2013-01 EM315 - EM311 CH02 Casting Processes

CHAPTER 02 CASTING PROCESSES
Manufacturing Processes
PART I : Fundamentals of Casting Processes

Introduction Solidification of Metals Fluid Flow Fluidity of Molten Metal Heat Transfer Defects
EM315/EM311 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES Nur Azyyah
Learning Outcomes

Mechanisms of solidification in metals and their alloys Significance of solidification patterns in casting
Characteristics of fluid flow and heat transfer in molds and their effects
Role of gases and shrinkage in defect formation in casting
Introduction
Casting process basically involves:

a) Pouring molten metal into a mold patterned after the part to be manufactured b) Allowing it to solidify c) Removing the part from the mold
Important considerations in casting operations:
Flow of the molten metal into the mold cavity Solidification and cooling of the metal in the mold Influence of the type of mold material
Solidification of Metals
Pure metals
T as a function of time Density as a function of time
Pure metals
When temperature of the molten metal drops to its freezing point, latent heat of fusion is given off
Solidification front moves through the molten metal from the mold walls in toward the center
Metals shrink during cooling and solidification Shrinkage can lead to microcracking and associated porosity
Grains grow in a direction opposite to heat transfer out through the mold
Pure metals
Alloys
Solidification in alloys starts when below liquidus and complete when it reaches the solidus
Alloy in a mushy or pasty state consisting of columnar dendrites

Dendrites have interlocking 3D arms and branches
Alloys
Width of the mushy zone is described in terms of freezing range, TL - TS
Alloys
Effects of cooling rates
Slow cooling rates result in coarse dendritic structures with large spacing between dendrite arms For higher cooling rates the structure becomes finer with smaller dendrite arm spacing Smaller the grain size, the strength and ductility of the cast alloy increase, microporosity in the casting decreases, and tendency for casting to crack decreases
Alloys
Structureproperty relationships
Under the faster cooling rates, cored dendrites are formed Surface of dendrite has a higher concentration of alloying elements, due to solute rejection from the core toward the surface during solidification of the dendrite (microsegregation)
Structureproperty relationships
Macrosegregation involves differences in composition throughout the casting itself
Gravity segregation is the process where higher density inclusions and lighter elements float to the surface
Dendrite arms are not strong and can be broken up by agitation or mechanical vibration during solidification results in finer grain size with equiaxed nondendritic grains distributed uniformly
Fluid Flow
Two basic principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating design:

1. Bernoulllis theorem 2. Law of mass continuity
Bernoullis theorem Mass continuity Q = A1v1 = A2v2 Sprue design A1/A2 = h2/h1 Modeling v = c2gh v = c2gh-x Flow characteristics Re = vD/
Fluidity of Molten Metal

Fluidity consists of two basic factors:
1) Characteristics of the molten metal 2) Casting parameters Characteristics of molten metal

Casting parameters

Viscosity fluidity Surface tension fluidity Inclusions fluidity
Mold design Mold material and its surface characteristics
Solidification pattern
Degree of superheat fluidity

Pouring rate fluidity Heat transfer
Heat Transfer
Solidification time
Solidification time = C (Volume/Surface area)n

C = a constant that reflects a) mold material b) metal properties (including latent heat) c) temperature
n
= a value between 1.5-2
Heat Transfer
Shrinkage
Shrinkage, which causes dimensional changes and (sometimes) cracking, is the result of the following three sequential events:
1. Contraction of molten metal as it cools prior to its solidification 2. Contraction of metal during phase change from liquid to solid (latent heat of fusion) 3. Contraction of the solidified metal (casting) as its temperature drops to ambient temperature
Defects
Standard nomenclature for casting defects: AMetallic projections (fins, flash, projections)
BCavities (blowholes, pinholes, shrinkage cavities)

CDiscontinuities (cracks, cold or hot tearing, cold shuts) DDefective surface (folds, laps, scars, adhering sand layers, oxide scale) EIncomplete casting (misruns, runout) FIncorrect dimensions or shape (improper shrinkage allowance, pattern-mounting error, irregular contraction, deformed pattern, warped casting) GInclusions
Defects
FIGURE 2.? Examples of common defects in castings

Defects
Porosity
Porosity is caused by shrinkage and/or dissolved gases Porosity can cause ductility to a casting and surface finish Shrinkage can be reduced by:

Adequate liquid metal Internal or external chills With alloys, mold materials with high thermal conductivity may be used
FIGURE 2.? Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills used in castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage (chills are placed in regions where there is a larger volume of metal as in (c))
Defects
Porosity
Because liquid metals have greater solubility for gases than do solid metals, when a metal begins to solidify, the dissolved gases are expelled from the solution Gases may also result from reactions of the molten metal with mold materials Gases either accumulate in regions of existing porosity (interdendritic regions) or cause microporosity
FIGURE 2.? Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum (note the sharp decrease in solubility as the molten metal begins to solidify)
Defects
General defects
Misruns: Solidification of casting before completely filling mold cavity Cause:
Insufficient fluidity of molten metal Low pouring temperature
Pouring too slowly

Small cross section within mold cavity Proper casting design
Remedy:
Defects
General defects
Cold shuts: Lack of fusion when two streams of molten metal meet from opposite direction in the pouring of casting Cause:
Remedy:
Proper casting design
Insufficient fluidity of molten metal Low pouring temperature Pouring too slowly Small cross section within mold cavity
Defects
General defects
Cold shots: Formation of small solid metal globules entrapped in but not entirely fused with the casting
Cause:
Metal splatters during pouring Proper pouring procedures and gating system
Remedy:
Defects
General defects
Shrinkage cavity: Internal void or surface depression in casting Cause:
Uncontrolled solidification Proper riser design Adequate risers and feeders
Remedy:

Defects
General defects
Microporosity: A network of small voids distributed throughout casting, usually associated with alloys
Cause:
Localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal in the dendritic structure
Remedy:
Defects
General defects
Hot tearing/cracking: Separation of metal at a point of high tensile stress Cause:
Casting is restrained from contraction after solidification or early stages of cooling Remove part from mold immediately after freezing
Remedy:
Defects
General defects
Fin: A thin metal projection at the parting of mold or core sections Cause:
Incorrect assembly of cores and molds Improper clamping and sealing Proper clamping of cores and mold
Remedy:
Defects
General defects
Warped casting: Deformation in casting Cause:

Large cross sections or intersections are prone to warping
Allowances can be given along with machining allowance to remove by machining
Remedy:

Proper casting design

Use of ribs
Defects
General defects
Inclusions: Unwanted particles contained within the material act as stress raisers compromising the castings strength Cause:
Interaction of molten metal with the environment including the atmosphere (chemical reactions with oxygen), and the mold itself Good mold maintenance
Remedy:
Defects
Defects (sand casting)
Sand blow: A balloon-shaped gas cavity at or below casting surface near the top of casting Cause:
Remedy:
Provide sufficient permeability and vent holes Minimum quantity of water
Release of mold gases during pouring Low permeability, poor venting, and high moisture content of the sand mold
Defects
Pinholes: Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below the surface of casting Cause:
Remedy:
Provide sufficient permeability and vent holes Minimum quantity of water
Release of mold gases during pouring Low permeability, poor venting, and high moisture content of the sand mold
Defects
Sandwash: Irregularity in the surface of casting Cause:
Erosion of sand mold during pouring The contour of erosion is imprinted into surface of the final cast part
Remedy:
Defects
Scabs: A rough area of the casting due encrustations of sand and metal Cause:

Use of additives to reduce thermal expansion of sand
Portions of the mold surface flaking off during solidification and becoming embedded in the casting surface Reduce clay content
Remedy:
Defects
Penetration: Surface of casting consists of a mixture of sand grins and metal Cause:
When the fluidity of the liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into the sand mold or sand core after freezing Harder packing of sand molds
Remedy:
Defects
Mold shift: A step in the cast product at the parting line Cause:
Sidewise displacement of the cope with respect to the drag caused by buoyancy of the molten metal
Remedy:
Defects
Core shift: A similar movement with the core Cause:
Vertical displacement of the core caused by buoyancy of the molten metal
Remedy:
Defects
Mold crack: Formation of fin on final casting Cause:
If mold strength is insufficient a crack may develop into which liquid metal can seep
Remedy:
Defects
Swell: Localized or overall enlargement of castings Cause:
Remedy:

Avoid rapid pouring Provide sufficient ram on sands Proper weighting of molds
Enlargement of mold cavity by metal pressures Insufficient ramming of the sand
Rapid pouring of molten metal

Insufficient weighting of mold
PART II : Metal Casting Processes

Introduction Expendable-Mold Casting Processes Permanent-Mold Casting Processes Inspection of Castings Melting Practice and Furnaces
Learning Outcomes

Characteristics of expendable-mold and permanent-mold processes Applications, advantages, and limitations of common casting processes
Inspection techniques for castings

Brief review of melting practice and furnaces
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to remove part
Advantage: more complex shapes possible Disadvantage: production rates often limited by the time to make mold rather than casting itself
Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and can be used to make many castings

Advantage: higher production rates Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
Expendable-Mold Casting Processes

Sand casting
Most prevalent form of casting process, accounting for a significant majority of total tonnage cast
Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium
Castings range in size from small to very large Production quantities from one to millions
Application: machine bases, large turbine impellers, propellers, plumbing fixtures

Sand casting
Sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for an air compressor frame (photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry)

Sand casting
FIGURE 2.? Outline of production steps in a typical sand casting operation

Sand casting
Sands
Sand-casting operations use silica sand (SiO2) as mold material; naturally bonded (bank sand) or synthetic (lake sand)
Inexpensive and good refractory properties (high-temperature characteristics and high melting point) Fine and round strength , permeability , surface finish Coarse collapsibility , permeability , surface finish Irregular strength , permeability
Sand making: Sand (90%) + Clay (7%) + Water (3%) Other bonding agents:

Organic resins (e.g. phenolic resins) Inorganic binders (e.g. sodium silicate and phosphate) + Additives strength , permeability

Sand casting
Types of sand molds 1. Green-sand mold
Green means mold is moist/damp at time of pouring Skin-dried method: mold surfaces are air dried or using torches/heating lamps to a depth of 10-25mm Organic and inorganic binders are blended into the sand to bond the grains chemically
Synthetic liquid resin is mixed with the sand and allow to harden at room temperature
2. Cold-box mold
3. No-bake mold

Sand casting
Desirable mold properties

Strength to maintain shape and resist erosion
Permeability to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in sand
Thermal stability to resist cracking on contact with molten metal Collapsibility ability to give way and allow casting to shrink without cracking the casting Reusability

Sand casting
FIGURE 2.? Schematic illustration of a sand mold showing various features


Sand casting
Feature Flask Cope Drag Parting line Cheeks Pouring basin/cup Sprue Runner system Gates Risers Cores Vents Support mold Top-piece mold Bottom-piece mold Seam between two-piece molds Additional parts when more than two pieces Into which molten metal is poured Through which molten metal flows downward Channels that carry molten metal from sprue to mold cavity Inlets into mold cavity Supply additional molten metal to casting as it shrinks Inserts to form hollow regions Exhaust gases and air from mold cavity
Function

Sand casting
Patterns
Patterns (full-sized model of a part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and machining allowances) are used to mold the sand mixture into the shape of the casting Pattern materials: Wood, metal, plastic Selection of a pattern material depends on:
1. 2. 3. 4. Size and shape of the casting Dimensional accuracy Quantity of castings required Molding process

Sand casting
Patterns
Patterns can be designed with a variety of features to fit specific applications and economic requirements
FIGURE 2.? Types of pattern used in sand casting; (a) solid pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match-plate pattern, and (d) cope and drag pattern

Sand casting
Patterns
FIGURE 2.? A typical metal match-plate pattern used in sand casting
FIGURE 2.? Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the sand mold

Sand casting
Cores
Cores (full-scale model of interior surfaces of a part) are placed in the mold cavity to form the interior surfaces of the casting
Made of sand aggregates for strength, permeability, refractory, collapsibility Placed in mold cavity prior to pouring Anchored by core prints, which are recesses added to the pattern to support the core and to provide vents for the escape of gases Metal supports (chaplets) may be used to anchor the core in place Molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the core to form the castings external and internal surfaces Removed from the finished part during shakeout and further processing

Sand casting
Cores
FIGURE 2.? Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores
FIGURE 2.? (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets (b) possible chaplet design (c) casting

Sand casting
Sand-molding machines
In vertical flaskless molding, the halves of the pattern form a vertical chamber wall against which sand is blown and compacted
FIGURE 2.? Vertical flaskless molding (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern (b) Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring (c) A vertical flaskless molding line

Sand casting
The sand-casting operation
The cavity in sand mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into two halves and removing the pattern After the mold has been shaped and the cores have been placed in position, the two halves (cope and drag) are closed, clamped, and weighted down After solidification, the casting is shaken out of its mold, and the sand and oxide layers are removed by vibration or sand blasting Castings are cleaned by shot blasting Risers and gates are cut off by oxyfuel-gas cutting, sawing, shearing, and abrasive wheels, or trimmed in dies

Sand casting
The sand-casting operation

Castings are cleaned further by electrochemical or pickling
Castings may subsequently be heat treated to improve certain properties required for its intended service use
Finishing operations may involve machining, straightening, or forging with dies (sizing) to obtain final dimensions
Inspection is carried out to ensure that the casting meets all design and quality-control requirements

Sand casting

Sand casting
(a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the pattern (considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing) (b-c) Patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves which are pasted together
(f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers
(g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed (h) The drag half is produced in a similar manner with the pattern inserted

Sand casting
(i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted; and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint
(j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity

(k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and securing the assembly with pins (l) After the metal soidifies, the casting is removed from the mold
(m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled, and the casting is cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (if necessary)

Shell molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand held together by thermosetting resin binder
(1) A metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin (2) Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell

Shell molding
(3) Box is repositioned so loose uncured particles drop away (4) Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing (5) Shell mold is stripped from pattern

Shell molding
(6) Two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished
(7) Finished casting with sprue removed

Shell molding
Advantages:
Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal and better surface finish Good dimensional accuracy Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting Can be mechanized for mass production More expensive metal pattern Difficult to justify for small quantities
Disadvantages:


Vacuum molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure rather than by a chemical binder
The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather than casting operation itself
Developed in Japan around 1970

Vacuum molding
Advantages:

Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning done when binders are used Since no water is mixed with sand, moisture-related defects are avoided
Disadvantages:
Slow process Not readily adaptable to mechanization

Evaporative-pattern casting (lost-foam process)
Evaporative-pattern casting process uses a polystyrene pattern, which evaporates upon contact with molten metal to form a cavity for the casting
Used for ferrous and nonferrous metals which is applicable to automotive industry Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and internal cores (if needed) Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections

(1) Polystyrene foam pattern is coated with refractory compound (2) Foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is compacted around the pattern (3) Molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms the pouring cup and sprue As the metal enters the mold, the polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid, thus filling the mold cavity

Advantages:
Pattern need not be removed from the mold Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because two mold halves are not required as in a conventional green-sand mold A new pattern is needed for every casting Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on cost of producing patterns
Disadvantages:


CASE STUDY : Lost foam casting of engine blocks
One of the most important parts of in an internal combustion engine is the engine block that provides the basic structure that encloses the engine, pistons and cylinders, and encounters significant pressure during operation. Recognizing the industry pressures on high-quality, low-cost and lightweight designs, Mercury Castings built a lost-foam casting line to produce aluminum engine blocks and cylinder heads. One example of a part produced through lost-foam casting is a 45kW 3-cylinder engine block used for marine applications. Previously manufactured as eight separate die castings, the block was converted to a single, 10-kg lost foam casting with a weight and cost savings of 1 kg and $25 on each block, respectively. Lost-foam casting also allowed consolidation of the engines cylinder head and exhaust and cooling systems into the block and eliminated the associated machining and fasteners required in sand-cast or die-cast designs. Since the pattern contained holes and these could be cast without the use of cores, numerous drilling operations were also eliminated.

Investment casting (lost-wax process)
A pattern made of wax is invested with refractory material to make the mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring molten metal
"Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of "invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory material around wax pattern Capable of producing ferrous and nonferrous castings of intricate detail with high accuracy
Precision casting process
Application: office equipments, mechanical components (e.g. gears)

(1) Wax patterns are produced (2) Several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree (3) Pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material (4) Full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid

(5) Mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity
(6) Mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten metal is poured, and it solidifies (7) Mold is broken away from the finished casting and the parts are separated from the sprue


Also called lost-wax process Used to make office equipment, and mechanical components such as gears

One-piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils made by investment casting (photo courtesy of Howmet Corp.)

Advantages:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast Close dimensional control and good surface finish Wax can usually be recovered for reuse This is a net shape process
Additional machining is not normally required
Disadvantages:

Many processing steps are required Relatively expensive process

Plaster mold casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set
Wood patterns not generally used due to extended contact with water
Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its fine details and good surface finish

Plaster mold casting
Advantages:
Good accuracy and surface finish Capability to make thin cross sections Mold must be baked to remove moisture
Disadvantages:
Moisture can cause problems in casting
Mold strength is lost if over-baked Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures
Limited to lower melting point alloys

Ceramic mold casting
Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made of refractory ceramic material that can withstand higher temperatures than plaster
Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other high-temperature alloys Applications similar to those of plaster mold casting except for the metals cast Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also similar
Permanent-Mold Casting Processes

Permanent-mold casting
Two halves of a mold are made from materials with high resistance to erosion and thermal fatigue designed for easy, precise opening and closing
Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are commonly made of steel or cast iron Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory material due to the vey high pouring temperatures
In order to increase the life of permanent molds, the surfaces of the mold cavity are coated with a refractory slurry or sprayed with graphite
Equipment costs is high but labor costs are kept low through automation
Not economical for small production runs

Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting:

A new mold is required for every casting
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times

The processes include:
1. Basic permanent mold casting 2. Die casting 3. Centrifugal casting

(1) Mold is preheated and coated for lubrication and heat dissipation (2) Cores (if any are used) are inserted and mold is closed (3) Molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies

Advantages:
Good dimensional control and surface finish Rapid solidification caused by metal mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger Generally limited to metals of lower melting point Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because of need to open the mold High cost of mold
Limitations:

Die casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure
Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and part is removed Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die casting Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes

Die casting
Designed to hold and accurately close to mold halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity
Two basic types of die-casting machines:

1. 2. Hot-chamber process use a piston to forces a certain volume of metal into the die cavity through a gooseneck and nozzle Cold-chamber process is where molten metal is poured into the injection cylinder (shot chamber)

Die casting (hot-chamber)

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal under high pressure into the die
High production rates
500 parts per hour not uncommon
Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

Hot-chamber die casting cycle: (1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification (3) Plunger is withdrawn, die is opened, and casting is ejected

Die casting (cold-chamber)

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external melting container, and a piston injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines because of pouring step Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

(1) With die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber (2) Ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification (3) Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is ejected

Die casting
Process capabilities and machine selection
Die casting is able to produce strong and high-quality parts with complex shapes Also produces good dimensional accuracy and surface details Strength-to-weight ratio of die-cast parts increases with decreasing wall thickness

Die casting
Process capabilities and machine selection
Die casting dies can be:

a) b) c) d) Single cavity Multiple cavity (several identical cavities) Combination cavity (several different cavities) Unit dies

Die casting
Advantages:
Economical for large production quantities Good accuracy and surface finish Thin sections possible Rapid cooling means small grain size and good strength in casting
Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low melting points Part geometry must allow removal from die

Centrifugal casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
1. 2. 3. True centrifugal casting Semicentrifugal casting Centrifuge casting

Centrifugal casting (true centrifugal)
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part
In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather than before Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces

Centrifugal casting (semicentrifugal)
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts
Examples: wheels and pulleys
Molds use risers at center to supply feed metal Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of rotation Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away, thus eliminating the portion where quality is lowest

Centrifugal casting (centrifuging)
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of rotation, so molten metal poured into mold is distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force

Used for smaller parts Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal casting methods
Inspection of Castings

Castings can be inspected visually or optically for surface defects Subsurface and internal defects are investigated using various nondestructive techniques In destructive testing, specimens are removed for various sections to test for strength, ductility, and other mechanical properties and to determine for the presence, location, and distribution of porosity and defects Pressure tightness of cast components (valves, pumps, and pipes) is determined by sealing the openings in the casting and pressurizing it with water, oil, or air
Melting Practice and Furnaces
Electric-arc furnaces charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc
Induction furnaces uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal
Crucible furnaces metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture
Cupolas vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping spout near base
Levitation melting involves magnetic suspension of the molten metal
PART III : Metal Casting: Design

Introduction Design Considerations in Casting Economics of Casting
Learning Outcomes

General guidelines for successful casting Design considerations for expendable and permanent mold casting
Economic considerations in metal casting
Introduction
Successful casting practice requires proper control of a large number of variables
Characteristics of the metals and alloys cast, method of casting, mold and die materials, mold design, and various process parameters
Flow of the molten metal in the mold cavities, the gating systems, the rate of cooling, and the gases evolved would influence the quality of a casting
Design Considerations in Casting
All casting operations share the characteristics of phase change and thermal shrinkage during the casting cycle
However, each process have its own design considerations
Sand casting mold erosion and associated sand inclusions in the casting Die casting heat checking of dies which reduce die life
Defects are random and difficult to reproduce and consequently, troubleshooting the causes of defects is complicated
Typically, a mold design will produce mostly good parts and some defective ones, hence, quality control procedures must be implemented for critical applications of castings

General design considerations for castings
2 types of design issues in casting:

a)
b)
Geometric features, tolerances, etc., incorporated into the part Mold features needed to produce the desired casting
Design of cast parts
Corners, angles, and section thickness
Avoid sharp corners, angles, and fillets as they act as stress raisers and may cause cracking and tearing of the metal (also dies) during solidification Fillet radii should be selected to reduce stress concentrations and to ensure proper liquid-metal flow during pouring
If the fillet radii are too large, the volume of material in those regions is large, and consequently, the rate of cooling is lower

Location of the largest circle that can be inscribed in a particular region is critical

Cooling rate in these regions is lower (called hot spots), thus, can develop shrinkage cavities and porosity Cavities at hot spots can be eliminated by using small cores without affecting strength significantly
Maintain uniform cross-sections and wall thicknesses throughout casting to avoid or minimize shrinkage cavities Metal paddings or chills can eliminate or minimize hot spots

FIGURE 2.? Examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining uniform cross-sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities

Flat areas
Avoid large flat areas (plain surfaces) as they may warp during cooling because of temperature gradients, or they develop poor surface finish because of an uneven flow of metal during pouring Solution: Break up flat surfaces with staggered ribs and serrations

TABLE 2.1
Shrinkage
Pattern dimensions should allow for shrinkage of the metal during solidification and cooling Allowances for shrinkage, known as patternmakers shrinkage allowances, usually about 10-20 mm/m

Draft
A small draft (taper) typically in sand-mold patterns to enable removal of the pattern without damaging the mold
Dependent on casting process and size, and type of pattern used In commercial practice, tolerances are 0.8mm for small castings and 6mm for large castings
Dimensional tolerances

Lettering and markings
Part identification; sunk into or protrude from the surface of castings Depends on the method of producing the molds;

In sand casting, a pattern plate is produced by machining on a CNC mill, and it is simpler to machine letters into the pattern plate In die casting, it is simpler to machine letter into the mold
Finishing operations
Consideration of the subsequent machining and finishing operations
If a hole is to be drilled, it is better to locate the hole on a flat surface than on a curved surface to prevent the drill from wandering or a better design, incorporate a small dimple as a starting point for the drilling operations Include feature to allow them to be clamped easily into machine tools

FIGURE 2.? Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in casting

Locating the parting line
A part should be oriented so that the large portion is low and height is minimized
Critical surface should face downwards
Location of parting line influences mold design, ease of molding, number and shape of cores required, method of support, and the gating system

Generally, parting line should be along a flat plane rather than contour Whenever possible, parting line should be at corners or edges rather than on flat surfaces in the middle so that flash will not be visible Parting line should be low for less dense metals and at mid-height for denser metals Whenever practical, avoid the use of cores

Locating and designing gates
Multiple gates are preferable and necessary for large parts allowing lower pouring temperature and reducing temperature gradients Gates should feed into thick sections of castings A fillet should be used where a gate meets a casting, hence, less turbulence than abrupt junctions
Place gate closest to sprue sufficiently far away for easy removal (a few mm for small castings and 500mm for large parts)
Minimum gate length should be 3-5X the diameter
Avoid curved gates

Runner design
1 runner for simple parts; 2-runner systems for complicated castings Runners are used to trap dross (a mixture of oxide and metal that forms on the surface of metals) and keep it from entering the gates and mold cavity
Commonly, dross traps are placed at the ends of runners, and the runner projects above the gates to ensure the metal in the gates is tapped from below the surface

Designing other mold features
Goal in designing a sprue is to achieve the required metal flow rates while preventing excessive dross formation
Turbulence is avoided but the mold is filled quickly compared to solidification time
A pouring basin is used to ensure uninterrupted metal flow into the sprue
If molten metal is maintained in the pouring basin during pouring, dross will float and will not enter mold cavity
Filters are used to trap large contaminants and to slow metal velocity for laminar flow Chills are used to speed metal solidification in a particular region of casting

Establishing Good Practices
Starting with high-quality molten metal is essential for producing superior castings
Pouring temperature, metal chemistry, gas entrainment, and handling procedures can affect the quality of metal being poured
Pouring of molten metal in the mold cavity should experience a continuous, uninterrupted, and upward advance to avoid dross entrainment and turbulence Different cooling rates within the body of a casting cause residual stresses, thus, stress relieving may be necessary to avoid distortions of castings in critical applications
UCSI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING MANUFACTURING PROCESSES BY: MS. KRSHNAWATHY JAN 2011

Design for expendable-mold casting
Expendable-mold processes have specific design considerations, mainly attributed to the mold material, size of parts, and manufacturing method
Mold layout
Features in the mold must be placed logically and compactly with gates as necessary to have solidification initiate at one end of the mold and progress in a uniform front across the casting with the risers solidifying last

Riser design
Six basic rules:

1. Riser must not solidify before casting by avoiding small risers and using cylindrical risers with small aspect ratios (small ratios of height to cross-section) 2. Riser volume must be large enough to provide sufficient liquid metal to compensate for shrinkage 3. Junctions between casting and feeder should not develop hot spot where shrinkage porosity can occur 4. Risers must be placed so that liquid metal can be delivered to locations where it is most needed 5. Pressure must be sufficient to drive liquid metal into locations in the mold where it is needed

Riser design
6. Pressure head from riser should suppress cavity formation and encourage complete cavity filling
Machining allowance
Because most expendable-mold castings require finishing operations, such as machining and grinding, allowances should be made in casting design Machining allowances, which are included in pattern dimensions, depend on the type and increase with size and section thickness of castings
2-5mm for small to >25mm for large castings


Design for permanent-mold casting

Typical design guidelines similar as discussed in FIGURE 2.1 Special considerations in designing tooling for die casting
Designs may be modified to eliminate draft for better dimensional accuracy However, a draft angle of or is required to avoid galling (localized seizure or sticking or material) between the part and the dies and cause distortion
Die cast parts are nearly-net shaped, requiring only the removal of gates and minor trimming to remove flashing and other minor defects
Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of die-cast parts are very good and generally, do not require a machining allowance
UCSI UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING MANUFACTURING PROCESSES BY: MS. KRISHNAWATHY JAN 2011

FIGURE 2.? Examples of undesirable (poor) and desirable (good) casting designs

Poor Good
(a) The lower portion has a thin wall which Eliminates problem and simplify die and may fracture under high forces or impact mold manufacturing (b) Large flat surfaces may warp and develop uneven surfaces Break up the surface with ribs and serrations on the reverse side (does not adversely affect appearance and function) to reduce distortion
(c) Difficult to produce sharp internal radii or Placement of a small radius at the corners corners or periphery at the bottom eliminates the problem

Poor Good
(d) Function of a part, for instance, a knob is Inner periphery has unfunctional to be gripped and rotated, hence, the features but save material and the die is outer features along its periphery easier to manufacture (e) Sharp fillets at the base of the Small radii prevents the die edges form longitudinal grooves means the die has chipping off sharp (knife edge) protrusions and these edges can chip off over extended use (f) Threads reaching the right face of the casting, thus, molten metal can penetrate this region forming flash and interfering with the function of the threaded insert An offset on the threaded insert eliminates this problem

Computer modeling of casting processes
Casting involves complex interactions among material and process variables and so, a quantitative study of these interactions is essential to the proper design and production of high-quality castings Rapid advances in computers and modeling techniques led to innovations in modeling various aspects of casting
Heat flow, temperature gradients, nucleation and growth of crystals, formation of dendritic and equiaxed structures, impingement of grains and movement of liquid-solid interface during solidification
Commercial software programs: Magmasoft, ProCast, Solidia, and AFSsolid
Benefits: Increased productivity, improved quality, easier planning and cost estimating, and quicker response to design changes
Economics of Casting
Cost of each cast part (unit cost) depends on several factors, including materials, equipment, and labor
Each individual factors affects (to varying degrees) the overall cost of a casting operation
Economics of Casting
Cost of product = costs of materials, labor, tooling, and equipment
Producing molds and dies that require raw materials, time, and effort Labor & skills vary Making patterns (RP to reduce costs and time) considerably depending Melting and pouring molten metal into molds on the process and level of automation Heat treating, cleaning, and inspecting castings
Equipment cost per casting will decrease as the number of parts cast increases

High production-rates can justify the high cost of dies and machinery If the demand is small, the cost-per-casting increases rapidly

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CHAPTER 02 CASTING PROCESSES

PART I : Fundamentals of Casting Processes

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Casting process basically involves:

Important considerations in casting operations:

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Alloy in a mushy or pasty state consisting of columnar dendrites

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Width of the mushy zone is described in terms of freezing range, TL - TS

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Macrosegregation involves differences in composition throughout the casting itself

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Two basic principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating design:

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Fluidity of Molten Metal

Viscosity fluidity Surface tension fluidity Inclusions fluidity

Mold design Mold material and its surface characteristics

Degree of superheat fluidity

Solidification time = C (Volume/Surface area)n

= a value between 1.5-2

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BCavities (blowholes, pinholes, shrinkage cavities)

FIGURE 2.? Examples of common defects in castings

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Insufficient fluidity of molten metal Low pouring temperature

Pouring too slowly

Proper casting design

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Uncontrolled solidification Proper riser design Adequate risers and feeders

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Large cross sections or intersections are prone to warping

Allowances can be given along with machining allowance to remove by machining

Proper casting design

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Provide sufficient permeability and vent holes Minimum quantity of water

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Provide sufficient permeability and vent holes Minimum quantity of water

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Use of additives to reduce thermal expansion of sand

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Vertical displacement of the core caused by buoyancy of the molten metal

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Enlargement of mold cavity by metal pressures Insufficient ramming of the sand

Rapid pouring of molten metal

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PART II : Metal Casting Processes

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