in
+ N
i+n
) ; C
2
=
1
2
(N
i+n
N
in
)
Regression parametres b
0
, b
1
and b
2
are to be determined by means of least squares
method. The rate of crack growth is the derivative of said parabola, namely
_
da
dN
_
a
i
=
b
1
C
2
+ 2b
2
_
N
i
C
1
C
2
2
_
Usually computer programs are used to compute those values and plot them.
55
Figure 5.2: 2D representation of the specimen, with dimensions.
56
6
The experiment
6.1 Preparation of the equipment
The composition of the TWIP steel samples is in Table 1 (average of 6 measures).
The sample arrives blurred and smeared, and needs to be properly prepared for
the actual measurements to be correct and reliable.
As rst operation, the specimen is smoothed down with a highly abrasive mag-
netic disk; this grinding operation is carried out in order to remove the very
supercial lm of dirt and dust that covers the sample.
It is of appreciable importance to be both cautious and meticulous at this stage,
because the useful area for crack growth is here dened and it is not possible to
enlarge it later on.
The second step employes the usual non-magnetic soft disks for grinding and pol-
ishing, again utilized on a rotating platform, at the two allowed velocities of 125
and 250 rpm; here, only water is used as lubricant.
The lapping disks are usually made of silicon carbide; zirconia alumina-based
disks are also available for sale, but are far more aggressive and were not used.
The abrasive material is generally coated with resins and latex additive to ensure
long-lasting cutting capabilities.
Dierent grit size were used: from 400 to the nest available, 4000 (FEPA scale,
correspondent to a 1200 U.S. Industrial Mesh), going through 800, 1200 and 2500.
The number refers to the meshes in a linear inch featured by the lter, and con-
sequently to the maximum size of the grit, the nest of which has a nominal
57
6. THE EXPERIMENT
Table 1: Composition of TWIP steel samples
C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al Cu V Sn Fe
0.66 0.05 17.25 0.025 0.011 0.03 0.01 0.30 0.60 0.03 0.04 0.11 80.89
diameter value of 5 m.
The polished nish is obtained by means of diamond paste, applied together with
a lubricant; it consists in powder diamond particles diluted in a water-based bind-
ing agent; 3 and 1 m pastes were used.
The same treatment was applied to both surfaces.
Before mounting the specimen it was necessary to check, with a microscope, that
it did not show any evidence of corrosion or pre-cracking.
The employed machine is a hydraulic-operated device capable of a maximum
force of 250 kN, which is unquestionably over-dimensioned for the purpose of this
experiment.
In order to improve sensibility at low forces, the 50 kN load cell was deployed.
The force was applied through Clavis-type grips and a chain of threaded reducers.
6.2 Precracking and crack growth
Precracking, as said before, is aimed at the creation of a suciently long crack
to be enlarged in the following passages; such procedure is necessary in order to
insure that the crack growth is independent of residual plastic stress, and to nd
the threshold K.
A growth of 0.5 mm is generally considered enough, but also the inuence of the
initial plastic radius must be taken into account when deciding to move on with
actual crack growth cycles.
To be foolproof, a total crack length of 1.5 mm was set as a lower bound to give
start to the actual cracking procedure.
In the light of time needed and data required, it was decided to perform a K-
increasing test, with 8% steps.
In order to predict the load P
max
needed to elongate the crack of 0.5 mm, the
58
6.2 Precracking and crack growth
following formula was used
P
max
=
(1 + 0.08)K
avg,prev
0.9
_
K
P
_
avg
with
K = (P
max
P
min
)
1
Wb
(2 + )
5.6
4
+ 14.72
3
13.32
2
+ 4.64 + 0.886
(1 )
3
2
where b and W are respectively the thickness (1.8 mm) and the length (64 mm)
of the sample, and
=
a
avg
t
Rearranging, we nd
K = f(a, t)
P
Wt
a
which leads backs to the known formula
K = f(a, w)
nom
a = Y
nom
a
The pre-set number of cycles was a speculation too, dened as
N
cycles
=
0.5
_
da
dN
_
new
with
_
da
dN
_
new
=
_
da
dN
_
prev
__
K
P
_
avg,prev
_
K
P
_
avg,new
_
m
The value of m was assumed to be 3 for the rst two samples, whereas it was de-
ned as 3.3 for the last specimen, on account of results obtained with the second
piece.
The loading ratio R was set at 0.1, a normal value for this type of experiment,
and the input signal was sinusoidal..
Optical measurement was performed, with a microscope capable of a maxi-
mum magnication of 230x, and resolving lengths as small as 0.01 mm at the
highest enlargement. This allowed to remain in the margins prescribed by the
test method.
59
6. THE EXPERIMENT
Needless to say, using such a method the experiment had to be stopped for the
crack growth to be evaluated; the highest eort was made in trying to minimize
these discontinuations and keep the cycles as close as possible, for the sake of
precision.
The sample was secured to the machine structure through two gudgeon pins,
which longitudinal movement was restricted by hairpin cotter pins, and transver-
sal motion was restricted by four thick washers.
For higher loads, an additional structure was mounted on the sample, consisting
of two bulky steel plates bolted together, separated by two greased Teon sheets
in which to insert the sample. This helped to reduce lateral vibration (K
ii
mode)
and avoid specimen slanting.
The main, and eventually only, problem encountered during the experiment
was the tuning of the parametres of the machine: the two most relevant were the
convergence rate and the so called P-gain. The former accounts for the percent-
age of the error (betwixt the command and the response) the control unit tries
to correct each cycle, while the latter represents, briey, how quick the machine
reaches the correct P
max
.
As obvious, a high value for both parametres would be preferable; nonetheless,
this induces a high instability in the machine, leading to huge drifts from desired
conditions, and nally to insoluble troubles. Too low values would have trig-
gered, on the other side, wrong loading conditions, in particular a much dierent
R. Compromise was found at the expenses of the rst sample: the values set for
the following pieces were a P-gain of 3 and a convergence rate of 8%.
When a high number of cycles (hundreds of thousand) was set, no big attention
was paid to the initial ones, allowing for a drift from the desired load conditions
in the starting 10% of the cycles, at a xed frequency of 40 Hz. When higher
precision was needed, and a number of cycles in the order of hundreds was pre-
dicted, much lower frequencies (2 Hz) were utilized. Another approach was tried,
consisting in continuously increasing frequency, but was later abandoned when
dierent frequencies were found to be unstable (17 and 27 Hz among all).
60
6.3 Results
6.3 Results
Unfortunately, it was possible to obtain only one complete Paris curve, this owing
to the fact that the machine gave rise to multiple hurdles.
The cracks always propagated on a linear trajectory and the dierence between
the two sides was never remarkable.
The rst sample experienced an overload which resulted in a distortion, thereby
eliminating the possibility of further tests. Moreover, problems in early calibra-
tion suggest that the few obtained data are not reliable.
The second sample encountered no substantial diculties (just a second pre-
cracking was needed at about half the procedure): the conditions and procedure
completely comply with the standard test method, and the correspondent Paris
curve can be considered correct (6.1).
The third sample was on a similar path when a sudden overload (in the ranks of
5 kN) took place, almost destroying it. Even so, some relevant data have been
registered and can be used to better understand behaviour at low values of K
(6.3).
A nal data analysis, performed on the maximum and minimum values of each
cycle, showed a negligible variance in loads. Therefore, the actual load ratio R
can be safely considered to be equal to the nominal one.
61
6. THE EXPERIMENT
Figure 6.1: Paris curve for second TWIP sample.
62
6.3 Results
Figure 6.2: Partial Paris curve for third TWIP sample.
63
6. THE EXPERIMENT
Figure 6.3: Paris curve comparison: second sample in green, third sample in
purple.
64
7
Conclusions
The Paris curve is more of a functional and helpful result, than an experiment
to anon draw any sort of denitive concept from. Much like the W ohler curve,
or other fatigue diagrams, its usefulness can be fully appreciated under operative
conditions only.
Natheless, it is still possible to glean some enlightenment from our research.
First, it is denitely material, being our subject what it is, to write down some
meaningful digits.
Software-based interpolation provides the following values, as regards Paris curve
coecients, for the second sample
C = 1.56 10
9
mm; m = 3.325; K
ic
= 93.352MPa
m
and for the third
C = 2.22 10
9
; m = 3.266
with R
2
(coecient of determination) values of 0.9907 and 0.9699, forsooth ac-
ceptable ones.
The combined Paris curve has the following parametres:
C = 2.16 10
9
; m = 3.241
These outcomes lead to the already widespread belief that twinning mechanism
is not relevant in case of fatigue.
Withal, as a consequence of the limited thickness of the specimens, it is ticklish
65
7. CONCLUSIONS
to collate this results with known gures; this notwithstanding, some comparison
can be carried out.
The m value, for instance, resembles the behaviour of austenitic stainless steels,
oftentimes reported in literature to lie close to 3.25 (38), exceeding known data for
martensitic (m 2.25) and ferrite-perlite steels (m 3). Existing investigation
on TWIP (39) outlines slightly dierent characteristics, with m included between
2.4 and 2.7, and C around 2.0 10
8
mm, with similar thickness involved. This
is somehow puzzling, and makes it taxing to come up with a convincing clari-
cation.
A partial explanation can be tracked down to the very distinct operation con-
ditions of the CT sample: as a matter of fact, the loading takes place only in
the plastic zone, and the local evolution hinders the formation of new twins,
simultaneously expediting expansion of low to intermediate dislocations. The de-
pendance on twin presence can help to elucidate the dierences spotted.
Eke, the dissimilarities in composition can account to some extent: the apparent
brittleness can be easily explained by the relatively low percentage of Mn con-
tained.
In all likelihood, the most important comparison which could be made is the one
with a steel the TWIP is expected to replace. One germane example is, doubt-
less, the DP1000, a dual phase steel employed where high strength and weight
reduction are ineludible priorities. Literature (40) makes a Paris curve available
for comparison (7.1, 7.2).
Data for DP1000 Paris curve are
C = 8.85 10
9
mm; m = 2.88; K
ic
= 74.75Mpa
m
The Paris exponent for the dual phase is lower, thus suggesting a more prominent
brittle behaviour; yet, the TWIP stress intensity fracture at rupture is consid-
erably higher, and the crack growths, if we set the two curves side by side, are
well-nigh analogous, with a slight advantage for the TWIP steel especially at low
K.
As an all-embracing conclusion to this dissertation, it is possible to safely state
that no evidence points in the direction against TWIP employment, at least for
66
what concerns fatigue crack growth. As it happens, the behaviour seems to be
as predictable and as suitable as other steels currently utilized for critical Body-
in-White parts.
Provided other crucial and inescapable issues are found a solution to, TWIP steel
can indeed represent a resource for the automotive industry.
Figure 7.1: Paris curve data for two steels: DP1000 in blue, TWIP in red.
67
7. CONCLUSIONS
Figure 7.2: Paris curve (interpolation) for two steels: DP1000 in blue, TWIP in
red.
68
Appendix A
Experimental values
In the following two pages, it is possible to nd the exact values used to plot the
two Paris curves in chapter 6. Formulae for computation of K can be found
there too.
69
A. EXPERIMENTAL VALUES
Plotted values of K and da/dN, sample number 2
K da/dN
MPa
m mm/cycle
12.686 9.45E-6
13.729 1.15E-5
14.760 1.34E-5
18.261 1.95E-5
20.921 3.02E-5
22.448 5.10E-5
24.290 5.57E-5
26.301 6.62E-5
28.614 1.09E-4
31.097 1.46E-4
33.595 1.87E-4
36.414 2.24E-4
39.370 2.83E-4
42.530 3.67E-4
46.102 4.50E-4
49.843 5.61E-4
53.579 7.07E-4
57.749 1.02E-3
62.402 1.34E-3
67.328 1.70E-3
72.838 2.09E-3
79.253 2.77E-3
85.143 4.67E-3
93.352 1.01E-2
70
Plotted values of K and da/dN, sample number 3
K da/dN
MPa
m mm/cycle
12.488 7.70E-6
14.978 1.24E-5
16.354 2.42E-5
17.684 3.08E-5
19.083 3.96E-5
20.554 4.14E-5
22.332 5.23E-5
24.689 8.17E-5
26.908 9.04E-5
71
A. EXPERIMENTAL VALUES
72
Appendix B
Inuence of material selection on
chassis performance and
manufacturing
In the introduction, we mentioned as selection criteria safety and weight reduc-
tion. Of course, these two are the most relevant, but a bunch of others exists,
and it is interesting to shortly investigate why and to which extent they inuence
material selection.
From a physical point of view, the main task of the chassis is to carry loads,
being them external (both instantaneous and fatigue) or internal. On a bounce,
vertical loads can be up to seven times the weight of the car, and the chassis must
be able to undergo uneven and not constant cycles for at least 300000 km (41).
Nowadays, even lateral acceleration can reach up to 1 g, subjecting the chassis
and subassemblies also to torsion and bending. It is also essential, for a chassis
designer, to make a good weight balance, approaching as much as possible the
desired 50:50 distribution. For this reason, lighter materials are more likely to be
used in overhangs and deformation structures.
From a dynamic point of view, the most valuable parametre is the stiness,
declined in torsional and bending, depending on the application of the force:
when substituting steel with other materials, it is necessary to make sure the
73
B. INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL SELECTION ON CHASSIS
PERFORMANCE AND MANUFACTURING
characteristics are similar; if not, the car will roll (or pitch) much more, making
it almost impossible to drive.
Moreover, parting for a moment from pure science, a great role is played by the
handling characteristics: the response the driver feels changes dramatically when
materials are changed, for example when a steel suspension strut is substituted
with an aluminium one.
In case of sports cars, the buyers choice is based partially, if not for the higher
part, on driving emotions, and it is fundamental to understand how they are
modied by dierent materials.
In the last 20 years, comfort has become of considerable importance also for
medium-to-low size cars, and is now a priority for all new projects. The suppres-
sion of vibrations and the acoustic isolation are probably the two main aspects
taken into account by potential purchasers during a test drive, and for sure the
easiest to evaluate.
Topological optimization is aimed at increasing torsional eigenfrequencies, reduce
acceleration levels at acceleration points and keeping the forces as low as possible,
i.e. in the crossmembers.
Another important area is in the mountings, where a large impedance gap is re-
quired in order to lter the input from driveline and suspension.
Material selection also has an impact on the shapes that can be obtained, both
from a aesthetic and functional perspective.
From the manufacturing and assembly view point, materials play a great role
both for cost and reliability.
First of all, stamping and drawing possibilities for the dierent materials should
be taken into account during the design process.
Second, the selection of the joining techniques to be employed strongly depends
on materials: case in point, where welding two steel plates is easy, connecting
a steel and an aluminium plate is likely to require riveting, or adhesives. This
impacts the manufacturing line too, if a machine switching is demanded, thus
requiring money to be invested. Furthermore, the plant will require more skilled
workers, or will have to hire new ones, able to correctly exploit the technological
74
improvements.
In the last decade, the consumers have become to be concerned about the sus-
tainability of the cars they buy, and the regulations about recycling have become
much stricter. Car makers are now required to produce vehicles with a certain
percentage of recyclable parts, and this aects materials choice as well.
It is probably evident, but still worth of mentioning, the role played by price:
if carbon ber cost as steel, there is no doubt we would driving much safer and
faster cars; this could seem like an unintelligent remark, but the history of cars
is sparkling with huge errors driven by a inappropriate consideration of money.
75
B. INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL SELECTION ON CHASSIS
PERFORMANCE AND MANUFACTURING
76
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79
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Determination of the Paris curve

for a TWIP steel

C); such a treatment is virtually

where is a tting parametre depending on material properties and loading

, test must be considered invalid for non-meeting of symmetry conditions.

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