Roman Archaeology: Notes

1:TheRomanuseofart,especiallyportraitsandhistoricalreliefsculptures,tomanipulatepublicopinionis similartothecontemporarypracticeofemployingcarefullycraftedimageryinpoliticalcampaigns. 2: back to prehistoric times but by two great civilizations the Greek and the Etruscan. Both had a profoundinfluenceonRomanculture,anditisimpossibletounderstandtheemergenceanddevelopmentof Romanartwithoutthem.BeforetheunificationofItalyinthemid.3rdcenturyBCE,Italywasanamalgamof variousindigenousorGreektribesandsettlementwithsignificantculturaldifferencesandvariations.The interactionsandexchangeofinfluencesamongthepreRomangroupsshouldnotbeplayeddown. 3:MagnaGraecia:GreekcoloniesandthebeginningofGreekinfluence:fromthefoundationofCumaein 750 BCE (also early: Neapolis, Mesina, Naxos) begins a process of cultural exchange and loans as also a process of fermentation. This coexistence and artistic influence will mark the birth and development of Romanartandarchitecture. Paestum:IngeneralKleinerbelievesthatGreekreligiousbuildingsexertedthedeepestinfluencetoRoman architecture;heusestheexampleofPaestum(est.630BCE)nearNaplesinordertopresentsomeofthemain traitsofGreektemplearchitecture.InspecifictheTempleofHeraII(rathertoApollo,ca.460BCE)builton thebasisofTempleofZeusinOlympia. Influence:TheGreektemplehadanaltarinitsEasternside;religiouspracticesweretakingplaceoutside this rule was followed also by the Roman and Etruscan temples. The interior, as in the Greek examples, servedfortheplacementoftheCulticimageofthedeitytowhichthetemplewasdedicated.

Selinus:WhilethetempleofHeralackedanyarchitecturaldecorativereliefs,templeCinSelinus(alsoDoric) boreaseriesofmetopes:Apolloinquadriga,Heracles,Cercopes,PerseusandtheMedusa(onlypreserved). * The Romans adopted both the Doric and Ionic orders for their temples; plus the later Corinthian type column. Greek Statuary: from Greece to Magna Graecia and from there to Rome: again the Greek insistence to harmonygovernedtheoverallsynthesisofstatues(PolykleitosCanonandtheinfluencebyPythagoraslate 6thc.BCE). See:theAgrigentoephebe:almostcontemporarytotheclassicalexamplesproducedinGreece(dated480 BCEidealizedfacialtraits+earlycontraposto=slightmovementofheaps)fromthetempleofDemeter inAkragas/TomboftheDiver:veryimportant:situatedinPaestumisoneoftheuniqueexamplesofGreek monumentalpaintingcoffinlikestructurewithpaintedthe4sides:diverinthecoveranddepictionof Greeksymposiumtothesidestechnique:followinglatestadvancesinGreece:bodiesin,headsandeyes inprofile=movingafarfromthearchaicfrontalrepresentation.Thediverandhissymbolicdivetothewater (akaunderworld)connotesneighboringEtruscanconventionsandthemes.

ETRUSCANS
VillanovanCivilization(8thc.?):firstEtruscaninscriptioninpotteryappearin700BCE;thoughtheearliest Etruscansitespresentstrongcontinuitywiththepreviousculturaltradition,theVillanovian. Practices,potteryanddecorationoftheVillanovians:mostoftheinfowehavecomefromburialcontext:they practicedcremationandoptedforauniquewayofburial:puttheashesinabiconicalcineraryurncovered byanimpastobowlorabronzehelmetonthemoreelaborate(Tarquinia),andthenplacedtheurninawell likepitsealedbyastoneslab.Withinthepitgravetheyalsoplacedofferings:razors,swordsornecklaces.The

biconicalurnswerehandmade,impastocoarse,andboregeometricalmotifs./Alternatively,theurnhadthe formofahut(Vulci):thisisimportantasitistheonlysourceforhowhouseslookedlikethisperiod. CerveteriNecropolis RegoliniGalassi tomb: 7th c. BCE: the exploitation of tin, iron and copper offered the opportunity for economicgrowthevidentinthesettlementsofthiscenturywhichfromsmallvillageshadbeentransformed into sizeable cities / introduction of exotica from elite families and subsequent incorporation through mimicryinlocallevel/abundantorientalmotifsandsubjectsfromtheEastformthedominantrepertoireof thisperiod=bothinGreeceandinItalythisperiodistermedasOrientalizing The aforementioned tomb is situated in Cerveteri: undoubtedly it belongs to an upper class family with connectionsortasteforOrientalizingobjects/goldenjewelry,impastopottery,bronzecauldronsandother elaborateobjects/uniqueisthepindecoratedwith5lionsreminiscentofAsianprototypesandtechniques probablynotutilitarianduetoitsbigdimensions/thetombbelongstoawomanwhowasntcrematedas wasthegeneralpracticeoftheculture/ingeneralostentatiousdisplay+2moregoldenitems:adiskand earringsorbraceletsofbigdimensions. VulciCentaur: firstmonumental stonestatuesinEtruriaaredatedto the 7th century,inthesameperiod whentheGreekstonestatuaryisbornundertheEgyptianinfluence.TheEtruscanexamplespresentaGreek andnotanEgyptianinfluence.BestexampleistheCentaurfoundinthecemeteryofVulci,probablyserving asaguardianofthecemetery.ReproducestheGreekconventionastherearofahorseisattachedtotheback ofaman/maybeinfluencedbysmallerGreekobjectsdepictingcentaursbutthesettingoftheformconnotes that the producer was aware of the archaic Greek conventions concerning the stiffness of the nude male

figureswithhandsattachedtothebody,infrontalposition,andwithaprojectingleg.Thoughtheflathead, thewiglikehairandthebigeyesarereminiscentofEgyptianexamples=theproducerwantedtocompine GreekandEgyptianprototypes. Sarcophagusdeglisposi:mid.6thc.fromthecemeteryofBanditacciainCerveteri/signalsthedepartfrom theclosereproductionofGreekprototypes/theintroductionofadistinctlyEtruscanstyle/thesarcophagus lied in the interior of a monumental tumulus and probably contained the ashes of a couple = another differencewithGreece,wherethisperiodwedonthavemonumentalburials/oncepainted,consistsoffour separatelycastandfiredsections/thecoupleisdepictedreclinedinacouchduringasymposiumEtruscan womenwherepresentinsymposia/thepracticemayhavebeenintroducedtoEtruriaalongsidewiththebig quantitiesofGreekpotterytradedtoEtruriathisperiod/thefiguresarehighlyanimated(incontrastwith thestiffnessofGreekfiguresthisperiod)theproducerseemstohavebeeninterestedmoreontheupper partofthebody/extrovertedastheyarespeakingwiththeviewer Banditaccia cemetery: 6th c. / the arena of conspicuous consumption between elite Etruscan families / monumentaltumulicoveringmultichamberedburialscurvedinthelocallimestonerock(tufa)/thebiggest hasadiameterof130ftand50ftheight/spreadinginanetworkofroads,thetumulicreatetheimpressionof anecropolis. Tomboftheshieldsandchairs:Cerveterinecropolis/elaboratesubterraneantombexcavatedin1834:itsplan isconsideredtoduplicatethefloorplanofaneliteEtruscanhouse/narrowentranceandthroughahall entersthecentralroomwith6curvedintufabeds,2chairs,ceilingbeans,doorframesand14shieldsabove thebeds/evidencefromothertombsindicatethepresenceofterracottafiguresofthedeadplacedonthe chairs.

Tarquiniacemetery Tarquiniaspaintedtombs:Monterozzicemetery:alsohewninrockandprobablyalsocoveredbytumuli/no carvings imitating furniture but painted walls = rare about 200 examples 6000 unpainted / lately archaeologistsuseperiscopeandexcavatethosethatbearpaintedwallstosavemoneyandtime/painting: coatsofclayandlimeplastertosmooththesurfaceofthewallsandtocreateawhitecreamybackground charcoalfiguresaspreliminarysketchandthencolorappliedbybrush Tomb of the bulls: the earliest painted examples are rather simple and usually depict a pair of guardian animals/thistombisthefirstexamplewherepaintingscoverthesetofthewallsandtheceilingandthe depicted figures appear to be part of a continuous narrative / threechambered with the 2 burial rooms openingattherearofthecentrallargeroomthepaintedwallsofwhicharedividedin3zones:pediment, friezeandtherestofwall2bullsonthefriezeattendinglovemakingscenes:onethreesomeheterosexual andonewithahomosexualcoupleraremythologicalscenesdronefromtheGreekmythologyarepresent: BelerephontesandChimaerainthepedimentandAchilleshidingbehindafountainhousewithlionstatues aswaterspoutswaitingtoambushPriamsyoungersonTroilos:Greekconventionindepiction:frontalbody andheadinprofile+naturalenvironment(Etruscanpaintingtrait) TomboftheAugurs:520BC/bearsfiguralscenestoall4wallsofthemainchamber/shiftfromtheTombof thebullsasnowwehavenotmythologicalsubjectsbutritesinhonorofthedeadtakingplaceoutdoors,while alsothedoortothetomb(ortotheunderworld)isdepicted/2malefiguresflankingthedoorwithagesture ofsalutationormourning/atthefarendoftherightwallthereisafigureofastandingmanwithapurple robe (insignia of status) with two servants one carrying a chair / the rest of the walls depict funerary games/ittookitsnamefromanumpireservingasjudgeofthegame(augur)+amaskedman(phersu) holdingtheleashofadog

Tomboftheleopards:oneofthebestpreservedcompositionsofmuralpaintinginTarquinia/namedafter thetwomonstersdepictedinthepedimentoftherearwall/bellow3reclinedcouplesinsymposiumwith femalefiguresdepictedwhitecolor/connections:withthesubjectsfromthesarcophagusdegliSPosiand reminiscent of the arrangements of couches in later Roman symposia / two naked boys serve them and musicians flank the two side walls / the banquet takes place outdoors and could be either funerary or celebrating an anniversary / view of the torso and the head in profile recalls contemporary Greek developmentscontact/funerarybutstillcelebratingaspectsoftheelitelife. Tombofhuntingandfishing:agenerationolderthanthet.oftheLeopards/thereisabanquetscenebutin the rear wall of one of the side chambers / the dominant composition here depicts Etruscans enjoying activitiesinnature:huntingwithslingshot,divingalthoughnaturescenethecolorsarenotnaturalistic butdecorative/noGreekparallelsforsuchanaturalisticrepresentationofthelandscape. Cityplanning:Marzabotto:thereareseveralexcavatedtowns/bestpreservedisthisone(MisainEtruscan?) nearBologna/largeplanofthecityofearly5thc.hasbeenrevealed/regularplan:elongatedrectangular buildingblocksseparatedbystreetsjoinedinrightcornersrunningNSorEW+majorthoroughfaresup to50ft,whilesmallerstreetsupto15ft/How?:scholarssupportthatthisregularityistheoutcomeofthe overallinfluenceofEtruscanreligion(disciplinaEtrusca),whichamongothersimposedtheorientationofthe temples within the city and the planning of the city itself/ Hippodameian or orthogonal plan Selinus followsthesameplan.

Etruscantemples:ingeneralscantyremainsnothingmorethantheirfoundationsbutVitruvius(1stcBCE) in his work De Architectura describes an Etruscan temple: resembled the stone gambleroofed Greek templesbutwithwoodencolumns,tiledroofandmudbrickwallsthetemplestoodonapodiumandhad columnsonlyinitsfrontalnarrowsidewherealsowastheentrancesituated(sotobeseenonlyfromaffront whileGreekfromallsides:peristyleandalsoporchattheback/Vitruviussupportsthattheidealratiois6/5 (while Greek 2/1) / in many cases there were 3 cellae dedicated to different deities / Tuscan columns resembledtheGreekdoriconesthoughtheywerewooden,unflutedandhadabase/statuesrarelyplacedin pedimentsbutinsteadnarrativescenesdepictedthroughterracottafiguresintheridgepole(beamrunning thegambledroof)/bestpreservedexamplesofterracottarooftopfigurescomefromthetempleofMenvra from the Portonaccio sanctuary Apulu, Letun and Hercle and Turms: Greek myth: The Etruscan counterpart of Apollo confronts Heracles for possession of the hind of Ceryneia, a wondrous beast with goldenhornsthatwassacredtoApollossisterArtemis(EtruscanArtumes/RomanDiana).

ClassicalPeriod
Greece enters its Golden Age but Etruria meets its end / the growing power of Rome since ca. 750, the abolitionofthepowerofEtruscankingsandtheestablishmentoftheRomanRepublic(509BC),asalsothe victory of the combined Greek forces of the South Cumae and Syracuse ended the dominance of the Etruscans intheTyrrhenianSea./Bythe mid.4thc.theRomanshadconqueredthe remainingEtruscan lands;390Vulci,351Tarquiniaand273hadconcludedtheannexationofallEtruscancitieswithCerveteri./ This had a major effect also in Etruscan art: although the Etruscan artists kept their contact with the developmentsofGreekart,thoughtheelaboratenessofburialofferingsandthetombsthemselvesdecrease significantly.

Chiusinecineraryurns:aseriesofanthropomorphiccineraryurnscomesfromtheEtruscancityofChiusi (Clevsin)thoughmodestinrelationtoearlierexamples/2types:a)hollowstatuetteofaseatedfemalefigure: MaterMatutarecognizedastheGoddessormorelikelywithamortalasitboretheashesofawoman seated, holding a swaddled infant in her arms, sphinxes in the two sides drapery and the plastic reproductionechoesclassicalGreekprototypesandb)reclinedtypeinthisoccasionamanwithVanth,the deathdemonseatedinhislegsmanwasholdingascrollbearinghisnameandofficesupperbodyand faceboreprofoundinfluencesfromGreekexamplesrepresentingathletes. MarsofTodi:theEtruscanexamplewiththebiggestsimilaritytoGreekclassicaltypes/nearlylifesizebronze statueofawarriorbearingacuirass/foundatMountSantoatTodifromwhichittookitsname/missing helmet, libation plate in his right arm and the lance from the left arm / inscription that Ahal Truitis dedicated the statue / calm and idealized facial features and contraposto = Greek influence that will also survivelaterintheRomantimesforstatuaryportraits. ChimaeraofArezzo:anothermasterpieceofEtruscanbronzecastingincloserelationshipwithmorearchaic Etruscanexamples/foundin1553andhadaninscriptionthatitwasadedicationprobablytoasanctuary/ the Greek mythological monster is depicted here wounded after the struck of Belerephontes but in no occasionbeaten/duetoitsmenacinggazesomescholarssupportedthatitwaspartofabiggercomposition includingatleastthefigureofBelerephontsinhorsebackasinthepaintingfromtheTomboftheBulls. Ficoronicista:exceptforlifesizestatues,Etruscansexcelledalsoinmoremundanebronzeartifactssuchas cistaeormirrors/thecenterofproductopnwasPalestrinawerethebiggestandmostelaborateexamplewas foundtheFicoroniCista(namedafteritsfirstowner)depictinginthelidDionysusflankedby2satyrs+ inscriptionunderthefiguresthatDindiaMalconia,anoblewoman,gavethecistatoherdaughterandthe nameoftheproducerNoviusPlautiuswhoseworkshopwasinRome,anascendingcenterthattime/the

engravedsubjectofthebodyprobablydepictstheArgonautssearchingtheGoldenFleece=scholarsagree thatthesourceofinfluenceshouldhavebeena4thc.GreekpaintingwiththesamesubjectbyKydias:figures inandvariouslevelsofrepresentationechoesGreekparallels. LaterexamplesofEtruscantombswithmuralpainting Tomboftheshields:datedtothe4thc.continuesthetraditionofmuralpainting/inTarquinia/painted mainchamber/tookitsnamefromthepaintedshieldsinoneofthesidechamber=probablythetombofa warrior/themajorityofthefiguresdepictedbearaninscriptionwiththeirnametheownerofthetombis LarthVelchadepictedtwicewithhiswife,VeliaSeithitai:a)oncereclinedinthecouchwithVeliainhisfeet offeringhimanegg=acommonfunerarymotifandb)hisparents:reproductionofhumanfiguresand colorforshadingmusiciansstandstill,c)onanotherwallLarthinprocessionwithmusiciansandservants +aservantcarriesachairforhim/almostallthemembersofthefamilyareinscribed3generationsare present:thistraditionandinsistenceingenealogywillbeinheritedinlaterRoamsociety+offices Tombofthereliefs:lateclassical/Hellenistic:bestexampletheMatunafamilytombinCerveteriknownasthe Tombofthereliefsanddatedtolate4thearly3rdc.BCE/paintedstuccoreliefsdecoratethetwovertical pierscarvedintufatosupporttheceiling:objectssuchasstools,cups,pitchers,knives,adogandropeare beingdepicted/thearrangementandtheobjectsreproducetheimageoftheinteriorofahouse/12niches fortheburialsofthefamily/uponthenicheoftheownerthereisapaintedreliefrepresentationofabed with pillows and above it arms and armor of the owner also in relief flanked by daemonic figure and Cerberus+doordepictedintherearwall/aroundtheroomisaledgedividedin32sectionsforlaterburials ofthefamily Lars Pulena: in general abundance of cinerary urns and sarcophagi / patrons orders, now large stone evolvingfromterracottaexamplessuchasdeglisposi/bestexampledatedtoearly2ndc.isofLarsPulenaon

thelidofwhichthereisalifesizedreliefofthedeceased/thefigureisnotanactualportraitbutrathera genericrepresentationofamiddleagedman/nothappyandconfidentfacesasinthearchaicperiod,the period ofpeak for Etruscans / below the figure a panel where the deceased is presented as having had a successfuljourneytotheunderworlddepictedamongdemonsandCharunsswinginghammers. Ramtha VisnaiandArnthTetnies: large nephron sarcophagus, much earlier than the above / from Ponte RottoNecropolisinVulci/thenamedfromhusbandandwifearedepictedonthefrontofthesarcophagus/ thetwofiguresareembracedwiththehusbandhavingdiedearliertomeethiswifeintheunderworld=scene conveysequalstatusbetweengenders. Volterranurns:Hellenistictimes/lesscostlyfromaworkshopinVolterra/fromtufa or localalabaster/ massively producedbutwithindividualizedtraits/reclinedfigures ofthedeceasedwith emphasison the head,whichisproportionallybiggerthanthebody/variousnarrativescenesfrommythologyoreverydaylife /displayedinrowsinVolterrantombs/asinInghiramitomb:circularmainchambercarvedinthenatural tufa. PortaMarzia:ingeneral,duetotheperishablecharacteroftheEtruscanbuildingmaterialsforhouses,only theirfoundationsarepreserved/thoughtheyusedsturdiermaterialsasstonefortheirfortifications/the bestpreservedexampleisthePortaMarzia(2ndc.BCE)inPerugiafromwhichonlytheupperpartsurvivesas itwasincorporatedina16thc.fortificationwall/threeprojectingfigures,probablydivinities(Zeus,Castor and Poludeukes), decorated the arch / the arch bears pilasters (flatcolumns) this trait will be a standardizedfeatureoflaterRomanarchitecture Aule Metele: one of the latest Etruscan art survived / near Cortona / depicting magistrate Aule Metele addressingtheassemplybyraisinghisrighthand/1stc.BCE=theEtruscansstillhaditwithbronzecasting /datedprobablyaftertheendofthesocialwarsin89hisnameandfamilynamesareinscribedinhis

Romantoga/facialcharacteristicsandgestureechosimilarportraitsproducedinRomeinthesameperiod/ Etruscanonlybyname=totalRomanization+EtruscanartbecameRoman

FromVillagetoWorldCapital
RomeundertheKings VillageofRomulus:mythandreality/uponthePalatineHill,totheWofthelaterImperialPalaces,aseriesof cuttingstothebedrockandpostholescorrespondtoremainsofwattleanddaubhouseswiththatchedroof/ thehouseshadroughlyrectangularplanandsomeboreaporchtothesideoftheentrance/althoughitis extremely risky to connect archaeological reality with the founding myth of Rome these two could be connectedchronologically/accordingtothemythRomuluskilledhisbrotherandbecamethefirstking/ lateron,from8thto6thc.aseriesofLatinkingsreignedinRome,whichduringthisperiodwasnotmore thanahumbleandperipheraltothebloomingGreekandEtruscancities TheTarquinsandtheCapitolium:thechronology ofEtruscan kingsrullingRomeisuncertain/based on reconstruction Tarquinius Priscus during the 6th c. seems to introduce us to more secure ground. His grandson Tarquinius Superbus was the last Etruscan king of Rome / before he had been overthrown by RomansbecauseofhistyrannicalrulehefoundedthetempleofJupiterOptimusMaximusintheCapitoline Hill/theCapitoliumbecamealmostthetemple/symbolofthecityandhasbeenrebuiltseveraltimesinthe passageoftimeintheverysamespot/fromthe6thc.templesurviveonlyitsfoundationswhichprovideus someinfoonitsplan/Vitruviusisalsohelpful:thetemplehad3discreetcellae:Jupiterinthecentralcella andJunoandMinervaattheleftandrightrespectively/infrontofthecellaewere3rowsofsixcolumnsand hadalsoformasinglecolonnadeinitswingsBUTnotattherearside(reminiscentoftheEtruscantempleas

describedfromVitruviusbutwiththe2additionalsidecolonnades/mudbrickwalls,woodencolumnsand roofcoveredwithterracottatiles/overallwasEtruscaninessencefollowingthecustomary7/6ratio:sources supporttheintroductionofartistsandworkersfromEtruriaforitsconstruction VulcaofVeii:consideredasthemostprominentEtruscanartistofthattime/accordingtosourceshewasthe creatoroftheJupiterSatueandoftheterracottagroupsontheroofofCapitolium/ontheRoofJupiteris depicteddrivinghisquadriga/hisfacewaspaintedred=thisbecamesofavoritethatRomansoldiersusedto painttheirfaceredduringtriumphalprocessionsaftervictoriesinwar.

RomeandLatiumundertheRepublic
Capitoline Wolf: through time has caused much ambivalence among scholars some even said that it is Medieval/thebronzecastedsymbolofRomeslightlybiggerthanlifesizedepictstheshewolfwhoaccording totraditionsavedandraisedtheexposedRomulusandRemus:AmuliusdeposedNumitorhisbrotherfrom powerandmadehisnieceRheaSilviaavestalVirgininordertoprotecthimselffromapossiblecoupfrom thedescendantsofNumitor;thoughMarsafteranintercoursewithRheagavebirthtoRomulusandRemus; AmuliusorderedtobeabandonedandthrowninTiberinsideabasket;theywerefoundbytheshewolfand raisedbyher untiltheShepherdFaustulusfoundthem;theygrewup,killedAmulius andreenstablished Numitor;afterthefoundedtheirownsettlementinCapitolineHill./theShewolfcouldnotbecharacterized asRomanpieceofartitstraitsareprimarilyEtruscanafactthatpoints(ifitsdatingiscorrect)thatupto this point no formal mainstream Roman art has been developed / ++ the suckling infants are later Renaissanceadditions/tenseformwithunderlinemusculaturebodypartsechopowernaturalismand decorativedisposition/becamethesymboloftheRepublicstillistheemblemofthecity.

ServianWalls:erroneouslyattributedtothe6thc.KingServiusTuliuswhoindeedbuiltearthenfortification circuitbackthen/weshoulddateitafterthesackbytheGaulsin390BCE/constructedbytufaashlar masonryfromthenearbyGrottaOscuraquarryencircledthecityinalengthof7,5miles12ftthickandup to30fttall/thebestpreservedpartislocatedtodayintheAventineHillandincorporatedanarchof87BCE whichofferedthepossibilitytothedefendersofthecitytoattacktheinvadersbythrowingmissiles TempleofHercules,Cori:exposureoftheRomanstotheGreekcitiesoftheSchangedtheirattitudetowards thematerialsusedbytheEtruscansfortheirpublicandreligiousbuildings;spec.theRomansadoptedstone asabuildingmaterialwithoutthoughtototallyrejectallEtruscantraditions:thustheycreatedahybrid/the templeofHerculesatCoriisagoodexample:wearenotsureaboutthepatrongodofthetempleitwas builtbythelate2ndorearly3rdc.BCEby2localmagistratesMarcusMatliusandLuciusTurpiliusinplan itfollowsthetraditionalformofEtruscanshrines:ithasadeepporchonahighpodium;theporchisbigger thanthecellabutthedifferenceisthatthecolumnsaremadebystone(andnotwoodasEtruscandid)and thatthecolumnsandthefriezeresemblestheGreekDorictemple=flutedcolumnsshafts(slenderasthe contemporaryGreekones)andafriezewithmetopesandtriglyphshybridformwhichwillbecometherule forRepublicantemples. TempleofPortunus,Rome:knownasthetempleofFortunaVirilisisactuallydedicatedtoPortunus,theGod ofports,75BCElocatedattheEbankofTiber/combinestheEtruscanplanwithIonicelements/high podium with porch consisted of freestanding columns / columnsmade by travertine and the rest of the buildingbytufa:bothboreawhitishstuccoprobablyimitatingtheimpressionconveyedbythemarbleGreek temples/otherGreekimitatingfeature:aseriesofattachedhalfcolumnstothesidesandrearwallsinorder toprovideaperipteralimpression=birthofpseudoperipteraltype=theessenceofRomaneclecticism

LargoArgentinaTemples:remainsof4Republicantemples/unknownpatrondeitiessoknownastemples AD/noexactdate:notsimultaneouslybutbeginningfromearly3rdc.BCE+aseriesofremodelinguntil the1stc.BCE/important:thefrontalorientationofRomantemplesisstillthereeveningroupsofreligious buildings standing sideby side / temple D: lice Cori / Temple C: has columns at its alae as Jupiter Capitolinus/TempleAisararecaseofRepublicanperipteraltemple/TempleB:firstrecordedcaseoftholos shapeunprecedentedinEtruriaandalthoughinfluencedbyGreekprototypes(DelphiTholos4thc)differs onthefactthatwhileGreektholoiarealsoperipteraltheyboreaflightofstairsallaroundthebuildingin thisexamplestairsarepresentonlyatthesideoftheentrance TempleofVesta,Rome:builtafter146BCbyLuciusMummiusthegeneralthatfoughtarevoltinGreeceand destroyedCorinthasitwascustomaryforvictoriousgeneralsreturningtoRomehebuiltatempleinhonor ofHeculesVictorfulfillingavowmadewhileincampaign/somescholarsidentifythistemplewitharound buildingnexttothetempleofPortunusbutthisidentificationisratherstrenuousasmostbelievethatthisis thetempleofVesta/builtcompletelyofGreekmarbleitalsobearstheuniquetraitofGreektholoiasitbears acontinuousflightofstairstoitsperimeter/thoughextrastairssignifytheentrance=Romantrait/++ Corinthiancolumns TempleofVesta,Tivoli:early1stc.BCE/roundtemplewithCorinthiancolumns/friezebytravertinebears decorationofgarlandscarriedbyoxenreminiscentofanimalsacrifice/highpodiumandflightofstairsonly inentrance/thecellaintroducesaninnovativematerial,concreteandnotstonemasonryasinGreece/the podiumsofthemostRepublicantemplesarealsomadebyconcrete PorticusAemilia,Rome:thefirstmassiveuseofconcreterecorded/hugewarehouse(533x66yards)/erected by2magistrates,MarcusAemiliusLepidusandM.A.Paullusin193BCEandreconstructedin174BCE/E bankofTiberwhereenormouscargoeswereunloadedcomingfromOstia/theflooroftheriverisaccessible

throughaflightofstairsinordertobeliftedhigherthantheriversbanks/oneachleveltherearebarrel vaultedunits(ca.200)withpiercedlongedsidesinordertocreateacontinuousspace/windowsinfrontand rearworldforlighting Market Hall, Ferentino: barrel vaults from cement springing from masonry piers and arches / earliest remainsfromFerentionoisaseriesofbarrelvaultedtabernae(shops)opentoalongbarrelvaultedchamber /absenceofwindowsindicatetheearlyandratherexperimentalcharacterofthistype ForumRomanum:heartoftheRomanRepublic/initiallyitwasamarshyareausedasaburialplaceforthe residentsofPallatineHillthetimesofRomulus/oneofthefirstbigscaleearthenworksinRomewasthe drainage of this marshy place and the raising of its ground as to be protected from gathering waters / remodeledsignificantlyatthetimesofAugustusend1stcBCEbutmanyofitsfeaturesretainedthrough time: curia (senate house), the Rostra or speakers platform and two basilicas (columnar halls for administrativeandlegalproceedingsofthestate)/BasilicaAemiliawasbuiltbythesamededicatorsasthe PortaAemilia(MarcusAemiliusLepidusandM.A.Paullus) SanctuaryofHercules,Tivoli: the most elaborate Republican example of the theatretemple type: a temple placedabovethesemicircularseatingareaofatheatre/theatricalperformancewerenotexclusivelysecural eventsbutwereinsteadincorporatedinreligiousfestivals/thetheatretempletypeusuallyincludedporticos containing shops or barrelvaulted tabernae beneath the terraces supporting the temple and porticoes / foundeduponarockylandscapetheybuiltuponaplatformbyopusincertumfacedcement/theroadthat broughtpeople from Rome to Tivoli, the Via Tributina, ended in a large barrelvaulted covered extension (28ftwide)oftheroadrunningbeneaththesanctuaryandbecameanundergroundshoppingmallwitha seriesofbarrelvaultedtabernae/theporticoofthesanctuaryrepresentsthenextstepintheuseofmaterials:

it is totally made by cement and stone is completely absent / even the attached columns were made by incertumopus. SanctuaryofJupitter,Terracina:SofRomebythecoast/platformsurvives/somewhatearlierthantheTivoli sanctuary/atopMountSanAngeloandViaAppiaconnectingRomewithNaples/littlesurvivesfromthe pseudoperipteralCorinthiantemplewithabroadsixcolumnfaadebuttheplatformiswellpreserved/the platforms arcade overlooks the sea and it is special as the architect has abolished any Greek element: concrete walls of opus incertum. Behind the arcade is a long barrelvaulted corridor which support the platformandthetempleabove. SanctuaryofFortunaPalestrina:late2ndc.BCE/moreimpressiveandinnovativefromtheabovealthough earlier/builtuponseveralterracesleadinguphillandculminatesinatholosaboveatheatre/echoesthe examplesofthecolossalGreekSanctuariesofthe2ndc.BCEwithsuccessiveporticoesleadinguphilltoabig rectangulartemple/ButtotallyRomanmeans:seriesofconcretebarrelvaultstosupporttocoverthegrat rampsleadingtogreatstaircaseasalsotogiveshapetotheshopsalignedintwolevels/Thelowerlevelof shops has a columnar portico with two recessed hemicycles behind which are annular (curving or ringshaped) barrel vaults. The vaults are especially elaborate and covered with coffers (quadrangular recesses).CofferedceilingsarecommoninfinemarblearchitectureinGreece,butatPalestrinathecoffersare concrete. They were formed by pouring the concrete into intricately shaped wooden molds. Once dry, the opusincertumfabricreceivedastuccoveneeratagreatcostsavingsversuscarvedstonecoffers.

RepublicanTownPlanningandPompeii ThesackofthecitybytheGaulsin390andtheurgentneedforimmediaterebuildingisoneofthemajor factorsthatRomelackedinregularityandstraightthoroughfares/Livyinformsusonthehastilyrebuilding ofthecity/weshouldalsotakeintoconsiderationthehillyterrainofthecity TownPlanning:othertownsthoughpresenttheregulartownplanningknownastheHippodamean