Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
8 O A
A
B^S./
THE
PRACTICAL
DOMESTIC,
MANUAL TOILET
OP
MANUFACTUBB OTHER
OF
AND
80AP8.
1^
BY
GEOKGE
MEMBBB
R
CHBMIOAL
F.C.S. IjLURST,
INDUSTBT OF LONDON
OP
THE
800IBTY
OF AND
; HON0UB8
IN8TITUTR
MBDALUBT
OF
THE
OITT
GUILDS
ILLUSTRATED
WITH
66
ENGRAVINGS.
LONDON:
SCOTT,
M
10, 21
GKEENWOOD
PUBUSHERS
OF
THE
"
CO.,
dnb
AND
"o(6iirman^"
23
^oumoC,
HILL,
LUDGATE
ELC.
1898.
c\'
?
"
^
^
^X
^^
'*
"
"j
f^
"H'ajLilAL Q
'^"r/^
PREFACE.
has already appeared of this book substance in the form of articles in the pages of the Oil and These Colourman's Journal articles were received
with
so
The
much
favour
that it has
together
been
in book form. For this reprint them purpose the articles have been thoroughly revised and to bring the new matter added up to date.
and
subject
write has
The
author
on
has
not
attempted
to
complete
treatise
Soap
in
a
Manufacture,
but
aimed
manner
at
presenting
clear
manufacture,
with
au
of the
raw
materials
used
and
the scientific
to several engineering
to
chapter
on
Soap
GEORGE
Chemical
22
H.
HURST.
Laboratory, Blackfriars
Street,
Manchester.
Salford,
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Introductory."
I.
PAOBS
Soap
"
Nature
of Soap"
Action
of Soap
1 to 5
CHAPTER
Soap-maker's
Manufacture
Ajukalies.
^
"
Alkalies
"
Soda
"
Soda"
Caustic
Soda
"
Crystals
"
Caustic
"
Potassium
Lyes
"
Potashes Alkalimetry
"
Caustic
of
Potash
"
Phosphate
"
Soda
Silicates
.
of
.
Soda
,
Common
Salt"
Lime
6 to 53
CHAPTER Soap
Fats
and
III.
and
Oils.
Fats of
"
"
Composition Glycerine
"
Properties
Fatty
"
of
"
Oils
and Occurrence
of Animal
Soap
and
"
Acids
Animal
Oils
"
Fats
Extraction
of Vegetable
Refining
"
Bleaching
"
Solvent
Extraction
"
Lard
Bone
Grease Oil"
Animal
Fats
Tallow
Oil" Lard
Oil
"
Palm
Oil"
OilLinseed Rape
Coconut
Oil
"
"
Olive
Oil" Oil"
"
Cottonseed Cacao
Oil
"
Castor
Oil" Corn
Greases
Butter"
Grease"
"
Oil
Recovered
"
Currier's
"
Yorkshire
.
Grease
Fuller's Grease
Oleic Acid
Rosin
54
to 157
CHAPTER
Perfumes.
" "
IV.
"
Bergamot
"
"
Oil
of Cloves
^Anise Caraway
"
Cassia"
"
Coriander
"
Lemon
Grass
"
"
Geranium
"
"
Lavender "Musk"
Neroli
"
Orange
Sassafras
Myrbane
.
Star
.
Anise
.
.
Artificial Musk"
158
to 169
Vlli
CONTEi^TS.
CHAPTER
V.
PAGES
Water
as
Soap
Material
170 to 176
CHAPTf"R
Soap
Machinery. Blowers
"
VI.
Fat Tanks
"
"
Alkali
Pans"
Fat
"
Soap
Soap Whirls"
Soap Soap
Pans
Steam-heated
Soap
"
Pans" Frames
"
Pressure Frames
Soap
Boilers
Soap
Wooden
Soap"
"Iron Machines
"
Soap
"
Frames Soap
Slabbing
"
Slabbing Machines
Machines
Barring
Soap
"
Stamping
Toilet
Soap Crushing
"
Soap
"
Cutting
"
Soap
Crutching
Machines
Machines
.
.
"
Soap
Pumps
Soap
177 to 223
CHAPTER
Technology
Domestic
of
VII.
of SoapsMethods of Soap-
Soap-making."
"
Classification
Soaps
"
Saponification" Soap
"
Boiling
"
Salting
"
Out
"
Boiling
Pale
on
"
Fitted
"
Soaps Soap
Common
"
Soap
Soap
Brown
Pale Soap"
"
Crown
Soap
"
"
Primrose Soaps
"
Mottled Soaps
"
Soaps
"
Curd
Paraffin
Soaps
Filled
Silicated Working
Soaps
Cold
"
Cold
Process
of Soap-making
cess"Filling Pro-
Cold-process
Pressure under Saponification Milled Toilet
"
Soaps Soap
"
"
Soap-making
Oleic
under
Acid
Hydrated
"
Soaps
Soaps
"
"
Pressure
Toilet
Soaps
"
Colouring
"
Soaps
Industrial Soaps
"
Soaps
"
Special Soaps
"
Soaps Soap
"
Medicated
. .
Soft Soap
Dry
Powders
224
to 316
CHAPTER
Glycerine
in
VIII.
in Fats" from
Soap
Lyes.-
Glycerine
Properties Soap
Lyes
316
to 325
of Glycerine"
Recovering
Plant
Glycerine
"Glycerine
CHAPTER Laying
out
a
IX.
a
Soap
Factory."
Planning
Soap
Factory
326
to
333
CONTENTS.
IX
CHAPTER
X.
PA0B8
Soap
Soap of Soap"Sampling for Analysis" in Soap Fat in Soap Water ^Alkali in Soap Mineral Matters in Soap ^Rosin and other Fats in Soap" Soap Analyses
Analysis."
Constituents
"
"
"
"
334
to 366
Appendices"
A.
Hydrometer
367 367
368
369
B. Hydrometer
C. Thermometric
D. Gravities
of Oils of Caustic
E. Gravities F. Gravities
Soda
Potash
Lyes
Lyes
....
370
...
of Caustic
372
372 373
G.
H.
Fats
in Milk
of Lime
K. Glycerine
L.
Solutions
Soap
Frame
Hadfield's
Index
LIST
na.
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS.
I'AQK
1. Caustic 2. Lye
Lye
Apparatus
24
26
Tank
3. Tallow
4. Fat
Rendering
Chamber
69
Rendering
Boiler Fat
Fat
Plant
70 72
73
6. Fat
6. Steam
Boiler Boiler
7. Steam
8. Bone
9. Bone
74
76
Boiler Grease
Plant
78
Mill Mill
Kettle Rolls Machine
.
Crushing Grinding
81 82 83
IL
Oil Seed
Heating Crushing
Moulding
87
88
89
90
15. Hydraulic
16. Oil Cake
Oil Press
Moulds
17. Castor
18. Castor
Seed
Decorticator
,93
92
Seeds
Tank
'
95
20. Oil Filter Press 21. Oil Bleaching 22. Oil Extraction 23. Oil Extraction
24. Oil Extraction
97
.
Boiler
.103
Apparatus
Apparatus
107
108
.
Apparatus
Ill
25. Lye
26. Fat
179
180
27. Stock
181 182
183
Soap
Soap
186
187
188
Whirl
Soap Soap
Boiler Frame
33. Pressure
189 191
192
34. Wooden
35. Iron
Soap
Frame
Xll
LIST
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG.
PAGE
36. Whitaker's
Soap Soap
Soap Machine
Frame
193
194 196
37. Morgan's
38. Slabbing
Frame
39. Slabbing
40. Soap
41. 42. 43.
44.
197
.
.
Waggon
Barring Barring Cutting
Stamping
Soap
Soap Soap
Machine
Machine Machine Machine Machine Machine
.199 200
.
201
203
205
206
46. 46.
Stamping
Stamping
207
208 209 210
212
47. Soap
48. Soap
49.
Machine
Machine Machine Machine
Machine
Soap
50. Soap
51.
Soap
213
.
62. Soap
Crushing Squeezing
Squeezing
214
^3. Soap
54. Soap
215
216
Machine Machine
217
218
221
57. Soap
58. Soap
...
222 322
Plant Plant
323
324
of Soap Works 65. Plan of Soap Works 66. Hadfield's Soap Frame
.375
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTORY.
SOAP.
I.
Soap
has
been
known
from
very
Greek
writers
Aristophanes,
348
who
B.C.
lived about
and
a.d.
by Plato, who
79, states that
lived about
soap
was
Pliny, who
by
the
died in
first invented
from
Gauls, and
and
gives
an
account
of its manufacture
alkali
fat, the
from
the ashes of
wood,
earths, by which
was
it is presumed
from the fat of
lime
goats
is meant.
and
other
The ashes
best soap
made
the
of beechwood,
but
ashes.
it
was
also made
also gave
from
an
forms
of fat and
wood
Pliny and
account
of lead
soap
its
use
in
medicine.
of
been found
The earlier Arabian alchemists the ruins of Pompeii. among in their writings speak of soaps being used for detergent It may be added that purposes, and for personal application.
of soap, and
even
up
to the
present
of wood,
together
appear
were
largely used for washing and cleansing. Up to about the fourteenth century the
were
Spaniards
About
and
ItaUans
the
largest makers
1
of soap.
the thir-
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
teenth
or
fourteenth
century
soap-making
was
by the Phoceans,
themselves
the
at Marseilles, which
a
remained
seat of
very extensive
natural
conveniences,
giving the needful wood ash, while the seaweed of the sea yielded the barilla needful for the manufacture of hard soap, lime for the causticising was readily obtained,
France favoured the growth of while the climate of Southern ingredient, olive oil,of the olive trees, from which the main Being situated on the seathe Marseilles soap was obtained.
coast, Marseilles
was
oil from
Italy, and
of olive
It is somewhat
soap-making
was
first
the
the
introduced
into England,
century,
was
but it would
came
fourteenth
French patent
and
to
us
method
long
practised.
was
relating to soap-making
have
no
granted
been
issued.
Until about
improvements
made,
then Leblanc
his process
soda
soda
from
salt, and
gradually
Leblanc
in soap-making.
The
foundation
upon
invention
of Chevreul
in soap-making
on
is largely based
of fats, and
th^e chemistry
that of Leblanc,
upon
this work,
upon
together
with
which
soap-making
is
to-day
conducted
has
been
based.
NATURE OF SOAP.
As ordinarily understood
soap
and
is the product
obtained by
with
animal
vegetable
fatty matters
other of the caustic alkalies in a variety of ways, the The product being used for cleansing purposes of all kinds.
and
Uberates
from
it the
SOAP.
substance
known
as
glycerine,
of
an
while
the
every
one
is acquainted,
to
and
the The
of which is the
as
must most
be known
commonly
all persons.
one
used, and
yields what
known
the hard
another
kind
of soap
soaps, while the alkali potash yields is known As the as soft soap. which is dealt with in detail in another fully here. It to discuss it more
compounds
as,
chemistry
of soap-making needful
out
chapter, it is not
may
be pointed
that
alumina,
various
etc., are
known,
and
some
of them usage
compounds
of service in
term
directions, but
in
common
the
soap
is
potash
already
alluded
ACTION
OF
SOAP.
That
soap
is of very
material
and
of
has
dirt and
long
grease from
known, known,
clothes
the
of persons
been
but
manner
in which
depends
a
it acts
upon
a
is not
equally
of
causes,
well
and
probably
are
variety
while
have
some
of which
a
of
physical
nature,
others
are
of
chemical
nature.
as
Many
investigations
been
made
by various
the
persons
to the cleansing
property.
Probably
exerts
an
simplest
would
the
be that
the
soap
emulsifying
accompany
greasy
matters
which
always
enables it to
the
soap is
become
diffused through
with
which
accompanied.
The
alkali
no
doubt
plays
an
important
all-important
same
silicate of soda
aluminate
of soda
action
as
the
kalali of soap.
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
There when
to
more
a
is
no
doubt
that water
a
has
some
soap ;
large quantity
on
itdissolves
cooling
less turbid.
an
Another
feature which
must
is that there is
be shown
few
by dissolving
of phenol-
piece of soap
in alcohol, adding
and
drops
phthalein
solution
on
allowing
water
the
into
jar;
pouring
into the
solution
jar the
acquires
soap gradually
a
becomes
the
reddish tint
showing
of free alkali.
Messrs.
Wright
upon
and Thompson
have
conducted
series of
upon
experiments
soap, and
this
the subject,
action
of water
they have
determined
^
the amount
;
of hydrolysis by
are
using various
quantities of water
:
"
their results
given in
The
are
It is to be noted
palm-oil
a
soap
and much
more
coconut-oil
soap, while
cotton-oil soap is
ACTION
OF
SOAP.
than any
other kind.
The
reaction
which
takes
:
"
place may
perhaps
be expressed
Sodium Stearate.
in the following
Water.
equations
Sodium
Caustic
Soda.
Add
Stearate.
NaC,"H"02 2NaC,8Hsa02
+
H^O
NaOH
KC^JlJ)^
upon
an
action
in
saponifying
emulsifying
grease
with
which
purposes,
away.
it is
and
broughljrftUGontact, when
therefore to enable
used
for washing
and
it to be
removed
washed
In is set
some^HWfthe
free may The
small
percentage
operation.
soap, with
which
may
be combined
is of very
material
importance
regards its cleansing effects ; there is a considerable variation in regard to the hardness of a soap, and naturally the harder the soap the smaller the quantity that will be rubbed
off it when
much
it is used. than
a
soap made
more
made from
from
tallow
or
is very
coconut
harder
soap
olive
from
oil, and
it takes
of water
therefore
which
average
may
the
quantity
in
a a
well-made
of soap may
be taken
13 to 16 30
to 36
at 20 per cent., in
toilet soap
soaps
there they
be
as
low from
as
per
cent.
In
low-grade
more
it may
reach
water
are
is present
the
softer they
and
the
more
easily
Again soaps vary in their solubility in water ; rubbed away. thus, for instance, while the oleate of soda is soluble in 10
parts of water,
of water
the
stearate
of soda
a
requires material
of
a
about
100 parts
on
This has
influence
the
the
washing
lathering
properties
lasting properties, soaps from oil olive oil and cotton-seed lather better but are rather more wasteful than soaps made from tallow and
palm
oil.
CHAPTER
SOAP-MAKER'S
II.
ALKALIES.
of soap
two
materials
or
are
required
are
(1)
in
(2) the
detail.
more
alkah.
The
fat
fats which
used
the preparation
chapter
in
some
for there is
salts used
that
be used, and
the alkaline
in soap-making.
a
Whenever
highly
or
like sodium
hydroxide,
hydroxide,
lime
caustic potash
or even
SOH,
lead
or
calcium
hydroxide,
slaked
CaHgOg,
is boiled with a fat, the latter undergoes oxide PbO, is called saponification ; that is, there is produced a what body which is known as article of great domestic soap, an
and
commercial
In
use,
together chapter
with
another
body
known
as
glycerine.
shown that
are
the
dealing
with
the soap
fats it is
they
are
combinations
as
of sundry
acid bodies,
the base,
which
generally known
or, as
the
glyceryl, of glycerine,
to show
chemists
that
as
far
as
its chemical
Taking,
almost
relations
are
concerned
a
it
is allied to the
alcohols.
for instance,
typical oil,
tribasic compound,
so
oleic acid is
equivalent
of
;
only
monobasic
requires
body,
that
one
chemical
glyceryl
ihree chemical
equivalents
:
"
to form
olein
^18^3302
ClgHggOg
COMPOSITION
OF
FATS.
is
compound
of
to those
present
are
in olein.
boiled with the alkaline bodies named
forms
When
above
the
splits oflfand
glycerol, while
soap,
as
the
is shown
equations
:
"
The
soaps
which
are
formed
and
by
the
alkaUne
earttis
(calcium, barium,
copper,
those and
strontium,
metals
the
magnesium),
lead,
iron,
;
the
generally, are
alkali
metals
insoluble in water
formed
by
(potassium, sodium,
lithium)are
domestic
and other
soluble in water, hence these only are used in the fact that lime and industrial work, although
metals of for
will form
various
insoluble
useful
soaps
has
been
taken
advantage
purposes.
The
alkalies
here,
and
sodium although
magnesia. The
and
a
potassium
word
or
be
dealt with
lime
two
said concerning
term
alkali
comes
down
to
us
from
Arabic it
was
times ;
used
to
its meaning
denominate
saline body
efflorescence
often
on
found
in the
more
hot
Eastern
cHmes
as
the
soil, and
especially of rubbish
and
;
an
in the neighbourhood
heaps.
of stables and
was
This
alkali
of
very
composition
to its
source
varied somewhat
the
in its composition
according
was
property
which
gave
it value
that
of forming
8 with than
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
emulsion
powers
oil, and
this emulsion
or
had
the alkali.
due
of the As
course
was
carbonate
of time
and
went
caustic
on
forms
it was
found
similar body
was
obtained
a
which
found
to
leave
possessing
alkali.
These
stronger
alkaline
original
gradually
usurped
the
name
to themselves.
an
Then alkaline
it
was
ascertained
on
that seaweeds
character
combustion,
on
which
found from
to be different in
their action
made
oils than
the ashes
than
wood,
the soap
they
that made
came
by wood
ashes,
"
consequently
kinds
of alkali
to be
recognised
marine
and,
alkali from
seaweeds,
vegetable
began
alkali from
two
trees;
moreover,
"
the soap-makers
to produce
kinds
of soap from
hard
soap from
the first-mentioned
Then
the
fact that
by treatment
be
converted
with burnt lime these alkaline bodies could into stronger bodies, the caustic alkalies, came
out,
to be
found
also
and
that these
had
use
more
action
on
the
fats Then
was
recognised
came
and
made
of in soap-making.
finally
by Sir Humphrey
Davy
were
of two
he named
sodium,
these metals
it
will be sufficient to say that sodium has since become of some industrial importance ; they are soft metals, considerably fresh they lighter than water, on which they float. When
have
a
silver-white appearance,
to the
but
soon
become
oxidised
on
exposure
coated with a film of oxide ; air, becoming floats with Sodium on water they have an energetic action. the evolution of hydrogen, a hissing sound, while and causes hydroxide,
remains
in solution.
Po-
ALKALIES.
9
the hydrogen
tassium
which
has
rather
more
fire, and
bums
owing
to
the
remains
water
"
The
alkaline compounds
are
which
named
water,
are
of most
as
interest
to
the
soap-maker
the two
above
the
result of the
action
of the
metals which
on
viz,, sodium
hydroxide,
or
caustic soda,
potassium
of which
and
has
or
the chemical
formula
NaOH,
and
hydroxide,
is KOH,
as
formula
these alone
capable
of acting upon
forming
forms
of soap.
Besides
these
or
carbonate,
metals, sodium carbonates of the same it is better known sium soda, NagCOg, and potasor
carbonate,
potash,
KgCOg,
also, merit
attention
as
which
the caustic
manufactured.
While
it is only the caustic alkalies which have the property of saponifying fats, as has been pointed out above, yet
caustic and with
and
both
the
combine
case
soap
and alkalies will act upon carbonate the fatty acids to form soaps ; in the former formed, while in the only products water are
at the
same
time.
The
manufacture
of soda
many
is
now
one
of the
industries known,
alkalies used in soap-making, soda occupies the firstplace, the two forms, carbonate NagCOg and caustic
Of the
two
10
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
NaOH,
and
these will
now
soda whose
a
sodium, virtually
chemical
justbeen
given.
or
It is
compound
acid gas
commerce
sodium.
carbonicinto It comes
Soda
ash,
more
or
carbonate. anhydrous
carbonate
on
Eefined
alkali, almost,
if not
quite, pure
as
; this form
calcined soda
the continent.
Soda
the form
crystals, known
as
sal soda
in America
; this
is in
contains 10 molecules of water of crystallisation ; it has the formula Na^COglOHgO. Crystal carbonate or crystal soda ; this is in the form of
of water of crystallisation
small crystals, and contains one molecule NagCOgHgO. ; it has the formula
The work The forms
mostly
medicine
material
; it has
NaHCOg.
of the
for the
different
of carbonate the
of soda
of sodium of Le-
having
blanc
made.
formula
NaCl,
seaweeds
constituted
it
was
There
are
two
from
as
the
Leblanc
the
process,
latter being
the
bids fair to be the chief process of the future. intended here to enter into a minute account of the details because, as a rule, soap-makers do not of the manufacture,
make
which It is not
their A
own
alkah, and
are
not
thereby
details.
brief account
of the various
processes
will be given.
SODA.
11
was
The
Leblanc
soda
process
invented
by
Nicholas the
Leblanc
during
if it did nothing
world. It is due
the Leblanc
skill that the process has attained the perfection it has, although in the main principles it is justthe same Leblanc firstdescribed it. as when
enterprise and
takes soda by this method of making in several stages. In the first place, salt is mixed there is evolved acid in iron pans, when sulphuric process
The
quantities
of hydrochloric-acid
gas.
In
the
early
days
this gas was sent into the atmosphere, alkaU-making much to the detriment tricts disof the vegetation of the surrounding
by passing the gases up large towers, down whicjia current of water is continually passing. The and almost if not acid gas is very soluble in water,
quite
all of
; but now
it is absorbed
it is taken
**
up
tower
by
the
water
to form
what
is
commonly
known
as
salts," the
commercial
form
of hydrochloric
acid.
Besides
or
the hydrochloric
as
acid, there
**
".
is formed The
sodium
sulphate,
it is known
salt cake
equation representing
2NaCl
Sodiam
chloride +
the change
=
is :
+
"
H2SO4
Sulphuric acid
Na2S04
Sodium
2HC1
acid
Hydrochloric
sulphate
is known
as
the
**
**
salt cake
is
more
complicated
now
one.
is
mixed
certain proportion of ground coal and limestone, and is known the black-ash furnace ; to a red heat in what as here it is well worked about by rabbling until all chemical the product forming what are called balls action has
with a heated
ceased,
It
of black ash.
owes
black ash," to the fact that a as black, but now of the industry it was
its name,
*'
12 rule it is of
a
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
brownish-grey
form
colour ; nevertheless
the
name
is retained.
formerly used is that known of famace as the reverberatory furnace, the working being done by hand naces and is a very laborious piece of work, but now revolving furThe
are
used, worked
mechanically,
thus
doing away
with
hand
labour.
'The furnace
chemical
are
reactions which
a
go
on
in
the
black-ash
complicated
description, but
the following
to proceed
upon
the
sodium
one
sulphate
and
with
another
resulting
sulphide and
formed
reacts
carbon
monoxide.
The
sodium with
sulphide
thus
carbonate
of sodium
are
carbonate
calcium
sulphide.
Although
are some a
the main
reactions
going
which
on,
so
occur,
yet there
subsidiary
reactions mixture
The
that
black
ash
is
complex
in the form
CaCOg
=
of
+
an
equation
400
Carbon
+
as
"
NaSO^
Sodium
sulphate
40
Carbon
Na^jCOs
Sodium carbonate
CaS
Calcium
sulphide
Calcium
carbonate
monoxide
as
well
as
simple equation
can
do.
Black
and
ash contains both soluble and insoluble constituents, the following is a complete analysis of a sample :
"
ANALYSIS
Soluble constituents.
OF
BLACK
ASH.
28-144
per cent.
"
6-860 2-808
"192
"
"
"
"
"
"
silicate, NagSiOj
"
cyanide,
NaCN
"
sulphocyanide,
NaSCN
"
BLACK
ASH.
13
Insoluble
constituents.
Calcium
Calcium Calcium
Ferrous
CaS
per cent.
"
CaCOj
"
FeS
"
Alumina,
"
1*096
"
MgO
oxide, NaaO
-266
-344
"
"
Carbon
Sand
4*263
1*237
"
"
The
next
process
This of lixiviation with water of the soluble constituents. is done by an ingenious arrangement of vats whereby all the
soluble portion is completely
weak
extracted without
much
difi"culty,
being used at first and fresh water for final treatments. The insoluble portion goes to form what is called vat waste, which used to be at one time
liquors from previous
batches
and used
this is the
for making
valuable
constituent
As which
might is given,
a
the analysis
of black
as
ash
liquor which
is known
black-ash
liquor has
It usually has a specific composition. gravity of 1*26 to 1*29 (62"to 58" Tw.), and contains :"
complex
Sodium
Sodium Sodium Sodium
NagCO, NaOH
Naj^
"
Sodium
Sodium
Sodium
sulphite, NagSO, thiosulphate, '^s^^'^s sulphate, NagSO^ chloride, NaCl silicate, NagSiOa
aluminate,
"
trace
"
"
Sodium Sodium
"
Na2^l204
102
"
vnth
traces
of sodium
sulphocyanide,
The usually
weak
ferrocyanide, sodium sodium ferrous sulphide. alumina, silica, tank hquors have a similar composition, and cyanide,
The
contain about 14 parts per 1000 of solid matter. into settling tanks to allow any tank liquor is run
14
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
alumina,
tower
It is then
run are
down
a"
through
carbonic-acid
gas
and
air
passing.
certain changes, resulting in the increase This it does of carbonate the liquor contains.
acid
by
the
carbonic
acting
and
on
the
caustic
them
soda,
sodium
thiosulphate,
at the
same
converting
a
into carbonate.
of oxidation
time,
certain amount
sulphocyanides,
cyanides, sulphites,
are
and
similar salts
are
oxidised.
Some
of them
on
then
able
to form
settle out
to settle in tanks.
The liquor is operation is called salting down. placed in shallow tanks, usually in the flue of the furnaces, so
as
to
make The
use
of the
waste
heat
which
away
passes
away
from it contains
them.
water
gradually evaporates
are
; the salts
fished out by
are
means a
iron ladles.
of sawdust
converted there
are
Next
and
mixed
they
with
are
when The
known
more
into carbonate.
two
a
product
as
is soda ash.
forms,
one
it contains
known
as
of caustic
the
other
is
carbonate
contains
It is not
quite pure
sodium
carbonate,
variable quantities of caustic, sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, etc. It is sold of varying degrees 48 per cent., 60 per cent., 52 per cent., as of strength known
up
to
but
58
per
cent.,
which
is the
strongest
made.
These
of sodium
oxide
It is somecontain in the form of either caustic or carbonate. times known the available alkali, to distinguish it from as that which
is also present in the form of sulphate, chloride, is not available or useful for any of the purposes etc., which to which soda ash is put.
The
a
following
analyses
:
"
are
of
48 per
cent, ash
and
of
15
great of ash
difference in the
two
is
seen
from
these
analyses,
for while
68
is
of impurities
in the
small the
per
cent, ash,
only
present
in very
on
amounts
which
the
can
have
practical
influence
ash
using
of
ash ; whereas
in the 48
per cent,
cannot
these
impurities
some
being in much
larger amount
fail to exert
influence
What good
matter
is known
as
from
soda
ash of
quality by
to
dissolving
then
out
allowing
down,
any
insoluble
the
settle out,
come
boiling
fishing out
crystals, which
sulphate and
first,as
chloride, then
are
boiling down
Soda
crystals
of water sometimes
known
of crystallisation in
as
This
or
is therefore
to
decahydrate
distinguish
it from
the
is described
soda
below.
ash in water,
Soda
crystals
any
made
by
dissolving
allowing
the
insoluble impurities
to settle out,
a
then evaporating
or
solution down
until it has
to
strength
56"
Tw.,
when
it is placed
in tanks
crystallise out,
which it does in large, transparent, prismatic crystals. drained from liquor, dried or These the mother are packed into bags or kegs for sale. These crystals keep very
well, but
are
their water
slightly efflorescent, that is, they tend to lose dry and powdery. of crystallisation and become
16
This is the most that it makes
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
famihar
form
its appearance
dry soaps,
purpose advantage
is often taken
heated soda crystals will melt into a liquid which when when ally Generit cools will set into a brittle crystalline solid mass.
soda
crystals,
or
sal soda
as
the
Americans
call it, is
compounds, sample
:
"
will be
seen
from
CRYSTALS.
34 *22 per cent. '10 2*64
NajCOj
NaOH
......
Water,
HgO
matter
'27 62-84
'03
Insoluble
From
which
it will be
seen
that
constituent
^
of soda
crystals.
The
present are usually accidental and cannot biit it is not an uncommon circumstance
always
be avoided,
to crystallisesome
along with the crystals, as these tend to make the crystals harder, and, therefore, better able to resist handling without breaking. sodium
sulphate The
other process of making
as
carbonate
of soda from
salt
is that known
worked
Mond
the ammonia-soda
on an
process, and
in this country
extensive
wich, and by other firms. The principle of this process has long been known. It carbonic-acid gas is passed into a consists in that when
strong salt solution made alkaline with ammonia, carbonate of soda is formed and precipitates out, being insoluble in the alkaline liquors, while ammonia Although so well known, many
AMMONIA
SODA.
17
working the process on a large scale,and there are but few of the many plants devised to take advantage of the principle involved that have been at all successful. The most so is in operation at all the principalammonia-soda works in this country. The product obtained at firstis the bicarbonate of soda,
one as
is the
"
NH,
OOj
NaCl
NaHCO,
NH4CI
This bicarbonate is precipitatedout, then heated in a furnace, when itisconverted into the normal carbonate,which
is then sent into commerce as soda ash. This product obtained by the ammonia-soda process is remarkable for its purity, as the following analysiswill show :
"
0*06
"
" "
,,
and iron
0*03 0-15
Moisture
is material refinedalkali made by dissolving in water, clarifying the solutionand evaporating down, while the other forms of carbonate,monohydrate and decahydrate
From
thisraw
the Leblauc
As regards the properties of the carbonate of soda, some idea will have been gathered from what has been said above.
to It will be sufficient say that it is fairlyeasily soluble m increasingwith increaseof temperature water, the solubility
;
thus water
anhydrous carbonate, or 21*33 per cent, of the crystallised carbonate,and at 30" C. 37'24 per cent, of dry carbonate and 273*64 per cent, of soda crystalswillbe dissolved. 2
^^^
18
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Sodium
carbonate
with
possesses
all acids,
corresponding
gas ; thus the
salt with
it
of soaps of gaseous
from
free fatty
acids, although
a
evolution it causes
disadvantage, because
It cannot
process.
be used
to make
from
fats, because
carbonic
no
than
power
to liberate those
acids from
are
with
glycerine, with
fats.
which
they
combined
CAUSTIC
SODA.
Caustic
maker's
soda,
or
sodium
hydroxide,
In
was
NaOH,
early
an
is the days
soap-
alkaU
par
excellence.
the
not to
of the
merce, comown
alkali manufacture
and
every
caustic soda
soap-maker the soda
to make
article of his
had
ash
causticise
it from
soon
of that
time ; but
as
an
the
began
and
article
so
perfected
article
that
caustic
soda
be
bought
as
commercial
almost
chemically
containing
something
either from
by the causticmakes
maker,
own
but
"
it is what
or
does if he
his
caustic
from
in lixiviation of the
The
latter yields
black-ash
what
cream
balls, or
as
from
**
liquors.
is known
cream
a
caustic," because
good many
it has
pale
colour; it contains
impurities.
Whatever
may
be the
same
source
the
in each
dissolving in water
makers
use
strength
of
than
CAUSTIC
SODA.
19
this,from
in
so
but there is
can
no
material
advantage
much
ease
doing ; the
operation
as
be
done
with
as
hquors
Hquors,
and
it is much
liquors than
it is the weak
use
liquors ;
much
on
the other
stronger
on so
it is not
22*^ Tw.,
advisable to
as
liquors
if any
then
the causticising
does not go
The
liquors
made
black-ash
balls
are
allowed
out of them,
be done
so
as
thoroughly
some
; it
is best to blow
air through
first
mass
to oxidise
in the
whereby
The
they
are
thrown
insoluble form.
form
in which
they
are
causticising
apparatus
can
any
kind of
convenient
on
makers
The
use are
any
liquors
heated
by steam of
a
is carried
on
until
portion of the liquor taken out, filtered and treated with a little dilute hydrochloric acid shows trace of effervescence. no The reaction is shown in the following on goes which equation
:
"
CaHgOa
Calcium hydroxide
Na^CO,,
Sodium
carbonate
2Na0H
Sodium hydroxide
CaCOg
Calcium carbonate a
an
hour
and
half to causticise
batch
of
During
the
process
of causticising
altered and
are
many
impurities
out
in
an
thrown
in
sulphide
of sodium
is oxidised
to
sulphate and this reacting with the lime forms sulphate of lime, which passes into the insoluble residue which is formed;
any aluminate'
and
and
decomposed
and
insoluble
alumina
20
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
When carbonate
and
the calcium
to settle out,
are
allowed
run
boiled down
thrown
new
away,
but
is not The lime mud solidifying point. in, and a fresh tank liquor is run some
from The lime mud causticising operation carried out. to settle out, the this is treated with water and allowed
some
liquors contain
alkali, and
are
some
Uquor, and
in the black-ash
The pans
run or
caustic liquors
pots to
a
in wrought-iron
then
they
are
strength
34" Tw.,
into cast-iron pans, where the concentration is continued From until a strength of from 70" to 80" Tw. is obtained.
these, after allowing
any
insoluble
matter
hquor
down.
any
is
run
into
When
in which
it is concentrated
to oxidise
nitre is added
from
are
bodies, and
nearly
their removal
the caustic.
tested for
as
When
of the pot
so
working
of
arranged
to
the
finished
caustic
the
required
degree
of
strength.
finished caustic is then run into wrought-iron drums, in which it is allowed to sohdify, and in which it is sold. Commercial having or white mass, caustic soda is a cream
The
a
shght
fibrous structure.
It is very
hygroscopic,
readily-
from the air and passing into a highlyabsorbing water caustic liquor. It also readily absorbs carbonic acid from the air passing into carbonate, so that it is not desirable that
be exposed
60 per
too
much
to the air.
cream
60 per These
per
cent., 74
and
77
per
cent.
figures refer to the proportion of sodium oxide, T^b^O, contained in the caustic, irrespective of it being in the form of
CAUSTIC
SODA.
21
caustic brands
The carbonate. actual composition of various in the following analyses : of caustic is shown
or
"
These
may
be taken
grades
to be fairly representative
analyses
seen
of the various
of caustic, from
a
which
it will be
They pass effect in soap-making. into the lyes, being all soluble in water, and act by retarding the saponification of the oils and fats. This they do in
material
insoluble in solutions of alkaline salts, they tend to throw the soap out of solution as fast as
and the soapthis is justthe opposite of what To ensure perfect and rapid saponification,
as
it is formed,
maker
requires.
it is necessary
of the
it is formed
pass
a
by the combination It is
fat and
alkali should
use
as
into solution.
therefore desirable to
good
and consequently
a
better to purchase
no
case
should
weaker
per cent, be used, although the writer knows .70 The 77 per cent, caustic is not done by some soap-makers. The soap-makers. good soap by some considered to make
caustics contain a variable proportion of carbonate, due to imperfect causticising. This carbonate has very little action, if any, in saponifying fats and oils,but it helps the weaker other
impurities
in retarding
the
formation
of soap.
This in
and salts will be effect of alkaline carbonates full in another place in these pages.
discussed
22 It used make
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
to be the custom
own
at
one
time
for soap-makers
many
to
now,
their
caustic from
more
soda
do
so
arguing
own
that it is
to buy
economical
to make
their
than
it in the soUd
form, while
the soap-maker
There
scarcely
own
be
any
for
soap-maker
to make
;
on
to buy
it ready-made
consideration
which
weighs
are
with
soap-makers,
homemade
containing
caustic liquors
undecomposed
carbonate
used
by
;
containing
traces
of
lime which
carbonate
and how again
has been
in
excess
then
sludge
which
is obtained
who
is
of anxiety
a
would
often be at
can use
loss it up
the
caustic-maker
in
other
branch
to
It may,
ever, how-
while
describe
somewhat
in
the soap-maker
if he chooses,
his
own
is provided
On
the
which
may
be made
out
of
a
an
bottom
of this is placed
and
on
layer
of fresh
lime, quickSix
this is poured
soda ash
are
sufficient water
then evenly
to slake it.
over
cwt. of good
spread
the layer
of lime.
and
now
Above above
on,
the soda
is placed
another
a
another
layer of quicklime,
this again
or
layer of soda.
Water
is
poured
weak
lye from
be used, and
hours, when
the bottom
water
the
mass
is allowed
is run
off from
More
first runnings.
is
now
on
to the materials
in the
tank
and
again
the lye
allowed
to work
run
is again
off,constituting
runnings
; these
will be
CAUSTIC
SODA.
23
a
weaker
than
of water is
run
is
run
in, and
after allowing
it to stand
to
use
a
Hquor
off. This
for soap-making,
new
and
is
in making
now
batch
of lye. method
to
The
is
thrown
away.
This
is
faulty in many
lye is apt
some
contain it is
either unchanged
carbonate
these
lime, and
process
difficultto remedy
defects.
The
next
is preferable.
Second
Method
Boiling
Process,
case
"
As
before
an an
iron
open
heat.
in this
to
is fitted with
the
steam-pipe
which
is used
are
supply
necessary
Besides
and
this, tanks
the
required
Five
;
for slaking
cwt.
the quick-lime
soda ash
are
dissolving
in 50
alkali.
of good
dissolved
are are
cwt.
of water
2J
cwt.
of good
quick-lime
slaked
ready
a
by adding
they
are
sufficient water.
"When
transferred
by
To
current
see
of steam the
for
some
hours, has
say from
four to five.
done
a
whether
operation
been
properly
is taken
to settle out,
or
the
better, methyl
the
orange, colour
sufficient
no
acid to turn
place
no
red.
Should
vescence effermade,
the
operation
present. has
now
has
been
and
there
is
carbonate
Should
not
be effervescence, in the
the mixture
then
sufficient lime
more
been
firstinstance, and
should
be sent in and
the
hours,
see
after which
no
settled lye
be again
The
tested
to
that
carbonate
remains
unchanged.
lye should
a
also be tested
for hme,
which
is
portion of the clear lye and a solution of soda ash, when, if any lime be present, happening In this event precipitate will fall down.
small
done by taking
adding
a
white
more
be added
to
the contents
24 the
mass
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
When
shown
that
carbonate of contain either undecomposed is allowed to stand for the carbonate lime, the mass
has been formed
of Ume
The
which
in the
process
to settle out.
lye tanks.
and
The
lime
again allowed
for dissolving
away.
The
off and
used
up fresh soda
is thrown
"
Third
Method
Strunz
a
Lye
Apparatus,
Mr.
S.
M.
Strunz
has
invented
very
convenient
form
of apparatus
for making
is shown
in the accompany-
FlQ.
1.
consists of two
other
for filtering
the
caustic In the
the lime
made
from
the
lye.
vessel, which
is
boiler shape and provided with an open steam-pipe, are In the upper portion is a perforated placed 800 lb. of soda ash. lumps iron plate on are of quick-hme placed. which
The The boiler is
now
filled with
slakes
soda
water
and
steam
turned
on.
lime gradually
and
dissolves, and
lower stated
passing portion
to
downwards
causticises the
lye in the
of the
boiler.
After
a
About
few
650
lb. of
lime
mass
are
in the
be
CAUSTIC
SODA.
25
to
run
is arranged
that purpose,
into the
some
lye store-tank.
The
run
residual
lime,
still containing
unseparated
lye, is
a
below. between
This
consists of
iron plates ; the lye drains through them into the lye store-tank. The lime mud or refuse is thrown
perforated
away.
From
the
quantities
a
of material
given
possible to produce
strong, such
as
would
lb. of 77 per
lyes of greater
properly
strength
than
causticise such
to
strong
soda-ash
hquors
as
must
be
used
make
strong
caustic lyes. It should be borne in mind that the quahty of caustic lyes* ent of these processes is not only dependmade by any one
upon
the
care
with which
used, but in preventing any excess into the alkaU lye which is made,
the soda
finding
on
its way
but
also
the quality of
ash
used ; the
better the quality of this the purer inasmuch ties, the soluble impurias made,
are
of soda, which
of soda ash, will find their way to into the caustic lye is made, which
greater
or
less extent
some
although
of the
sulphate which
may
some
be present
extent,
in low-grade but
any
be causticised to
affected in any The
drums,
chloride
will not
be
way.
commercial which
in large
require to be broken
they contain can iron tanks with a is not much difficultyin doing
caustic be dissolved. This caustic is dissolved in suitable quantity of water ; although there
so,
before
the
stillthere
are
right and
26
a
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
wrong
way
of doing
even
The
wrong
way
is to open
and
strong
which
will
saturated, with the solid caustic, and, becoming will prevent further solution ; then again, the caustic will tend to set into a solid mass, which is difficultto deal
in contact
with
when
at the
bottom
of
tank.
The
right way
is to
suspend
justunderneath
the
used
lye
as
it is formed,
being
heavier
than
the
surrounding
Fig.
2.
water,
reason
so
that
thus
set up
coming
in contact
with
soon
fresh water
unsaturated
lye, and
consequently
becomes
dissolved.
This
is carried out
ends
in
some
works
them
by opening
the tanks
to have
a
the drums
at both
and
suspending
in
by
A better method is,however, of chains. perforated iron plate placed just under the surface
means
of the water
or or
On
may
be placed,
drums
solid caustic
on
may
be broken
of the
and
thrown
to it
A tank
is placed
in
room
place
above
the soap-boil-
CAUSTIC
SODA.
27 the floor,
be placed below
but at least 18 in. should be above the floor; a swing syphon tube should be placed in the tank for the purpose of running a tube has some off the lye. For this purpose syphon advantage
over
a
simple
or
tank.
below grating
be fixed in the top of the tank just the surface of the liquor contained in the tank ; this
A
grating should
may
be placed
on
supports
which
the
are
extend
from
side
On
this grating
out
drums
of caustic
which
have
had
penetrating
of the
weak
so
tank,
constant
circulation
hquor
passing through
then
stronger in
of the tank.
goes
bottom
This
This
is dissolved.
method
less labour
in the handling
; there
is of
advantage
is
no
undissolve
caustic formed
at the bottom
operation is done somewhat quicker. From the sohd caustic, soda lyes of any
made. It should
strength
may
be
be remembered is attended
that
the the
solution of solid-
caustic soda
considerable
in water
amount
by
evolution of
some
of heat, which
may
be utilised by running
Caustic-soda
the atmosphere,
lyes should
as
be kept
to
into carbonate
soap-making
necessary
at
strength
any may
it be
time
lyes
considerable
on
time
before using
some
they
be
preserved
wax,
by pouring
setting In this
wax
can
their surface
paraffin
which
on
cooling prevents
they may many
any
getting time.
to the lyes.
manner
The
paraffin
be used
28
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
following table of the specific gravities of solutions : of caustic soda will be of service to soap-makers
The
"
CAUSTIC-SODA
LYES.
29
30
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
The figuresin this table have been most carefully calculated, and it is believed that they are accurate, at all events
so sufficiently for alltechnical purposes. The figuresin the last three columns giving the quantities of actual caustic in
one
gallon of lye are new ; those for 74 per cent, and 70 per puritie cent, caustics are based on the assumption that the imin such caustic have as much influence in raising
has, the specific gravity of the lye as the actual causticitself fluence they have sometimes less inwhereas, as a matter of fact,
so ; that the actual strength of and sometimes more the lye in contents of actual caustic depends upon the character the impuritiespresent, which will vary from time to of
the figures given may be accepted as sufficiently time, still By knowing the strength of the correct for technicalwork.
commercial caustic he is using and the gravity of his lyes, the soap-maker from this table will be able to calculatethe weight of actual caustic he may have in any given quantity of lye,and thus having a given quantity of fat,and knowing how much caustic this willrequire,he will be able to add the just right amount of lye to saponify the fat. Solutions of caustic soda have a somewhat soapy feelJ they react very strongly on the skin, dissolvingit. They dissolve wool and animal tissues rapidly, and react upon transparent and causing it cotton, making it become more
to swell.
powerfully basic,and capable of neutralising the strongest acids,the sodium saltswhich are formed They
are
in being characterisedby theirsolubility water ; with oilsand fats itreacts very strongly.
The following table gives the proportion of caustic soda required to saponify the various oilsand fatscommonly used in soap-making :
"
POTASSIUM.
31
Per
cent, of NaOH
Oil.
to saponify.
Olive Oil
Almond
Oil Oil
Ground-nut
Sesame
18-66 to 18-98. 18-49 to 18*66. 18-66 to 13-92. 18-80 to 13-86. 13-88 to 16-92.
Oil
Cotton
Linseed
Oil
Oil
Whale
Oil
Oil
Oil
.
Ooco-nut
Palm-nut Tallow Palm
17-48 to 19-05.
1662 to 17-61.
Oil
Castor
Eosin
Oil
POTASSIUM.
The
second
alkali metal
much
used
in soap-making
respects.
water,
is
It
in many This resembles potassium. sodium is a silver-white metal, very soft, lighter than
a
.
having
specificgravity of 0*865. It melts at 62*5" C, and at a red heat can be volatilised, its vapour having a green colour.
Exposed
thrown
on
to
the
water
; air it rapidly oxidises to the monoxide it rapidly discomposes it with the evolution
of hydrogen
and
the
formation
to bum. the hydrogen suificientlygreat to cause With one energetic in its action than sodium.
two
exception
are
platino-chloride, acid tartrate, all its salts soluble are readily soluble in water, while none absolutely ine.g,ythe It
was
discovered
a
Davy
in 1807
potassium
powerful
fused
occurs
very
abundantly
and
very
widely
distributed
nature.
It is found
in
sea-water,
in marine
plants, in plants of all kinds, from! whose ashes potassium in the form of carbonate is largely obtained ; it occurs combined with
and
alumina
form
and
silicates,
salt.
in the
of chloride
32
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
magnesium
chloride, in various localities; it is also found efflorescence on the soil in hot countries.
the
as
symbol
kaUum,
being
weight
is 39*1.
are
carbonate
hydroxide
or
caustic
This very important comPotash, potassium pound carbonate. by the formula has the composition KgCOg. shown
"
Its original source was the ashes of plants, but it is made also from the various deposits of potassium chloride found at
Stassfurt and
the Leblanc Trees
and
Stanislaus by
process
analogous
to
that
of
have
the property
of absorbing
potassium and
etc.,
are as as
compounds
in the ash when the trees, have for a long period been following table compiled
of ash and
used from
of potash. shows
The
several
the percentage
:
"
that of
potash
The
manufacture
of potash
from from
wood
is
industry in Canada
and America,
which
simple.
POTASHES.
33
The and
trees
are
split
ashes
or
cut
are
burnt, the
a
false bottom,
and
containing
carbonate
lime is put
and
and
in the ashes
out, while
sulphate, chloride, or other into hydroxide by the lime neutral salt is partially converted sufficie and partially left insoluble in the residue of the ashes, inany
dissolved
being used to dissolve them along with the two products desired. The liquors when saturated are drawn into iron pots, and then evaporated to dryness, when off, run left behind ; these constitute are masses greyish-pink pot
water
**
".
It is owing
owes
to this method
of manufacture
that
its name
it will have
".
while the hydroxide reference to the carbonate of potassium, be referred to as caustic potash, but never as may potash '* The potashes are graded by inspectors into firsts," "seconds,"
''
"
thirds,
From
'*
**
".
and
unbrandables
''
the potashes
"
pearlash
is made
by calcining in
furnace ; the small amount of carbonaceous reverberatory in the potashes is burnt off, the hydroxide converted matter
into carbonate,
are
converted
sulphide, sulphite, thiosulphate present is then The into sulphate. calcined mass
some
a
lixiviated with
evaporated
small quantity
down
in granular
commerce.
masses
of
white of in
and
forms
the pearlash of
The
one
process
briefly sketched
is the
followed
is very pearlash" and composition of /'potashes" variable, although the main constituent is the carbonate, yet there is also present hydroxide, sulphate, chloride, silicate,
The
^
*'
aluminate,
sodium
salts,
34
etc.
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
is also obtained from beetroot molasses, the ashes from which contain 45 to 50 per cent, of potash. A small quantity is made from suint, the natural grease of wool. A large quantity is made from the sulphate and chloride
Potash
of potassium by a modification of the Leblanc soda process. The sulphate is firstprepared, then this is fumaced with limestone and coal, the resulting ash is lixiviated with
water,
the liquors
are
then evaporated
down
to obtain the
potash.
gives potash of a high degree of purity, and such potash islikelyto supersede that from wood ashes owing to its greater purity and lower cost. The following table shows the composition of various commercial qualitiesof potash, compiled from the published analyses of Tatlock and other chemists :
"
This process
The
position above analyses will sufficeto show the average comof commercial potashes. They are sold on a basis
per cent, of actual carbonate, the of containing so much standard being 90 per cent, of carbonate, a standard which is only obtainable in the best pearlashes.
CAUSTIC
POTASH.
35 in water,
100
Carbonate
of potassium
is freely soluble
parts of which at 0" C. dissolve 83-12 parts ; at 10" C. 88-72 parts ; at 30" C. 109 parts ; at 50" C. 112*9 parts ; at 80" C. 134*25
parts, and
at 100" C. 153*6 parts.
CAUSTIC POTASH.
This
important
As far
as
compound
are
has
the
formula
properties sodium
and
concerned,
it closely
the corresponding
more
compound greater
; it is,however,
hygroscopic
shows
carbonic
It is rather stronger
a
more
various bodies,
property
due chiefly
other bodies.
It is
a a
white, sohd
body, of
an
character, and
red
having
At
little below
has
a
heat
it melts to
action
on
most
powerful
vegetable
tissues.
accompanied it absorbs
It
dissolves
with
the
exposure
easily in water,
solution being
heat, and
evolution
of considerable
water
on
to the atmosphere.
The
caustic
aqueous
solution
possesses
strongly
moderate
alkaline
and
properties, and
such
when
a
of
degree of concentration
solution has
solvent
action
on
animal
tissues.
It is also capable
of neutraUsing
forming the strongest acids known, the potassium salts, all be obtained in the of which are soluble in water ; a few may
form
of precipitates from
very
strong
solutions of potash,
to their slight solubility. owing Exposed to the air caustic potash solutions rapidly absorb carbonic acid, passing firstinto the carbonate, ultimately into
the
bicarbonate;
lyes
as
on
this account
it is desirable to
Aqueous
expose
potash
precipitate
metallic
solutions
some
solutions of
salts such
ferrous
and
chloride, magnesium
sulphate, aluminium
36
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Potassium
hydroxide
some
Caustic
employed
purchased the
potash
is made
by
processes
in preparing from
the
soap-makers The
same
still in methods
habit
of preparing
as
it themselves.
caustic soda may be used and for weight potash Weight need no further description here. takes less lime to causticise it than soda, the proportions
of working
described
under
being
as
69 to 53.
to every
from
50 to 53 lb. of
of potash.
that
should
be taken
as
all the
potash
has
also
causticised,
no
excess more
will be shown
of lime be used.
defects may
more
be cured
as
by using
case
lime,
or
the addition
potash,
the
may
be.
strengths
Convenient
22", 30",
or
of caustic potash
lyes to make
are
15",
contain
approximately
1 lb.,1 J lb..
See
table.
are
caustic potash
of quiet
lyes
are
boiled down
then
until they
to
state
fusion, and
allowed
three
cool, solid
are
caustic
made.
potash The
is obtained.
from
Usually
80
to 85
qualities
cent,
best contains
the
per
75
of actual
per
cent.,
potassium
and the
hydroxide,
lowest
show
medium
to
from
per
to 80
from
70
75
cent.
The
following
analyses
in commercial
caustic potash
Potassium
Potassium Potassium
hydroxide
carbonate sulphate chloride
nitrite hydroxide silica and
matter
.
Potassium
alumina
Water
CAUSTIC
POTASH.
37
from which
are
it will be
so
seen
that commercial
as
caustic potashes
caustic
not
of
pure
character
the
commercial
sodas. Several
man
tables have
been
pubUshed
by Dalton,
Lunner-
and
of aqueous
lyes.
These
not
very concordant,
to technical chemistry
by
some
to work
on
problem.
The
following is probably
OF
the
given by
:
"
Dalton, which
TABLE
accurate
POTASH
as
any
of them
AT
OF
STRENGTH
CAUSTIC
SOLUTIONS
60" F.
Caustic potash
soft soaps.
more
is used
in soap-making
and
only
It acts upon
does
readily than
are
caustic soda,
the have
soaps
duced pro-
more
and
hygroscopic
oleate will
properties.
One
from
same
quantity
of
palmitate
will take
35
parts
of water,
while
sodium stearate
only absorbs
7^
38
Hard
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
although
on.
potash soaps are not manufactured in practice, be made as will be described farther they can
The combining equivalentof potassium hydroxide, KOBE, bein^ higher (56) than is that of sodium hydroxide, NaOH
take
little more,
others
l ]ittleess. The following table gives the percentage of actual KOH used with caustic required to saponify the oilscommonly
soft soaps, although a few others have been added to make the table complete. These percentages correspond with the Koettstorfer numbers obtained in the
potash to make
testing of oils:
"
Oil.
19-1
to 19-6
Betjftme oil
Cotton oil Linseed oil Whale oil Coco-nut oil pB^lm-nut oil Tallow Paimoil
19-32 to 19-8
19-63 to 20-35
17-6 17
to 18-16
Castor oil
Bosin
to 19-3
ALKALIMETRY.
Alkalimetry is the art of determining the value of the bonates alkaline bodies which have been described above, the carand hydroxides of potassium and sodium. Aa usually carried out the process depends upon
the fact
that when any of the alkalativecompounds in question are brought into contact with sulphuric acid combination takes
ALKALIMETRY.
39 being formed
place, sulphates
to the following
according
equations
H2SO4
+
:
"
2 KOH
Potassium hydroxide
K2SO4
Potassium
sulphate +
2H2O
Sulphuric acid
H2SO4
K2CO3
Potassium
K2SO4
CO2
HjO
H2SO4
2NaOH
Sodium hydroxide
Na2S04
Sodium
sulphate +
2H2O
H2SO4
NaaCO,
Sodium
carbonate
Na^S04
OOg
H^O
which
show
the action
are
of the acid
on
which
From
98 molecular
of importance
in soap-making.
that
one
molecular
proportion
to
parts
by
weight
of sulphuric
two
proportions
or
112
parts
by
potassium
hydroxide,
of potassium
to
one
molecular
or
proportion
carbonate, of sodium
to two
molecular
or
proportions
molecular
80
proportion
parts by weight
hydroxide,
of sodium
or one
to
one
carbonate.
proportion, then
Taking
one
molecular of sodium
equivalent
as
a
40
parts by weight,
hydroxide
standard,
49 of sulphuric
" "
acid =56
=69 =40 =53
of potassium
hydroxide.
"
"
"
"
Knowing
then
the proportions
in which
sulphuric
acid
react
with
one
another,
a
the quantity
of actual alkali in
the quantity
of acid required
known
weight
of the
use
alkaline
body.
This
is most
strength
The
to
is attained.
use
as
of certain bodies
they
are are
in the presence
of alkalies
acids ;
some
of
these bodies
40
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
the presence
of the minutest
as
trace
These
indicators,
they
are
of either acid
or
volumetric
analysis,
of the volume
strength.
solutions
are
called standard
be
of any
strength,
with
of volumetric
system
of making
various standard
called normal
solutions of recognised
strengths, what
to contain
or
equivalent
1000
cubic
actual HgSO^ 40
grammes
contains sodium
NaOH
actual
per
litre.
per
carbonate potassium
Normal
per
53
grammes
Na2C03
litre. Normal
actual KOH. actual KgCOg
hydroxide
56 grammes
per litre of of It
potassium
so on
carbonate
69 grammes reagents.
litre, and
c.c.
with
one
other
of any
of these normal
standard
solutions is equal to 1 c.c. of any other. For the purpose of measuring the volume of the standard as burettes, glasses known solutions there are used measuring
of which form thfi^best
one
C.C.
is^ that
known_as^ohr's, with
atop,
or
and
ported sup-
noted
in suitable stands, and the volume of liquid iiithem is where the bottom of the meniscus of the upper surface
to be to adjacent
a
mark
on
the burette.
the
This
is done
before
and
after using
difference between
of
c.c's
number
of solution used.
"
up
close
to
the
sides of the
ALKALIMETRY.
41
easier and
more
accurately
Besides the burette there is used in volumetric analysis pipettes for measuring of Uquids and off definite volumes
flasks marked
to hold
a
filled
in alkalimetry is one of sulphuric acid of normal strength, that is 1000 c.c's of it It can be bought from contain 49 grammes of pure H2SO4. all dealers in analytical chemicals, ready prepared ; that is a
use
convenient but most expensive manner of procuring it. The best and cheapest plan is to make it for one's own use.
To
or
do this, procure
supply of pure
desiccator, weigh out exactly 53 grammes of the dried carbonate, dissolve in water, place the solution in a litre-measuring flask and fillup to the mark with water. There will be now prepared a normal
a
solution of sodium carbonate, each c.c. of which contains 0*053 gramme of NagCOg and is equal to 0*049 H2SO,.
Measure
out
standard
This solution will be a little depends upon the strength, but much
actual strength of the acid used. Place the sulphuric-acid solution which in a burette, and note the Then reading.
has
measure a
been
made
with
"V pipette 10
a
c.c's
of the normal
beaker, add
solution, then, turning on the tap of the burette, allow the acid to drop into the soda soluof methyl-orange
few drops
fy
the colour of the constantly stirring the latter. When jirtion, \J soda solution changes from yellow to red, the operation, or titrationas it is called, is finished. If the acid solution is of ' the right strength 10 cc.'s of it ought to have been used. If
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
it is too
strong;
if
more,
it is too
a
weak.
the quantity
to how
calculation
much
how
much
bring it up to the right strength. Then if necessary, again, with 10 c.c.'s of the soda
add water
or
acid
as
have prepared
standard
will
justneutralise
10
normal
acid solution will then be of strength and will contain 49 grammes of actual H2SO4.
The
per litre.
The
methyl
orange
which
has been
an
is termed
trace of which
it pink.
to describe
be convenient
alkalimetrical processes, to briefly note the various indicators which are used in this branch of chemical
analysis. One of the oldest indicators is litmus. This body forms turns red on a violet blue solution, which the addition of bluer. It is the shade a little acids, while alkalies change
a
good
indicator to
use
when
one
testing of alkaline carbonates, and that is the carbonic acid which is evolved from the carbonates by the action of the standard acid, and which tends, by its solubility in water, to
remain in solution in the liquid, has
red, and
ing of turnto
the Utmus
consequently
tendency
testing carbonates with litmus. obtain too low results when by boiUng the solutions This trouble can only be got over before titrating, so as to prevent the carbonic acid from becoming dissolved
and objectionable
in the
solution.
This
boiling
is rather
are
inconvenient, although
excellent results
obtained
Litmus
when
by
methyl
ALKALIMETRY.
43
; it
orange.
Methyl
orange
is one
dissolvesfreely in water, forming an orange solution, which is turned yellow by alkalies,and red by the merest presence of acids such as sulphuric, nitric,hydrochloric, aqetic, oxalic
acids,but not with carbonic and some weak organic acids. This want of sensitiveness to carbonic acid enables it to be used in the analysis of alkaline carbonates in cold solutions,
convenient to work with than hot solutions. Phenol phthalein is a preparation of phenol and phthahc acid ; it is a yellowish powder insoluble in water, but soluble
which
are
more
in alcohol
spirits to a colourless solution. It has the property of producing an intense red colour with the
or
methylated
red with the alkaline carbonates. Its sensitiveness is great ; it can be used with advantage in the testing of acids with standard solutions of sodium
a
weaker
or
potassium
a
excess
pink
it may
be used
in the testing
hydroxides (caustic sodium alkalies) with standard acid. It does not work well with the alkaline carbonates, it shows the normal carbonates to be alkaline, but
of pure potassiimi
the acid carbonates are neutral to it. It does not work well in ammonia. A weak solution in methylated spiritis used in analysis. Lacmoid
over
is a preparation of resorcin, and behaves hke litmus, more which it has the advantage of being a little
'
sensitiveto acids. There are other indicators which may be used, hut the above are sufficient for all purposes in alkalimetry. Methyl
orange is the indicator which the author prefers to use. The operation of testing the alkaline carbonates and hydroxides is practically alike for all,so that one description
or
Potassium
Carbonate.
a
"
Weigh measuring
out five
of the alkali,transfer to
250
c.c.
flask.
44
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
fill this up
to
the
as
containing
the volume
mark
advisable to heat,
It is not thereby be
made,
it might becoming
and
measure
when
it
will
measure
less
on occur,
in
out
volume
that will
then
right.
at
a
All volumetric
apparatus
is understood
to be correct
uniform
temperature
more
is not
the best;
70" F. is much
nearly
working
temperature
of
laboratory, and
is much
acid, measure hy a pipette 25 c.c.'s of the alkali solution into a beaker, add little methyl-orange to give a faint a solution, just enough
yellow
the normal
tint to
the
liquid, then
drop
in
from (titrate)
the
burette the acid until the colour of the liquid changes from To be able to observe the colour change yellow to pink.
more
white in
a
tile or
good
plate under
Methyl
light.
well in gaslight, the change is not so by gaslight it is best to use easily perceptible ; when working
not
work
litmus
or
to titrating.
of
c.c.'s
Repeat
should
not
differ more
than 0*05
used,
a
from
one
readings If an another.
paper
more
Erdmann's
sheet
of white
to
held easily
behind
taken.
the
enables
the readings
be
Having
can
of
c.c.'s
be calculated
equivalent
of alkali by
is taken, or by by 0*053 if sodium carbonate is being tested ; this gives the weight in carbonate grammes of the alkali in the quantity taken for titration, and
from the figures obtained the percentage
can
be calculated.
Testing
or
Sodium
"
or
Potassium process
Hydroxide
{CausticSoda
identical with
Caustic
Potash). The
is exactly
ALKALIMETRY.
45
the above.
In
calculating
0'056
for of.
and
made
use
"
Soda
Ash
Commercial
soda
ash
Caustic is
or
Soda,
be
These sodium
soda.
rarely
pure;
should
some
it invariably
contains
caustic
variabl caustics, especially the lower grades, inin addition to the caustic. some carbonate
that v^hen
used in soap-making
as
contain
as
little carbonate
possible.
very the
actual process
necessary
examine
samples
of soda
ash
for the
of hydroxide,
The
of carbonate.
is the
same
in both
Five
c.c.'s
grammes
a
are
w^eighed
out
and
dissolved
in
250
a
of
neutral
solution
of barium
; the
precipitate of barium
is made up
to
of the mixture
as
100
c.c.'s
it is filtered
rapidly
25
c.c.
as
possible.
Fifty
filtrate, which
and
equal
as
of
taken
titrated
before.
This
titrationgives the alkali present as caustic (hydroxide).The difference in the amounts of normal acid used in the two
of carbonate
c.c.'s
in the sample.
in the
or
of acid used
two
titrationsare
ashes
are
multiplied
tested,
or
by 0'053 by
when
caustic soda
soda
or
being
are
0*069
when
caustic
potash
potashes
being tested.
in the
alkali trade
to
represent
the
not
by
the percentage
of actual
carbonate
hydroxide
they
may
contain,
but
by
the
percentage
no
of
sodium
oxide, NagO,
they
contain.
There
is
difference
in the mode
the amount
only is required
46
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
The
**
amount
of sodium
oxide
as
so
calculated may
or
'*
be expressed
".
as
The
be done
carbonate,"
in that
In
being 0047.
alkali works
the of
cc's
it is customary
by
means
to
adopt the
method
of
working
number
tests
of
which
reading
of the
grammes
the percentage acid used gives at once This is done by weighing out 3:1 of alkali present. of the alkali,dissolving in 250 c.c.'s water, titrating
of normal
of c.c.'s used multiplied with the alkali as before ; the number by 10 gives at once This the percentage of NagO present. deal of time by avoiding the trouble of making a good saves
should
be
weighed
at
the
percentage
KgCOg,
is given
by the acid.
The
following
be found
useful for
reference in alkalimetry
1
c.c.
normal
sulphuric
0*049
grm.
"
H2SO4.
0-031
0-040 0-063 0-047
NagO.
NaOH.
"
"
NaaCOa. KjO.
KOH.
"
0-066 0-069
" "
"
"
K2CO3.
NagCOg.
sodium sodium
carbonate
contains
"
0-063
"
"
"
hydroxide hydroxide
6-040
0*066
0-049 0 049
"
NaOH. KOH.
H2SO4. H2SO4.
"
*
"
potassium sodium
"
"
"
"
"
"
sodium
carbonate hydroxide
equals
"
"
"
BORAX.
salt has from time to time been added to soaps of various qualities for the purpose of increasing their detergent properties ; borax is a borate of sodium, having the formula
This
NagB^OglOHgO,
per
.cent,
and
pccurs
in
of water.
It
occurs
fine crystals
SILICATES.
47
the
article commercial In Tuscany boracic acid is found, and from this borax is made it with by combining soda. Borax crystals are rather efflorescent, are soluble in about half their weight of boiling water and about 12 parts
of cold water;
when
it has
a
tincal
feebly alkahne
to
taste
and
reaction
hydrochloric
on
acid is added
strong
of borax;
owing
to the
it is
used in soap-making.
PHOSPHATE
OF
SODA.
This substance is often added to soaps with a view also of increasing its detergent properties ; it has the composition in the formula Na2HP04l2H20 shown and forms large
transparent, somewhat efflorescent crystals, soluble in about four parts of cold water, and in boihng water to an unlimited
extent, the solution having
a
SODIUM
AND
POTASSIUM
SILICATES.
of the silicates of potassium and sodium or, as they are frequently called, water glass or soluble glass, on account in the solid state, and being of their glassy appearance when
use
The
was
suggested
by
Sheridan
in 1838,
since
have
been
largely used
by
soap-makers
The
"
in
of the cheaper
qualities of soaps.
soap".
also knows
are
these products
by the
or
name
of
runnings
They
made
by fusing sand
or
powdered
ash,
quartz of good
as
quality with
potash
with
sodu
according
either
silicate potash or silicate of soda is required ; the operation of being conducted in a suitable furnace. at a high temperature They may be by heating sand with aqueous solution of made important the alkalies. The silicate of soda is by far the more
of the two
bodies.
48
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
is offered to soap-makers
in two
forms,
in the form of glassy-looking Solid silicateof soda occurs This colour is due masses of a brownish or greenish colour. to metallic impurities, usually iron, which are present in the is made. It is brittle,breaking fracture, and closely resembles with a conchoidal glass in appearance, and it is this body that is generally understood
sand
from
which
the
product
when
soluble glass
or
water
by
1*500
is of sodium
alkaline character,
contains
cent,
15*9 per
cent,
of
oxide, NagO;
The
29*3
silica, SiOg;
54'8 per
cent, of water.
formula
in
so that although this solution would be Na202Si02, nominally Normal alkaline," it is really an acid silicate in character.
''
lent silicate of soda in which the base and acid are exactly equivato one another has the formula NagOSiOg.
a smaller proportion of neutral'' silicate containing It is advisable that the ratio between soda is often made. in the the silica and the soda should be kept as 2 to 1, shown
**
firstof the
proportion solution
as
formula then
given
above ; if the
be
concentrated
silica is in greater
to
so
it cannot
strong
it is less When without decomposition. for soapthan 2 to 1, it becomes of too caustic a character Usually about 5 per cent, is the quantity employed making. in making pale soaps, and such a quantity will harden a soap.
100" Tw.
If, however,
tendency
the proportion
largely exceeds
this, then
very often
the
to become
pasty
now
and
as
wasteful
in
use.
Silicate of soda
as
is not
used
in soap-
making
it formerly
was.
Silicate of potash
has usually
a
is sold
**
"
as
neutral
specific gravity
COMMON
SALT.
49
per. cent, of
sihcate of soda is used for mixing with hard soaps, silicatef potash is used for mixing with soft soaps. o The effect of employing the silicates in soap-making will be discussed in another place.
While
COMMON
SALT.
One
making
find extensive use in soapof the materials which is salt, sodium chloride. This is a compound of the
and
metal sodium
"
the gaseous
element
Chlorine
and having
It
occurs
the formula
NaCl.
to the extent
in
sea-
water
of 27
and
the magnesium
.
chloride that
owes
Salt
occurs
in large deposits in
:
solid form
rock
salt
"
in many Winsford,
at
at North wich,
Middlewich,
of
other localitiesin
the County
Cheshire,
Droitwich
in Worcestershire,
in Yorkshire,
or
a a
Fleetwood in other
up
in Lancashire,
Middlesborough
and
places, at all of which it is either mined in the form of brine. Eock salt contains
as
pumped
few
purities, im-
shown
in the following
analysis of
Cheshire
sample
:
"
98-3 0-05
per cent.
"
1-65
"
50
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
"
chloride sulphate
sulphate
25*22
per cent.
"
0*39
0*14
"
carbonate
0*11
"
but varies considerably. Salt is purified for domestic and dissolving the rock salt in water, or
is pumped,
by
as
the
brine
from
it
clarifying by
filtration
settlement
and
any
insoluble matters,
the salt which
boiling down
as
in large pans
fishing out
deposits
rapidity
of the
boiling continues. Upon the is boiling depends the form of salt which
the
while
fine-grained salt used for slow boil gives rise to the largepurposes. In the
salt used
for other
soap
industry
usually employed.
is almost
pure, and
contains
but small
of other substances.
solid, crystallising
They does
slightly hygroscopic on exposure to the The solubility is not great, soluble in water.
to
it increase
as
any
case
marked
extent
with
the
rise of
temperature,
is the
with
most
other
soluble bodies.
will dissolve 35*5 parts of salt, at at 110" C. (the la^iling point of salt
40*3 solutions)
parts of salt.
The
following
contents
percentage
51
Salt is used
in the soap
by the saponification of the fats with alkali from the excess the glycerine of alkaU used in the manufacture, and from formed in the operation. Its use depends upon the fact that
while soap is soluble in pure small quantity
of caustic
water,
soda,
in water
solublein water
saltis added
to
containing
the
much
and
when
soap-pan,
the soap
becomes
out
dissolved
in the
when
is thrown
in curds
The
quantity
be definitely fixed,
and
more
a
the soap
takes much
the
salt than
or
than either
tallow
has
cotton-oil soap, and this more Then the excess of palm-oil soap.
a
alkaliemployed
some
influence
by reducing
the quantity
of salt required, while also the proportion of water to soap in in the quantity of salt according the pan causes a variation as itis or little. much
The
salt may
be recovered
from
the spent
lyes by
cess pro-
of evaporation.
52
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
LIME.
Lime,
or
quick-lime,
or
caustic lime,
as
it is indifferently
CaO.
It is used
calcium, and has the formula in soap-making of only for the purpose
lyes to make
the
a
necessary
Quick-lime is
as
white
body
exposed
rapidly, and
white
powder.
Air-slaked lime,
it is called,when giving
a
mixed
with
water
combines
energetically therewith,
heat, and
of considerable
producing lime
called slaked
lime.
This
slaked
is
cement,
with a quantity of water it forms what alkaline lyes. Mixed is known The following table taken from as milk of lime. Lunge Handbook the shows and Hurters' Alkali-makers'
amount
of
:
"
calcium
oxide
in
milk
of
lime
of
different
strengths
TABLE
SHOWING
AMOUNT
OF
LIME
IN
MILK
OF
LIME.
When
milk
what
are
known
and
as
lime lime
soaps
are
formed
which
are
insoluble
in water,
is also, when
both
LIME.
53
heat and pressure are applied, capable of saponifying fats, and is therefore used in the Autoclaven process of decomposing
fats.
The
quahty
of quick-lime
manner
and
:
"
slaked
lime
may
be determine
in the following
1. Free
CaO,
"
Weigh
slake
100
grms.
of
an
average
the
sample
carefully taken,
it completely,
to
put
milk
into
the mark,
to
shake
c.c.
equal
1 grm.
test.
Titrate with normal as an oxalic acid and phenolphthalein indicator. The colour is changed all free lime has when been saturated, and before the CaCOg is attacked.
2. Carbon
Dioxide,
an excess
"
Titrate CaO
of standard
and
CaCOg
together
by
and
dissolving
in
hydrochloric
By
acid
titrating back
estimated
as
with in No.
standard
1, the
alkali.
quantity
the
deducting
the CaO
of CaCOg
is obtained.
For very
accurate
estimations
COg
as
is expelled
by
HCl,
absorbed
weighed
described.
CHAPTER
III.
FATS
AND
OILS
USED
IN AND
SOAP-MAKING: PROPERTIES.
THEIR
PREPARATION
The
oils used by the soap-manufacturer ^and from both vegetable and animal sources ; none,
are
fats
are
derived far
so
known,
There
derived from
very
a
the petroleum
is
no
oil and
fat ; it is purely
as
of climate,
or
to whether
"
particular
body
makes
"
its appearance
an
in
solid form
fat, or whether
of the place
it is liquid
oil, at the
in which fat, i,e,, solid ; in Africa it is an a oil is in this country a white solid
temperature
it is.
Palm
oil
oil, i.e.,liquid.
;
in India it is
water- white
liquid.
That
an
oil ; in Greenland
of temperature
it is
^t.
it is simply
question
or
is
oil
proved
can
if tallow
palm place
oil or
they
are
coconut
be kept
sufficiently warm
on
converted
; while,
the other
hand,
by artificially cooling
are
cotton-seed
no
oil,or
solidified,and
then These
in
wise distinguishable
few examples
fats and
are
oils, and
pages
when
bodies
clude to in-
fat may
be taken
"
The
oils and
characterised
ranging
by being
from
Ughter
than
water,
0*878, which
is
that of sperm
oil, the
lightest of natural
of natural oils. In
they
are
SOAP
FATS
AND
OILS.
55
on
shaking
up
with
it they form
throughout
; on
an
emulsion
the
body
of
in the form
globules
standing, the
surface. They
more
and paper,
greasy
stain to
;
it to become They
less transparent
this stain
is permanent.
are
carbon
bisulphide, turpentine,
their solubility
;
spirit, benzol
; castor
in alcohol
linseed oil
alcohol,
issoluble in about
while the
ten
times
of strong
shght ;
great deal
depends upon
acidity, which
creases in-
being
heated
to
500" to 600"
Fahr.
they
decompose,
and under
ordinary
atmospheric
a
pressure pressure
they cannot
and
be distilled
unchanged
superheated
; at
reduced
may
with
The
the air of of
carbonic
steam
are
they rather
be
distilled.
products
water,
decomposition
variable, but
include
The
carbon varying
(C),
in
carbon,
T7*40 per
lime, rine, glyceis
oxygen,
When they
are
boiled with
decomposed the
bodies
are
formed,
the other
familiar
"
known
On
some,
as
saponification
but of this
hereafter.
or
exposure
less oxidised ;
such
are
as
these and
known
the
on
**
non-drying
exposure
some
**
other oils
dry
"
become
**
hard,
as
it is called ; these is
no
known
as
the
drying
two
oils". There
hard
or
sharp
line between
gradual
these
between,
say,
56
sperm and
SOAP
MANUFACTtRE.
are
types
of non-drying
oils,
through
cotton-seed
niger-seed
poppy-seed has
a
oils,types
drying
on
of drying
are
material influence
:
the
to which
the oils
use
put
in practice
the non-drying
oils
are
used
as
in lubricating machinery, the partially food oils,while the drying oils are as
the
non-
in soap-making painting oils. Even drying oils are the best for making soft soap, while the drying oils make the best hard soaps.
primarily
Two
commerce
other
kinds
of oil
are
commonly
distinguished
in
; these
only resemble
are
; the
essential oils
and
vegetable
a
sources,
it may
an
plant
may
yield both
ordinary
odour
fat
and
its characteristic
quantities, while
The
are
occur
in large proportion.
"
essential oils
some
are
than
water,
in which
some
they they
soluble in alcohol and other solvents, and as a rule be distilled without decomposition ; alkalies have
no
Httle
and than
or
action
on
them
they contain
carbon,
hydrogen,
oxygen,
but
the proportion
is less
to
in the
a
used
in soap-making
impart
The
perfume
second
or
are
the so-called
hydrocarbon
shale
and
mineral
or
the Scotch
; these
paraffin
American
water, to
can
petroleum
oils
a
are
lighter than
have
oily appearance,
they
are
manent perand
not
stain
alcohol, they
paper;
insoluble
be distilled without
are
decomposition,
are
acted
and
on
composed
only of carbon
hydrogen,
are
called
hydrocarbon
oils ;
GLYCERINE.
57
these
use
are
not
used
in soap-making,
but find
most
extensive
in lubricating machinery.
COMPOSITION
OF OILS
AND
FATS.
they are above that oils when boiledwith caustic soda form two bodies soap and glycerine. Glycerine is a water-white a very viscid liquid having
It has
been
mentioned
"
specific gravity
affinitywith
when
pure
of 1*2665 ; but
it has
such
an
water
the
ordinary
commercial
glycerine
little water.
sweet sweet
taste, and
was
in consequence
industry
water".
the
the crude
water
material
sweet
With
it mixes
in all proportions.
The
following
table showing
various mixtures
TABLE OF
strengths
of
:
"
of these two
GRAVITIES SOLUTIONS OF
useful
SPECIFIC
STRENGTHS
OF
AQUEOUS
GLYCERINE.
Glycerine
ether.
so
in
and alcohol
58
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
benzene,
leum petro-
spirit and
oils. It is
powerful
being nearly equal to water in this respect. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen
in the
proportions indicated by the formula CgHgOg ; in its relationships it belongs to the alcohol group of organic compounds,
has
hydrochloric forming
the monobasic
as
of
compounds
two,
or
three equivalents
the normal
one
; hence
be
tribasic alcohol
containing
three equivalents
the formula
OH,
and
therefore having
fOH
OH OH
and
is essentially the hydroxide of the radicle glyceryl. by a looseness of exIt may be mentioned that although pressio is very common, glycerine is often spoken of which
the base of the oils and fats, yet glycerine
as
as
such
does
not
of
saponification by the combination C3H5, with the radicle hydroxyl. of this basic radicle glyceryl. acid
or
glyceryl,
are
The
Heated
fats
salts
strong
sulphuric
sulphate it is dehydrated, and acid potassium is evolved, recognisable C3H3COH, acrolein (acrylic aldehyde),
with
it energetically, forming
variety
being formed
the
with
manner
and
the
operation
in
is carried out.
the presence of
Heated caustic
potassium
permanganate is converted
carbonic
manner.
this reaction
takes place in
definite
SOAP.
59
it is taken glycerine.
advantage
of for the
quantitative
estimation
of
When
glycerine is heated
ethers
are
equivalents
of the base.
of the acid
are
combined
with
one
valent equi-
Chemists,
to show
the analogy
between
given to it the systematic name glycerol, but it has been thought better to use the more famihar name glycerine here.
glycerine and
the alcohols, have
SOAP.
Some
body
formed
more
by
been
have
given, and
will be given
been
fully described.
Soap is,to
the fats and
on
a more
or
on
the nature
of
;
mass jelly-like
provided that there be sufficient soap dissolved in the water. If the soap be ignited it leaves behind about 7 per cent, of white ash consisting entirely of a carbonate of the alkali, the soap, thus proving that soda or potash used in making
a
soap is an
alkaline compound.
a
If to
boiling aqueous
solution of soap
slight
excess
of
dilutesulphuric acid be added, the soap is decomposed, and there is obtained an aqueous solution of the sulphate of the oily matter rises to and forms a layer on the surface of the hquor ; the character of this layer of fat depends a great deal on the fat used in the preparation of the alkali,nd a
a
fatty
or
rule,
more
solid.
This
fatty
matter,
although
resembling
possesses
the
fat
or
oil
very different
water.
specific gravity
it is lighter than
It
60
SOAP
MANUFACTURE^
is soluble in petroleum spirit, ether, benzene, and from fat by being soluble in alcohol and acetic acid. It is capable
soda
or
is distinguish
glacial
of combining
with
caustic potash, re-forming the cold. It is also on heating capable of decomposing carbonates
acid
matter
the
of the
a
gas,
very
the
liberated from
is formed
by
acid
or
acids
with
base
known
the
class of compounds
as
same
reason,
oils and
fats
are
compounds
of
base-glyceryl,
with
these
acid bodies
they must
be salts too.
The
is not
of the soap acid body obtained by the decomposition less complex mixture or simple body, but is a more that the oils
researches
are
compounds
and
of two
others
or on
more
The
of Chevreul of
a
the
revealed
the
existence
large
number
are
of fatty acids ;
present
in various
proportions
in most
oils ;
as,
for example,
oil,arachidic acid in arachis (ground-nut) oil, doeglic acid in sperm oil, brassic acid in rape oil, etc. These fatty acids are monobasic acids, and the glycerides present in the oils contain one equivalent of the ricinoleic acid in castor
base to three equivalents of the fatty acids.
The from
fatty acids
so
far known
important
be called the
groups.
from and The
one
oxygen
points, combining
family
resem-
FATTY
ACIDS.
61.
decomposition
blauce in the
and combine
THE
manner
in which
they undergo
a
with
similar way.
ACIDS.
STEABIG General
formula/
qqq"
Oils and fats in found. which
Name.
Formula.
Formic
HCHO2
XJLG2U3O2
Acetic Propionic
.
Butyric
HC3HA HC^HA
HC5H9O2
HCgHnOg
Butter.
Valerianic
/WhaJe 1 rian
Caproic Enanthylic
.
etc.
HCgHiyOg HCioHjgOg
oil, oil of chaulmugra oil, oil of Califorrue,
Cocinic
.
HCuHgiOa
{Geran
nian
bay-tree.
Laurie
.
HC]2H2302
HC13H25O2 HC14H27O2
-| oil. I
rCoconut kernel
{Nutmeg
oil, palm-kernel
oil.
Palm
Stearic
. .
{Tallow,
oil.
Arachidic Medullic
Behenic
HC22H43O2
.
{Ben
\
Lignoceric
Geoceric Cerotic
. .
(Distillate
ceti. Bees' wax.
Melissic
This series is also known the acetic series, acetic acid as being, important of the series, perhaps, the most member
62
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
although
often
a
to be present
of their decomposition.
saturated
acids and
a
will not
combine
directly with
iodine
or
bromine
formic, acetic,propionic
are
liquids,
miscible with water, and have or more are a pungent, acrid odour ; the next few members less oily in appearance; those below the eleventh member,
volatile without decomposition,
as soluble in water, and are hence known be distilled without the soluble fatty acids, and can change
cocinic acid,
are
in the presence
are
of water.
The hardness
higher
and
members
of the series
of their molecule
and
they cannot
with
These
the
stearic series.
compounds,
With
one
bromine
equivalent
or
or
of
equivalents
of bromine
iodine, forming
.
compounds
Heated
of the
type of bromo-oleic
acid, HCi8H34Br202
with caustic
potash
to
temperature
acetate
of 300"C., they
and
a
undergo
salt of
tion, decomposia
potassium
potassium
fatty acid
This acid has two atoms of the stearic series being formed. of carbon less than the original acid, thus oleic acid is converted
into potassium
HCigHgsOa
+
acetate
2K0H
=
and potassium
KC2H3O2
+
palmitate
"
KOjeHgiOa.
some
serves
distinguishing
test
conversion isomeric
characteristic reaction of the oleic series is the by means of nitrous acid into a more solid but
:
compound
thus
hypogaeic
FATTY
ACIDS.
63
and
is
very useful
means
of much
SERIES General
FATTY
ACIDS.
~
"
rjoOH
The
while
that
lead salts of the oleic fatty acids are soluble in ether, the lead salts of the stearic fatty acids are insoluble in
solvent.
LINOLIC SEBIES
formula
OF
FATTY
~
ACIDS.
^'
General
| q^^ in few
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
of either two
or
six equivalents
of the halogen
They
are
are
of the
HCiaHggBrgOa
2K0H
HGisHgiOa
OF
2H2O
2KBR.
LINOLENIC General
SERIES
formula
FATTY
-
ACIDS.
6.
CnHgn COOH.
These
acids
are
great
on
bromine
and
are
readily acted
by
of potash
OF
FATTY
"
ACIDS. ^'^^-
|g^^
FATTY
ACIDS.
65
These
with
hydroxy
acids, monobasic,
easily combine
readily with
ether, but
bromine
not
iodine,
soluble in alcohol
and
them
in petroleum
into elaidic
acids. Having
so
the
base
now
their decomposition
by alkahes
being
the
fatty that
one
acids
the
exception
compound
monobasic
of these
acids, it follows
bodies must
equivalents
contain
of the acid.
valent equiThus
olein, stearin, palmitin, laurin, and linolein, to take the five common most and important glycerides used, in soap-making, have the following formulae :
"
Olein, O3H5
"
Stearin, OgHg
Palmitin,
CgHg
Laurin,
OgHg
\ Ci-^H.^Oa
Oj^H.^^0^
.
Linolein,
C3H5
C,,n^fi^
other glycerides. It dealing
Oils and
Some will be
fats
are
mixtures
two,
of J;heseand
a
contain
more
only
others
much
boiled with caustic soda or caustic t (sodium or potassium hydroxide),he stronger base potash a soap, while the with the fatty acid to form combines to form glycerine, as combines with the hydroxyl glyceryl
the glycerides
are
wdth When
:
"
66
CigHjK.Oo'i
SOAP
MANUFACTURE
3NaOH
Sodium hydroxide.
C3H5
f OH OH
I ohJ -^
Glycerine. Glycerine.
SNaCigHgaO,
Sodmmoleate
C18H31O2I
+
8K0H
rOH-v ( OH^ OH
SKCigHsiOa.
linoleate
linolein.
Potassium. hydroxide.
Potassium
(soft soap).
These
two
equations, with, of
course,
any
necessary
alterations,
and potassium
hydroxides
oils.
The
process
is termed
saponification,
and
perceive in these reactions the principle of the separation of a glyceride into its two approximate components,
Chemists
be brought about by other glycerine and acid, and as this can by the agency means, as the of superheated steam when directly formed, bodies are they include under the term saponification any process which and fatty acid.
OOGURRENCE
OF ANIMAL
AND
splits an
VEGETABLE FATS.
OILS
AND
FATS.
1. ANIMAL
In
the
animal
body
are
large deposits
of
Nearly of fat.
occur.
all the In
and
organs
are
covered the
coat
about
muscles
joints of
cases
case a
bones
from
deposits of fat
one
The
another
are
by layers of fat.
In This
some
deposits is
of fat
known'
matter
of particular note.
as
is the
with what
to anatomists
omentum
of animals,
which
names
"
covers
''
the
intestines, known
case
by
in the
are
various
case
leaf" in the
oxen.
of the pig,
skin"
and
**
of sheep
and
a
The
bodies of whales
as
seals
with
occurs
the
blubber".
animal
in the animal body enclosed in small cells of tissue in a liquid condition, so that it does not inter-
OCCURRENCE
OF
FATS
AND
OILS.
67
in this
the
sets
liquidcondition
by the natural
becomes
When
cold, and
to which
circmnstance
of dead
bodies. in the
animal
purpose
of fatty deposits
kingdom
case
is
threefold.
omentuniy
First it preserves,
especially in the
of the
from
injury and
It
serves
serves as
a
cate to lubristore
them
warmth
of
store of food.
AND
2. VEGETABLE
OILS
FATS.
In the vegetable
kingdom
contain per
fats
occur or
in
variety
of ways.
some
as
All seeds
much
as
greater
less extent,
as
a
60
cent.
This
such from
oil acts
a
food for
its sustenance
of certain fruits, e.g.,olives, oil-palm nuts, contains deal of oil. The vegetable oils here referred to are
fixed
many
or
not
the
in
cases
particular odour
AND
taste
EXTRACTION
PURIFICATION OILS
AND
OF FATS.
VEGETABLE
It is obvious
that
or
as
the circumstances
under
are
which
varied
must
any the
particular animal
methods adopted
vegetable
oil
occurs
so
of extracting them
be
varied also. A process which will work well with, say, the fat of the not suit the blubber of the whale or the pig, would Space will not permit of a very extended oilfrom the ohve. description of all the processes which have been devised for
the extraction of animal those which
are
and
vegetable
use
a
oils and
fats ; but of
in
common
full description
will be
given, while
other
processes
of only
noted in outline.
68
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
1. ANIMAL
FATS
AND
OILS.
operation
tallow and
of
extracting
the
animal
as
oils and
"
fats,
".
rendering
principle which
fatty
underlies
matter
means
is that
of
liberating the
from
the
animal
This
of heat.
so
in
doing
to flow
it bursts
away.
of
tissue and
is then
out
ready
We
this operation
3rd, steam
by
2nd,
boiling in water;
under
by
Dibect
Heat.
"
The
housewife
renders
or
suet
in the
a
oven. on
system
by placing the rough fat in a tray It is scarcely possible to adopt quite so the large scale, although two one or described
method.
very
dish
simple
plans
which
will be
primitive
closely resemble
the
housewife's
A
rough
the
simple
fat in
are a
method
occasionally
over
adopted fire.
is to
The
heat
the of
large boiler
kept
the
contents
boiler
continually been
that
it is constirred, and when sidered freed from the tissue, the fire off into
a
is withdrawn This
method,
care
separate receptacle.
though
If great
or
be not
simple, is open to several objections. to char the fat taken there is a liability
acquiring
only
so,
discoloured
appearance
are
and
burnt odour.
Not
but
bad
odours
are
Uable
the operation
which
also
able. objection-
better plan of rendering fats by dry or direct is built of heat is illustrated in figure 3. A large chamber can enter it. In conveniently such a size that a workman
A much this
an
side rackwork
the centre
a
shelves
placed
in
On
for
the
floor of the
chamber
are
number
pipes
RENDEBING
ANIMAL
FATS.
69
the purpose
of heating
up
the chaanber
to any
required
degree.
machine, and
turn
are
into small fragments by means of a mincing spread in layers on metallic trays, which in
At the lower the shelves in the chamber. end of each tray is an opening to permit of any fat running for the purpose, these out into gutters, which are arranged
placed
on
gutters conveyimg
the
fat into
storage
tank
placed
in
Fig.
8.
Tallow
Rendering
Chamber.
suitable position. When all the shelves are filledwith trays is closed, and steam of fat the door of the chamber sent into the pipes, is heated 130" to to from the chamber whereby 140" P. it When At this heat the fat melts and runs out.
is
seen
that
no
more
stopped, the
melted
and
the
trays
filled up for
some
70 7
or
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
to another
pan
The
advantage
been Soap
On
some
devised
Works,
by
Messrs.
Cook
Hall
very
quality.
work
the
fat of
more
costly to
than
There
is the
labour of mincing
The
cost
the rough
of heating
so
the
chamber
great.
is rather
Pig.
4.
Merryweather'a
Fat
Rendering
Plant.
Messrs.
Merryweather
of rough
"
Sons
have
devised
plant
for
fats by superheated
steam
whereby
First, a double-cased
steam
This
being
a
sent
tween be-
pans
second,
superheater
which
is heated
in
the steam ; and, third, suitable furnace for superheating is very efficient in use. boiler. This apparatus It a steam in figure 4, where H represents is shown the fat pan ; B
a
BENDERING
Alrt";^^:^?3irfB.
71
a
the steam
of fi shaped chimney.
left behind
or
furnace ; D
number
dry systems
of rendering
as
tissue, or,
the
a
it is called, the
of rendering
greaves
cracklings
With
best system
th^ fat, it is
may
these always
contain
certain proportion
of fat which
desirable from
economical
motives
to
recover.
This
be done
One
from
in several ways.
of the most
common
methods
to
of recovering
pressure
the fat
a
greaves
very
is by
them subjecting
press
in
press.
One
convenient
is the
Boomer
Screw
Joint
Press.
A convenient
It consists of
a
form
round
table with
corrugations,
can
provided is supported
with
hp from
on
a
which
flow.
This
On
a
made
in two
worjcing
on
hinge, with A
the
of object
has
are
it to be readily discharged*
screw
plunger
connected
press
a
The
Boomer
left-handed
the nuts
; the
working
on
which
revolution of the
a
screw
the nuts
and thus by
some
knuckle
joint
the
downwards
with
force.
The
greaves
cracklings while still hot are The press brought into action.
residual greaves
manure. are
the
for
collected and
Eendering
by
Boiling
Water.
"
very
old plan
of
rendering tallow is to boil it in an open boiler set in a fireplace Uke an ordinary household boiler along with water. washing The heat of the boiling water causes the fat to expand and
Being lighter than water, melt and flow from the greaves. it collects on the top of the boiling water, and should be
skimmed
off from
time
to
time.
The
greaves
fall to
the
72 bottom
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
Some
a
of the animal
tissue passes
into
solution, however,
This
process
little tends
tallow.
is simple,
but it has
the
disadvantage
of
that except
been
by processes
for
rendering
Such
in figure 5, which
represents
an
Fig.
6.
Fat
Boiler.
improved
The bottom is double, and of construction. the space thus formed is in communication with the outer air. By this means the temperature of the bottom of the pan never
form
The
lid,from
one
portion
the steam,
etc., passes
into
chimney,
thus
and
preventing
nuisance. Eendering
convenient
Fats
under
Pressure
by
Steam.
is shown
^A very in figure 6.
"
RENDERING
ANIMAL
FATS.
73
This
and
consists
supported
of
on
boiler placed vertically as shown, The rough its upper portion. flanges near
steam
a
fat is fed
in through
manhole,
a
M, placed
on
boiler,
placed
and
on a
which
V.
also is
steam
safety valve, S.
In the bottom
is
perforated
valve,
coil,C, connected with a steam-pipe In the side of the boiler are placed two gauge
tlSp
Fig.
6.
Fat
Boiler.
or
flow-out
is placed
large valve, E,
tallow, while at the bottom of the for running off the melted boiler is another valve, T, for running off the water, etc. : The boiler is used in the following manner This crude
fat is broken
up
into small
through
the manhole,
pieces, and fed into the boiler is then which is then closed. Water
74
run
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
in, and
steam
at 60
lb. pressure
sent
in through
the
for five to six hours, the coil; this being continued length of time being regulated according to the amount of When is shut the operation is finished the steam charge.
steam
Fig.
7.
Fat
Boiler.
allowed
run
off from
If necessary,
run-
is
run
in to throw Some
ning-ofif taps.
renderers
off the
RENDERING
ANIMAL
FATS.
75
steam,
there
off all the contents of the boiler into a tank, and it can be allow the fat to settle out and solidify,when
run
removed.
be using such a plant, a larger quantity of fat can rendered in a given time ; there is less chance of objectionable
odours
By
crude The
render
fat from
the
previously
described
pressure, By
is constructed
or
to at
at all events
employing
some
boilers which
advantages
gelatinised,
constructed
secured
to work
at
higher pressure,
; the nitrogenous
tissue is
more
completely from
greater
7 represents
such
apparatus,
cases
which
they
are
may
be built of any
of
a
required
size ; in
some
constructed
capacity
of 10,000
gallons.
As will be
seen
from
the drawing,
a
it consists of
valve, v^hich
There
an
safety
manhole passes
and
the
rod
of the
discharging
the two
orifice
or
valve.
is a false bottom.
Between and
a
bottoms
an
is a steam
steam
coil connected
by
valve
pipe
with
ordinary
boiler.
closed
In the bottom
is
discharging by
a
orifice,which passing
is kept
the
by
rod
through
a
top
of the boiler.
number
to about
from
near a
the bottom
half-way
The
up, while
near
the top is
testing cock.
apparatus
is used
ii;i the
following
manner:
The
discharging
the
fat is thrown
in through
manhole
from
in
until the boiler is filledto within about 21 feet is then closed, and steam The manhole the top. sent
a
until
pressure
of 45 to 69 lb. is attained.
of the
steam
occurs,
Generally
and
good
water
deal of condensation
much
is formed,
which
collects at the
bottom
of the boiler.
76
From
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
time
the
to time
the top
cock
is opened.
escapes
out, then
boiler is working
it shows
water
must
be drawn
to time
This
is done
from
time
the
progress
operation.
After
supply is about twelve to fifteen hours* steaming, the steam the safety valve, cut off, the pressure is relieved by opening
to settle. When
well
Fig. 8.
Bone
Boiler.
is
The
run
off, while
the tallow
is
run
into
nitrogenous
manure.
matter,
Working
yield of fat
or
liquor contains a good deal of be collected and used as and it may there is a fairly with this apparatus,
aqueous
tallow from
BONE
good
TALLOW.
Bones
necessary
contain
to extract
good
before
bones
can
BONE
TALLOW.
^
77
purposes.
This bone
fat, or,
as
it is commonly
called, bone
which
are
to be used
a
plan is to adopt
a
boiling process
on objection
such
plan is open
to great
are
nauseous
odours
which
developed,
therefore
it is better to render
bone
Such
and
a
apparatus
purpose
is shown It
in figure 8,
consists
is constructed
by
W.
M.
Fuller.
of
about
at
means
6 feet by
with
both
ends,
both
tightly closed
are
by
of suitable nuts
can
be
There
also
provided
of about
the
steam
connections
of bones
and
charge
46
cwt.
is put
through
upper
door, which
is then
closed.
about
50 to 60
lb. pressure
is then
when
introduced,
and
kept
excess
up for about
steam
forty minutes,
run
it is shut The
an
; oflf the
being
are
run
into
condenser.
contents
of
the the
boiler fat is
The
now
allowed
hour, when
off through
are
cock
at the
bottom
the
bones
drawn
them
out
by
opening
on
to drop
the
floor.
out
fatty and
other
gelatinous matter
of
treatment,
of the bones
the
than
are
do
a
most
modes
while
bones
in
better condition
therefore
a
for being
more
converted
into
manure,
friable.
plant for the boiling and Fuller. B
In figure 9 is shown
complete
crushing
of tones,
mill
prior to their being placed in the bone boilers, E, E, the crushed bones being conveyed crushing
to them
Mr.
is
by
means
of elevators ; d, d
the bones, which
are
are
the
tanks to
on
passed
are
to the
crushing and
they
crushed
and
meaL
78
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
EXTRACTION
OF
VEGETABLE
OILS.
79
Other
plans of treating
no
bones
have
been
devised.
It is
are
two
bone-boiling
establishments
the
alike in their
plant
for extracting
fat and
gelatine from
In The
one
bones.
they
works
are
boil the
bones
in pans
over
fire^
fitted with covers. Each pan communicates by a flue with a large iron condenser, in which all the matter into which is capable of condensing collects and flows away
pans
which
is uncondensed
It
passes
flue and
away
atmosphere.
would
up
be all
better to conduct
all gases
the
fireplaces to bum
they
use
bottle-shaped
and
the
by
steam,
both
the
fat
gelatine
recovered.
are above applicable for the fats, and are those usually extraction of all kinds of animal In some be adopted a cases worked. special process may
The
processes
described
described under
their
respective fats.
2. VEGETABLE
OILS
AND
FATS.
There
is
methods
than
oils and
sources.
fats The
vegetable
generally
cases one.
sources
method
some
followed
the
is to extract
oils by pressure, in
at
ordinary
temperature, fats
are
in others at
higher
Some
vegetable
water,
as
extracted
by
of animal
process
of boiling with
the property
in the
as
case carbon
fats, while
of such
bodies
bisulphide, benzohne,
taken
advantage
of for obtaining
vegetable
oils by
solvent
process. Extraction
of
Vegetable
Oils
oils by
by
Pressure. pressure
"
The
very
process of extracting
vegetable
is
80
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
followed by people commonly ancient one, and it is the one in a low state 9f civilisation. Like many other methods from it has undergone many changes and developments
the
to
It is not intended earliest times to the present. into a discussion of the changes enter which place ; attention will rather
here
have
taken
now
in
use
in this country.
If any
something
Encyclopoedia
There
are
to Spon's Dictionary
of Engineering.
oils in
as
this country
system,
two
use
in
the
English
the Anglo-American
system. takes
The
System follows
:
"
of oil pressing
place
in
several stages
Grinding.
Pressing.
Fifth, Eefining. refining of the oil obtained by carrying out the firstfour in other processes of extracting as operations is the same
The
oils,and
will be considered
"
later
on.
First, Crushing.
to the various
operations
enumerated
a
other
material
dirt,
is first
to subjected
cleaning
have
which
might
tions [operaThese
is obtained.
and cleansing processes consist essentially of winnowings with all the sievings through various sizes of sieves. Even free oil that may be taken it is impossible to completely care it is seeds from all other foreign seeds, so that commercially
doubtful
whether
an
The
crushing
frame
in
PEESSING
VEGETABLE
OILS.
81
rolls ;
one
it.
with
The
some
two
rolls
are
caused
of
against
and
one
another
force by
means
against the bearings of the rolls. The hopper delivers it between the pair of rolls, in its which
Fig. 10.
Oil Seed
Crushing
Mill.
mill will day of ten hours. It a working crush is obvious, however, that the quantity a mill will do will It is vary vrith the kind of seed and other circumstances. usual to run the mill at such a speed that the large roll makes about 4 tons of seed in
One of these crushing mills fifty-sixrevolutions per minute. win keep two ordinary-sized presses at work,
6
passage
through
which
it becomes
crushed.
82
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Figure
made
10 is
drawing
Eose,
of such
Downs
mill
by
Messrs.
"
Foundry,
Hull, to whom
the author
is indebted
for the
engraving
of this and
Secondy Grinding^
into the hopper
of
an
grinding
mill
as
seen
in
Fig.
11.
Oil Seed
Grinding
Mill.
shows
the construction
of such
mills very
An
for the
runners
other edgemill differs from most The a usual size shallow hopper. is 7 feet in diameter and 16 inches thick, and
6 to 7 tons.
The
seventeen
One
mills
PEESSING
VEGETABLE
OILS.
83
The
seed is ground
During
it
is usual
^i^'
Fig.
12.
Oil Seed
Heating
Kettle.
ing to moisten
the
it and
put
the seed
for
succeeding Third,
being
crushed
and
seed
next
undergoes
heating
operation.
This
in
large copper
steam
kettle, shown
in figure 12.
to circumstances,
quantity
In
84 5 feet in diameter
so jacketed
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
deep.
They
up
are
usually
a
that they
be heated
There
by steam
an
to
temperature
of 160" to 170".
is also
arrangement
for
sending which
into the inside of the kettle among the seed is being treated. the as This is very important,
steam
heating in the kettle tends to dry the seed, and dry seed does
not
give
good
time
of heating
varies
somewhat
twenty
according
to twenty-five
to circumstances,
minutes.
The
but
with
that every portion of agitating apparatus to ensure One kettle of the dimensions the seed is uniformly heated.
an
given above
at work
capable
ing of turn-
in their previous operations are purely mechanical effects,being designed to get the seed into the best possible The heating in condition for jrielding all the oil it contains.
The the kettle has
a
combined
mechanical
and
chemical
cells,and
effect.
thus
at the
The
heating
a
more more
completely ready
breaks
up the
results in
same
separation
and
other matters
prevents
them
from
being pressed out along with the oil. It is the great object in oil pressing to obtain an oil as free as possible from extraneous in oil the presence of which vegetable matters, brings about its decomposition be the case. Fourth, Pressing.
placed in strong
each
"
sooner
than
would
otherwise
seeds
are
bags made
the
usual
amount
in
bag
being 8 lb., or
there
sufficient seed
a
that
after pressing
remains
cake
covers,
weighing
and
are
8 lb. then
The
bags
next
enclosed
in woollen
**
wrapped
cloths
hairs," which
of seed
are
are
strong
now
cakes
placed
tween be-
to subjected
pressure.
PRESSING
VEGETABLE
OILS.
85
as
Beyond
such
primitive
and
methods in
use
of pressing
oil
have
been in existence
there have
still are
by uncivilised people,
use
:
"
been
Wedge
Press.
Press. Press.
have almost
are
Third, Hydrauhc
The first and only hydraulic of them The
second
gone
out
of
use,
oil presses
made.
A few
words
be useful.
and
two
Wedge
Press,
"
This
old form
of oil long,
a
press consists
narrow,
portions. At
cast-iron
one
box,
but
deep,
is provided.
end
is placed
the
this is put
bag
of
seed ; next
wood
comes
another
plate, followed
by
piece of
the
comes
to the foregoing.
is fitted up is known
pieces
way.
Between
the
key
arrangement,
at the
consisting
than
the
bottom
intermediate
The The
whole
key, shaped
like
an
verted in-
wedge.
one
of this arrangement
constitutes
hardwood
the
part.
other
can
portion
made
consists
to
of
two
stampers, wedges
which
some
be
alternately them
fall upon
with
force, thus
driving
some
farther in and
of pressure,
on
causing them
amount
oil it contains.
After
falHng
the
wedge
it the stamper is raised up ready for another When drop. is considered that all the oil has been extracted, a stamper is allowed to fall loosens the whole the key, which upon
arrangement
as
a
so
that
the
can
bags
of pressed
seed, the
it is now
called,
be withdrawn.
portion
tank.
a
The
oil flows
of the
box, from
of
a
whence
course
it is transferred
storage
It is obvious press is
of oil in
stamper
limited
86
one.
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
About
fair quantity
for
stamper
press to turn
The
screw
partly because
it could
was
not
be made
to
strong
It
for the
work, of
a
and
it
awkward
vessel
was
work.
a
consisted
up and worked the
circular
in
which
piston
strong
placed the
down.
To
lever.
attached
by
bags
of seed
the
were
between
screw
bottom
piston, and
down,
being
worked
forced
thereby
"
several makers.
have
for of
modern
form
is,
capable
products
to
turning
out
more
work
and
obtaining
more
better
than
a
the older
.
ones.
It will be
convenient until
an
defer
description
of the
hydraulic
oil press
account
The
was
duced intro-
son, " Thompinto this country by Messrs. Eose, Downs it, have, since its introduction, greatly developed who and made The
many
improvements
system
on
the machinery.
Anglo-American
requires
five operations
"
Heating.
Third, Moulding.
Fourth,
Pressing.
Fifth, Eefining.
the seed has been cleansed, as ^After to a crushing operation, mentioned above, p. 80, it is subjected a which is given by passing it through series of heavy (seefigure 13). chilled iron rolls placed in a suitable frame First, Crushing.
"
PEESSING
VEGETABLE
OILS.
87
of these rolls depend upon the quantity size and number Some mills have three rolls, others of seed to be dealt with. four, and others five. A very common size is a mill with five Such a mill rolls, each 3 ft. 6 in. long by 16 in. in diameter.
The
will pass
work
through
sufficient seed
to keep
set of presses at
a
5^ to
a
6 tons of cake in
working
day.
feeding hopper
From
into which
the
is placed.
this hopper
it is passed
Fig. 13.
Oil Seed
Crushing
Rolls.
between
By
adhering to the second roll the seed is carried between rolls Nos. 2 and 3, and successively between through Nos. 3 and 4 and 4 and 5, receiving a greater crushing each
time.
seed
Guides
are
attached
to each
roll to
ensure
that
the
is carried between each pair of rolls. This operation is identical with the Secondy Heating, similar operation in the English process described on p. 83.
"
Third,
Moulding.
"
in the
88
kettle, it is sent
shown
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
into
moulding
The
machine. machine
This
machine
one
is
in figure 14.
moulding
is
Anglo-American
system.
Its
object
of the is
it by
not
uniformity in the size of the cakes of seed, to mould gentle pressure into a level cake, so that the press is
any
are
subjectto
a
undue
strain due
a
to
inequalities in the
the presses
to
ensures
secured
from
seed
is allowed
always
fall
box, which
Fig.
14.
Oil Cake
Moulding
Machine.
uniform
a
quantity
of seed
being
used.
placed
A
on
a
tray
covered
vdth
the
sheet
of woollen machine
formed
The
cloth is next
and
the table of
moulding
thus
surrounded
by
frame.
formed then
Into
the mould
a
the
into
smooth
cake.
tray and
pushed
under
machine,
when
is brought
into action, and the die caused to fall upon the seed and compress it to a thickness of 3 inches, or even less ; the pressure being maintained for about half a minute, when the die
rises and
the cake
of seed
is removed
and
sent
into the
PRESSING
VEGETABLE
OILS.
89
a
hydraulic press.
number of cakes
By
can
the
use
of the moulding
machine
larger time.
be dealt with
seed has
a
in the press at
of about
one
A cake of unpressed
thickness
8 inches,
seed has a thickness of about 3 inches, and while the moulded so a press than twice as much moulded will take rather more
seed
as
unmoulded
seed.
Fig. 15.
Hydraulic
Oil Press.
Fourth,
Pressing.
"
This
is the
final operation
system,
of either
the Anglo-American
case
or
although
has
in either
a
the
press
to undergo
be sent
undergone
for in
changes
90
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
firstapplied to the pressing of oil ; but it detail since it was is not intended here to give any historical sketch of these changes, as space does not admit of it. Figure
pressing
the
15 shows
of hydrauUc
are
short
of the pumps
which
press
necessary
a
press.
The
hydrauhc
consists of
a ram
very
cast-iron foundation,
a
in which
works
connection
iron movable plate. This plate moves up and for between stout iron standards, which also form supports bottom a the movable very strong iron casting. Between
strong
Fig.
16.
Oil Cake
Moulds.
plate and
the top
are
arranged
number
of corrugated
iron
plates which
The
to be pressed.
cakes
they
come
from
the
hke a machine are placed in a pair of iron covers (seefigure 16),and into the press. This does away hairs which were used in the old system, which
expensive
to
very
them
the press does which owing to the damage be made The in in breaking them. press may
to
use
particular
requirements
of pressing
of the
oil
at
four cakes
to
one
taking twelve
to fourteen
cakes.
PRESSING
VEGETABLE
OILS.
91
Two press,one
sets
to
of
pumps
a
are
usually of about
supplied
700
a
with
800
each
give
to
lb. per of 2
pressure
is applied
which the great bulk of the oil will iow out. Then the the higher pressure is put to complete extraction of the oil, which will take a further five to ten
during sides of the seed into the conmgations on the iron plates and into channels which are to a storage or receiving tank provided for it to flow away
minutes. The
placed about
Usually from
plant,as the
four presses
are
included
are
in
one
oil
other portions
than
one
of the plant
quite capable of
keeping
more
It is obvious,
of
course,
from
considerably
owing
to the varying
also of the
seed
per hour of press can work linseed, it wiU only do three of rape seed and four of cotton Larger presses, working perhaps seedin small-sized presses.
through lb. of seed at one charge, will work threeto four charges in three hours. The size of the cake
of seed also varies vnth the size of the press. As a rule seeds are only passed once the press, through but there are few, such as rape and gingelly seed, which a are crushed twice, the cake obtained in the first pressing
250 to 320
and
reheated
again
pressed.
presses is spread
pressing
over
threepresses.
oil seeds, castor seeds, cotton seeds, arachis seeds, have a very hard shell, besides being of large size. It is etc.,
necessary for the better extraction of the oil that the shell
or
Some
92
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
husk
be removed;
as a
this is effected by
the
means
of
known
**
decorticator,
operation
being
machine known as
of
decorticating".
Such
mill adapted
be made to they may oil seeds bj^ hand, although by steam, is shown These mills have in figure 17, a work pair of revolving cylinders carrying blades fixed at a particular distance apart, this distance being dependent the seed upon
castor
which
is being
treated, castor
oil seed
requiring
different
Fig.
17.
Castor
Seed
Decorticator.
distance than
the seed and
so
on.
The
knives
just cut
figure
at B
by winnovs^In
ing
are
the
husks
at A
readily
be
separated.
18
shown
oil seeds
before treatment,
the
DECORTICATING
OIL
SEEDS,
93 for the
husks, and
at C
the
white
kernels
ready
crushing
mills.
There
is, of
course,
oil which
in the
is yielded by
case
of seeds which
of seed
give but
charge
poor
yields to is done
use
in each
than
with
castor
and
seed
is
distinct crushings, yielding oil of several qualities. First the seed is crushed cold, when what " " is known as or cold drawn virgin oil is obtained ; then the seed is heated and reground, when what is called ** second
to subjected
two
three
"
'*
Fig.
18.
Castor
Seeds.
*'
pressure
water
oil is obtained
finally, the
a
seed is warmed
and
again pressed,
when
third quaUty
In the
are
case
and
palm-nut
it is customary
oils, to heat
the oils fluid. In winter, too, it is the presses so as to make desirable to work with heated presses. from the press is passed to a The oil cake after coming
paring machine,
cake rather The parings with
more
are
where
the edges
are
trimmed
to
make
the
marketable. presentable and therefore more sent back to the crushing rolls to be worked batch of seed.
through
the next
94
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
PRINCIPAL
VEGETABLE
OILS
AND
FATS.
Eefining
come
and
Clarifying
are
Oils.
usually
"
The
from
the
oil press
cloudy
contain
vegetable
freed.
much
colouring
matter,
tissue, from
which
The
oil
as
it
comes are
from
the
press
should
be
run
into it
large tanks,
which remain
kept for
some
at about
is allowed
vegetable
clear.
to
time. leaving
a
and
solid
and
matter
settle down,
oil bright
and
This
process
is however
slow
one,
the oil
CLARIFYING
OILS.
95 fore there-
care
to keep
quicker process.
by oil-clarifjdng tank made It consists, as Messrs. Wm. Oxley " Co., of Manchester. willbe seen, of a long cylinder tank made of tinned iron ; the
drawing
of
an
Figure 19 is
bottom is made
conical with
the
apex
to the bottom,
from
Fig.
19.
Oil-Clarifying Tank.
which
protrudes
to the
side of the tank a pipe for drawing impurities which Draw-oflf settle there.
placed
tank
on
the
The
some
and
allowed
the
stand
for
time.
The
impurities
collect at of which
thus
bottom
as
of the
to
tank,
is such
concentrate
in
small
space,
economising
the
quantity
of
96
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
foots obtained.
cocks
fibre
From
and
time
when
to time
draw-oflf
the
opened,
clear enough
bottom
draw-oflf cock
run
is opened and the clear oil rmi the oflf, into a separate vessel, and the tank is
of oil.
batch
These
tanks
are
ma,de
to
hold 250
Sometimes
10 per
cent,
oils are
clarified by adding
to
them
from
5 to
of their weight
150" F., and
the
mixture
half
an
to about
maintaining
hour
to
an
oil is allowed
to settle out.
to stand
thirty hours
The
impurities in suspension,
or
at the
same
time exerts
same
less bleaching
may
action be
the oil.
several
The
quantity
of
fuller's earth
used
a
that of
as a
from
The
fuller's earth
absorbs
treatment away.
should be removed
by
before
it is thrown
large quantities of oil are to be dealt with, it is a fuller'searth combined with a filter press. good plan to use The oil is heated with 2 to 3 per cent, of its weight of fuller's Where
earth,
as
described
above;
then
the
oil is sent
through
filterpress, which
removes
in the oil.
with oils.
Special forms
of filterpress
made
for deahng
Figure
Halle,
20
represents
filter press
for
made
by
Dehne
of
which
is well
are
adapted
to
use,
pressing
they
are
oils.
These
easy
while
efficient in
using
filter press
so
to render
to be market-
REFINING
OILS.
97
from the able,very quickly, by sending the oil as it comes hydraulic press through the filter out of press. The oil comes the latter fairly bright and clear, and will find a ready sale.
is filtered out is returned to the which solid matter kettleto be worked up with the next batch of seed. By this there is produced nothing but oil and method of working
The cake,no
foots of any
such
mechanically
used in clarifying as china clay, infusorial earth, by carrying down the solid
been
Fig.
20.
matter
80
in suspension and absorb the moisture leave the latter clear and bright. Various processes have
been devised
agents most
soda.
in the oil,and
chemical
sulphuric
means
; the two
commonly general
being of
acid and
caustic
The
method
using these
"
Sulphuric
acid
has
powerful
action
on
all organic
98
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
virtue depends
matters
on
the
fact that
oils
are
the
found
in crude is the
or
more
extraneous
the
acid than
much
however
be used,
thus
leading to loss.
usual
plan of treating
oils is to place the oil in a suitable receptacle, a copper tank iron pan, which or should coil or, either contain a steam better still, be jacketed means ; of agitating the oil and acid together
should
be provided, which
or
a
may
take
the
form
of
mechanical
during tank
agitator,
current
of air may
be
blown
in
the operation.
It is advisable
of the
to be made
more
effectual
at the
separation
of the
cone
acid, and
purpose
tap provided
bottom
which been
of the
of running
of the
off the
process
acid
have
collects.
modifications
published
from
time to time.
to be
It will however
be found
to
that the
varied
according
from
a
the oil
which
much
is being
purer than
than
Some Such
oils
come
the
presses
severe
less
treatment
those
which
contain
large
proportion
of
be Strong sulphuric acid should never matter. vegetable and cannot well be controlled. used ; its action is too severe, It is always
water
"
advisable
to
use
mixture
of sulphuric
the proportion
"
being treated
while
some
may
vary
very
good
ratio,
oils may
Hartley
recommends
even require an weaker acid than this. for linseed oil 1 of acid to 2 of water ;
if the
water
oil be
may
very
impure,
then
be used.
is
run
The about
oil to be treated
110" to
and
heated
never
to
should
be
exceeded,
while
it may be
used.
happen
that
lower
temperatures
of
than and
110" F. may
water
Then
constant
the mixture
oil, acid, in
a
is added
with
agitation
and
slow
EEFINING
OILS.
99
stream
to the oil.
The
and
proportion
used must
1
vary
according
to circumstances,
sometimes
per
cent,
of strong
acid
be used. 3 per cent, may will be sufficient, in other cases The last-named however not be exceeded. quantity should It would be better to give the oil two treatments with a The oil and acid are thoroughly smaller proportion of acid. stirred together
allowed to rest for about
half
an
hour,
then
the
mass
is
for twenty-four
of
warm
hours.
water
At
the end
of this
10 the
time 6
or
gallons
at
150" F. the
for every
are
mixed
for
some
with
days
oil, and
a
then
is allowed
of oil and
to stand
until
perfect separation
place.
The
offand washed
acid.
The
to free it from
are
called,
are
run
to almost all seed of refining is appUcable oils, and is largely used in connection with linseed oil,rape
This method
oil,nut
oil,and
also with
If it be used
it is necessary
to
oils intended
for lubricating
be well
washed
water
free
itfirom all traces of the acid used in might have a deleterious action
to which
in refining, which
on
if left
the metal
it is applied.
treatment
The
acid
will not
; any
aflfect any
such
contain
is Anished.
to
use a
been
recommended
of zinc has
strong
from
solution
(100"
Twaddell)
it and
chloride,
no
using
on
1^
and
to 2 per
This
action
the
oil itself,but it
dehydrates
matter
coagulates
all albuminous
more
vegetable
It costs
chloride than
Refining
are
by sulphuric
acid.
Soda.
"
Oils
by
Caustic
good
many
oils
refined by using caustic soda, in fact some, oil for example, cannot well be refined by other
cotton-seed
means,
while
100
to obtain
SOAP
MANUFACTUKE.
certain
qualities of oil
from
an
alkaline treatment
to
acid constituents is necessary. Colza oil, for instance, is much used for illuminating purposes ; if it contains any notable proportion of free acid it
hence an alkaline unsuitable for this purpose, is needful to be used with colza and other refining process
is rendered
burning
oils.
processes not only free the
remove
Alkaline vegetable
and
oil from
traces
extraneous
matter,
but
they
any
of resin, acid
a
colouring matters
and
which pure
the
oil may
contain, leaving
care
perfectly neutral
oil.
Greater
than
is required
an
in
carrying out
process.
an
alkaline process
is required for
acid
material
This is due to the fact that, while the acid has no action on the oil itself,and therefore little loss is
has
some
oil, and
thereby
loss may
occur.
On
the
other
are
hand,
while
with
the
acid
treatment
may
be made
process
of.
The simple. oil to be treated is run into a suitable vessel ; an iron tank serves very The requisite quantity of caustic soda lye is added, well. thoroughly time and the whole agitated together for some
The
is comparatively
and
some
then
allowed
to
settle,
an
operation
one
which
may
watery
take
two
of
fluid
The
containing
watery
run
soapy
other
of clear oil.
fluid is drawn
mass
alkaU
is
before, after which the purified with water to free it from alkali. proportion of alkaline solution used
the character of the oil to be treated. upon will depend be With may all ordinary oils a lye of 8" to 12" Twaddell Crude cotton-seed oil requires a stronger lye, one used. of from 16" to 20" Twaddell,
while
coconut
oil
can
be
refined
KEFINING
OILS.
101 The
with
quantity
used will
depend upon
is being
treated,the quantity
the amount given
as
of resinous
matter.
it may few
contain, and
rules
can
of colouring
regards
Hence
be
quantity
Generally
i to
Occasionally
which
trouble
arises from
of emulsions
prevent
the proper
alkaline liquor.
When
separation of the oil from the it is best to add a little this happens
out
the oil.
"
treated with
soda crystals
of crystallisation.
to stand, when,
one
After being
as
a
well mixed
the
mass
is allowed
rule, it of
easilyseparates
soapy matter,
into three
layers,
of oil, the
second
and
liquid. mucilaginous
matters,
When
the
and is of poor quality in consequence free fatty acid, this may be removed
of its containing by
or
much
agitating
the
oils
with
weak
of carbonate
of soda,
but usually it will be found easier to treat them vsdth milk of lime or vsdth magnesia, followed by filtering from the lime
or
magnesia
soaps which
"
are
Oil Foots,
quantity of various ways
method
In
large
**
foots
is formed.
to
be
utilised in
very good
according
them
their character.
One
in
is to work
up for soap-making
however
occur
conjunction
to their
Cases
where,
owing
being strongly coloured as in the case of cotton oil foots, this be done. best plan of dealing with such is to The cannot decompose the foots by weak sulphuric acid and distil the
liberated fatty acids, etc. containing
glycerine There
is then
obtained
late distil-
of
pitch," and
will consist
102
SOAP
MANUFACTUKE.
present
are
in the foots.
The
fatty acids
obtained
not
quite pure,
but
contain
small
bodies produced by decomposition quantities of hydrocarbon in distilling. of the fatty matter by the heat employed
Other
those
processes
been
devised, but
use
just described
BLEACHING
what
are
in
common
in
oil
refineries.
OF
FATS
AND
OILS.
A.S obtained
and
fats
are
by
the
more
processes
or
described
In
above, the
vegetable
of
oils
often
oils
is necessarily
matters,
the
presence
natural
etc.,
colouring
chlorophyll, Linseed
erythrophyll,
oil, brown
are
rape
oil,
palm
examples
often
of
such
oils which
strongly
as
coloured. have
Very
in the
a
processes
of refining, such
been
matters
described
above,
of the colouring
is removed,
but traces
oils and
such
that may
be present
is generally due
exceptional
There removed
circumstances.
a
are
number
of ways
by which
which
may
can
be
from
oils. A
process
results
In some it cases oil may not do so with another. with one is suflficient agitate the oil at a temperature to of 120" F. with by filtration. Blowing hot air charcoal, followed animal cases through (palm oil)destroy the colour. will in some
Air and
some
cases
hght
bleaching
are
sometimes
use
resorted
to, but
in
it is necessary
by
to make
of chemical
a
reactions.
of hot
Bleaching
Hot
Air."
By
blowing
current
fats and oils can be decolorised. air at about 130" F. many be treated in this way. Tallow, lard, and palm oil may It is or not desirable that the action should be prolonged, wise otherthere important
is
some
risk of the
oxidation
of the oil.
It is
be dry.
BLEACHING
OILS.
103
Figure 21 is
drawing
of
an
apparatus
made
Korting convenient
K
size to suit is
a
the quantity
steam
is being
treated. fat
can
closed up
to terminating
coil by
of w^hich
the
tube
be heated
at the
any required
degree.
a
is
open
top
and
in
is
drav^-oflfvalve.
C is
an
injector
Fia.
21.
Apparatus
for Bleaching
Palm
Oil.
By
the
action of the
vessel and
injector air
therein
is draw^n
a
from
the
upper
part of the
creates
vacuum
v^hich
is
drawn
in through
from
the outer
atmosphere
which
through
it. The
operation
sample
simple
from
is continued
that the
until
of the
shows
It may
a
be mentioned
tight-fitting cover
that it may
Bichromate
be hermetically
of
Potash
Watts
has devised
104
SOAP
MANUFACTORE.
process
potash,
of oils by
means
of bichromate
of
which
palm
oil.
The
a
oil to be
quantity of fat, mixed
2
bleached
is heated
at about
of bichromate
of potash, in
a
about
previously
with
or
dissolved
little water
and
hydrochloric
of about
2^
of fat is added
In
also thoroughly
vsdth the
material.
the
case
of bleaching
palm
green, and reddish orange colour changes firstto a brownish finally to a light green, the entire operation only taking a few minutes. is now for a few blown Wet through steam
then
it is allowed
out
to
stand
for
some
hours.
and
is skimmed
out
off, and
of acid
washed chrome.
to take
all traces
Instead
of hydrochloric
acid, sulphuric
results.
acid
This
process
oils. is
a
Process.
may
Chlorine
powerful
bleaching
agent
which
be employed
of bleaching
fats and
should
oils.
It is necessary,
that
great
care
be is
taken
a
in using
agent of
it
on
of the
fats,
excess
fact that
resulting
chlorine
colouring
formation
them.
in oils and
which
products
most
have
deleterious
of working
The
a
convenient
plan
solution of bleaching
or
powder,
using
about
the
lb. to 1 ton
of fat
oil, then
about
and
three times
the whole
quantity
of hydrochloric
;
acid is added,
mixture
run
then
the
is allowed
away.
as a
to settle, the
One
advantage
to rancid
deodoriser
are
the
case
of fats and
to give them
oils which
two
strongly
rather
coloured, it is advisable
than
to attempt
treatments
to bleach
them
at
one
operation.
EXTRACTING
OIL
BY
SOLVENTS.
bleaching
powder
be employed
ton
chlorate at
acid is added, and the operation done at a temperature of 150" F. Sun Bleaching. This is commonly posing carried out by exthe oils and fats in colourless glass bottles to sunlight.
twice
the
quantity
"
From
time
to time
the oil or
fat is poured
from
one
bottle to another
the action of the often employed,
with
view
to exposing
oils used
for
medicinal
The
commonly
or
food purposes.
processes employed
above
described
are
those
which
are
in bleaching
have
oils and
fats.
of
Different different
the
refiners, however,
processes, which
various
have
modifications
to
use.
they
found
work
well with
plant and
are
appUances
as
they have
''
in
Such
modifications
often regarded
SOLVENT
trade secrets *\
EXTBACTION
PROCESSES.
fats
are
soluble
in
such
bodies
as
ether,
carbon
etc.
bisulphide, benzohne,
is taken
benzol, carbon
advantage
tetrachloride,
This property
and
on
fats and
oils from
on
substances
all such
containing
works
The
principle
which
apparatus
is that
solvent in
of
a
substance
with
the
a
stillor
retort
distil off the solvent by any means. The fat remains behind in the still, hile the solvent is recovered and used w over The best possible solvent is one that has great again.
solvent
means
be distilled completely by properties for oils, can is free from odour and non-inflammable. of steam, substance
among
those named
The
answers
only
above
which
tetrachloride,
106
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
is commonly
solvent
used
It
is
It action on oils, and is cheap. has one disadvantage, it does not entirely volatilise by means there is a tendency for a littleof the of steam, consequently strong
benzoUne
to remain
behind
care
flammabl in-
and solvent.
use.
great
is needed is
one
this
to
Carbon
bisulphide
best solvents
of
temperature
boiling vv^ater.
under
Being
it
can
be
kept
in tanks
from
vsrater, thereby
explosion fire. It has unfortunately rather a noxious odour, w^hich or it unpleasant to w^ork vdth. This odour is however makes largely due to impurities that come from the materials from
reducing which
odour
the carbon
the
risk of danger
bisulphide
is made.
By
repeatied
use
this
becomes is
a
Benzol
hydrocarbon
obtained
during
the distillation
of coal tar.
water,
ing of boil-
strong therefore
solvent
properties.
care
It is highly
inflammable,
and
great
must
be
taken
in
working
DiETZ
vsdth it.
Apparatus.
"
A very
convenient
form
of apparatus
as
in figure 22.
This consists of
an
extraction tank B,
in which
is placed, between perforated plates at top and bottom, the material from which the oil is to be extracted ; by
means
of
pump,
carbon
bisulphide, contained
through
the extractor
under
and
so
water
abstracts the oil from the material ; from the extractor, the carbon bisulphide containing the oil flows into the still or bisulphide is distilled off by carbon in the coil condenser steam, and is condensed and flows back into tank A to be used over Eesidual oil left in the again.
retort
D,
where
the
stillD
pipe.
is
run
off from
time
to time by
means
of
discharge
easy to work.
EXTBACTING
OIL
BY
SOLVENTS.
107
Figure 23 is
made in any
drawing
of
convenient size and It consists of three portions. First, the centre vessel which forms the extractor. The material is put in at the be hermetically top, which is fitted with a hd which can
closed. In this extractor there is also a bottom, on which the fatty materials are
be small plant which can vent. used with any kind of sol-
Fig. 22.
Apparatus
for Extracting
Oils,
This which can be heated by steam. still still communicates of a tube, with the extractor by means which proceeds from the bottom of the extractor and rises up alongside it to nearly three-fourths of its height, and
or
this is a retort
and
near
the
bottom.
worm
a the top of the still pipe passes to a condenser placed above the extractor, the end of the condenser passing into the top of the extractor. This plant is
From
108
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
used the
in the following
extractor
means
way
The
fatty material
is placed
in
and of
the
a
required
; still by
steam
passes
as a
of solvent in the coil the solvent is volatilised and it is condensed, and flows where quantity
; here
it gradually
accumulates.
Fig. 23.
Oil Extracting
Plant.
dissolving
the
out
the
level of
; still
same
bend
in the
tube, when
and
it flows
passes
into the
the
here
through
cycle of changes.
fatty matter
which
can
it had
however,
is left behind
EXTRACTING
OIL
BY
SOLVENTS.
109
time to time,
on
as
required, through
discharge
pipe placed
the bottom
of the still.
method of
extracting,
using
benzoline,
Each
is to
large upright
is divided
by partitions
the middle
manholes,
portion
one
is the
is provided
the other
forms
with
at the
two
at the top
; the
for charging,
lower portion
bottom
for discharging
the stilland
a
pipes ;
This
contains
condensing
manner.
apparatus is used
are
in the following
extractors
filled with
one
Benzoline
means
is placed
a
in the
stillf o
and
is vaporised
upwards condensed
by
of
steam
coil ; the
other
down
vapour, passing
into the
to
a
condenser
of the
boiler, is there
through
liquid
and
flows
with
it the
oil. When
benzoline
vaporised
off from
the original still,the action is reversed and the benzoline distilledback again ; the oil it held in solution is, however, left behind in the still. The to go on action is allowed
from
a
the
raw
material.
This
is
off from
the stillto
storage tank.
means
The
extraction
simple.
of oils by The
is
in itselfvery
crushed
or
other oil-bearing
closed vessel.
Benzine,
any
spirit, bisulphide
of
carbon,
ether
or
other
it, and allowed to flow through suitable solvent is passed into a retort, carrying with it the oil in solution and leaving
the exhausted in the extractor or substances macerator. The solvent in the retort is now distilled off and condensed for reuse, in the retort. while the pure oil is left behind So far the process is very simple, but there are many difficulties :
one
the part
solvent of the
from
the
waste product
This
tank,
apparatus outlet
consists essentially of
large
with
inlet and
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
pipes
circulation
steam
connections
drive
been
off the
residual
after
the
material
in it has
These
exhausted.
must
extractors
necessarily
has
be of
size, and
left behind husks
ought
when
a
extraction
large
case
been
bulk of
of residual
material, with
(in the
to
solvent
which
be
extractor
is emptied. because
the
This
is necessary
could
two
reasons.
First,
lose
afford
to
all this
solvent;
because
inflammable,
a
and
might And
source
of danger.
herein
lies the
is
a
the
material
extractor
bad
conductor
mass,
of heat, and
when
therefore
the
ensure
in large bulk,
sufficiently
To this
a
complete
volatilisation.
difficulty is added,
solvent has the
by
of the
tendency
of greatly
are
depressing
the
temperature
in those
parts which
not
easily reached
by
This
steam
difficulty is only
into
the
extractor,
partially
as
what upper
overcome
by
part
mass
condenses
again
in the
whole
account
is sufficiently heated
throughout,
which,
on
hours
properties of the material, is achieved But the solvent has to be only. when
the material
a
is being moist
cooked
at
the
time, and
cases
when
taken out is in
to what
state, which
in many
is detrimental
otherwise
would
be
e^
valuable product.
The it
soon
residual meal
spoils, and
apparatus all these
cannot
be stored
in this condition,
as
The
to
come over-
defects.
difficulty arising
out
of the
EXTEACTING
OIL
BY
SOLVENTS.
Ill
112
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
cessfull material while in bulk has sucbeen conquered by treating small and successive This is being done by practically time. quantities at one is,instead of passing the That reversing the older process.
unmanageableness
of the
solvent
to
through
extracted
at the
large
mass
the material
be
is passed
solvent,
the
latter
flowing
same
In what by
a
manner
reference
and
to. the
accompanying
alternately
drawing.
C, C2,
C4,
C5,
each
C6
are
cyhnders
communicating
wdth
screw
other
at top and
bottom,
carriers. work,
forward shoot where falls
and
screw.
on
The
material
not
at
is hermetically by
a
closed
water
seal) and
by
carried
screw
working
in B, and
falls down
a
the vertical
screw
into C.
Here
it is carried upwards
communicates
to CI,
with
the second
and
working
falls through
communicating carries
C3
on
to the n^xt
an
This
again
material
in
upward
direction and
up again
to C4, whence
it is carried downwards
part of which
the
excess
in C6,
is
a
in
C6,
in
the
upper
to
there
squeezing
and
a
arrangement
through
express
of
solvent,
falls then
is provided
the
with
steam
jacket and
as
forward of the
where
exhausted
residual solvent.
a
This
is easily
over
the
material
area.
large heated
thin layer
are
considerably
tendency,
are condensed
heavier than
are
downward
of the
allowed
at the
lower
end
kiln,
the condenser
11, collected in at 1.
While
flows
in
an
opposite
direction, whereby the partially extracted in each successive cell with a purer stream
TALLOW.
113
of solvent, thus
the other hand
ensuring
the
nearly
comes
complete
solvent
with material richer in oil, finally passing into the first cell (the last as regards the direction of the solvent), where itmeets the largest quantity of oil, passes through filter a H, and thence into a retort. This latter part of the apparatus
is provided
over
with
steam-jacketed,
flows in
a
which
the
the
mixture
thin
stream;
solvent
being
out
9, while
the
oil flows
condensed
stream
at
in
10.
The apparatus
is sealed by water
ANIMAL
AND
VEGETABLE
TALLOW.
SOAP
OILS.
is, or should be, derived from the fat of cows, sheep, goats, and similar animals; the best fat being
from the known thicker deposits
which butchers
some
Tallow
ox(?n,
taken
generally among
known
by other
names
in
surround
the
the omentum.
the
Tallow
large
is also
fat surrounding
other
muscles,
the
kidneys,
the
be and Fatty matter can organs of the from other parts of the animal, such as the intestines, bones, etc.,and such fat is often sold as tallow ; sometimes with a
body.
is obtained
qualifying distinction
as
bone
tallow ; at other
times,
and
possible, without such a qualifying description. Whenever tallow is dealt in as tallow, it is always understood to be the fat and the obtained from the parts above-named,
sale of any other
this wherever
be regarded
as
fraud
The
deposit of tallow
found to be contained
tissue. The
a
reason
Uquid and
therefore able to
with
every
motion
of the
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
able to flow
from
from
the
spot in which
it is
found.
as
As it is taken
fat, and
the body,
fat is known
the
butcher's
is usually purchased
butchers
if he
be located in
fat" and
*'town
"country
former
being
usually
fresher, and
the
therefore
than
latter.
The
underlies
this
for the
extraction
out
tallow
means
from the
rough
is to
the
separate
actual
by
animal
tissue from
as
process
which
have
is known
been
adopted
rendering.
to
The
which
do
this have
been
described,
p. 68 et seq.
Of fatty matters
body, the intestines
"
from
animal
the
is called
The
tripe tallow,"
feet yielding
these greases
neatsfoot
or
oil
not
processes
for extracting
fats do
as a
differ essentially
are
from
by and
those
described
above, but,
rule, they
obtained
in water, the top feet
animal
from
of the
are
it collects, whilst
tripe and
used
food.
A
great deal of fat largely used
as
in making
soap grease,"
is
**
now
extracted
from
bones,
and
not
sold
**bone
bone
as
fat,"
*'
bone
tallow," and
do
not
seldom,
wherever
or are
possible,
fat;
the
tallow.
are
All bones
contain
tallow
best
and
cows
a
and
bullocks' shank
bones, which
hollow,
contain
fat, often
separately
more
extracted
marrow
tallow".
The
much
bones
found
pay
in the
animals
do
not
contain
scarcely
bones
contain
not
worth
the
of treatment. while
to sort
In them those
it is therefore
are
worth
TALLOW.
115
The of extraction
so
treating.
method
from
all parts
regard
of
the
Now
it is
well-known
from
various
fact with
to natural
products
somewhat
obtained
localities that
they
vary
in appearance,
of minor
colour, odour,
to say nothing
differences in chemical
to
composition.
in the
tallows
Tallow which
is
are
no
exception
sent
into England
are
America,
Australia,
by which
came.
tell the
locaHty
There
are
can
scarcely be any
doubt
the
tallow
these
differences
the
to
a
caused
by the
character
of the food
which
vary
cattle great
localities,and
tallows
which
are
must
Commercially,
distinguished
"
according
or
to their country
or
of origin, and
or
oxen
sheep,
into
beef
mutton
"
from
they
are
obtained.
rog, Taganoxen,
Russian tallow
and St.
comes
chiefly from
Cronstadt,
Odessa,
Petersburg.
It is derived
chiefly from
large proportion
of the
Eussian
Siberia, but
that
*'
no
distinction is made
parts
*'
between
South
from
other
of Eussia.
"
America
both
from
beef "and
Plate
mutton
tallow.
a
It is chiefly shipped
strong yellow
for all
ports.
It is of
colour, and
uses.
able service-
North
American
is of very good
American, quality,rather paler in colour than South and is the favourite tallow of soap-makers. It is mostly "beef** tallow that comes from North America, but mutton" tallow is also sent over. Australia also sends large quantities
*'
of both
'*
beef
"
*'
"
and
mutton
to
England
of fairly
depends
good colour
on
and
quality.
"
The
of the
tallow
tallow
and
its consistence
the
harder
higher
its
116
SOAP
MANUPACTUEE.
melting
very
more
valuable
it is.
These
points
vary-
much
out.
certain
limits, which
will be
presently
pointed
The
chemical
composition
according as
to the method
well
the
kind
of tallow.
glycerides,
olein
60
and
stearin,
80
predominating,
in hard
tallows.
forming
Margarine
there
are
from
in soft to
is also probably
also nearly always
matter,
to
more
present small
in
some
tallows, while
quantities of animal
should
not
tissue,
colouring
amount
water
but
these
to
altogether
total.
so
than
from
more
1 per
cent, mutton
of the
Beef
that
tallow
contains
olein
than
tallow,
it is rather
softer in consistence,
and
and
therefore
and
better
adapted tallow
lubricating is
more
for making
tallow
specific gravity
while
at 60"
0*939, 0*940
that
F.
of mutton
ranges F. The
to
(15" C.) ;
while
at 212"
0*860
to 0*862.
point of tallow varies very considerably, usuallyfrom 36" to 49" C. (97" to 120" F.)" the lower limit
is that of a soft tallow, while the higher limit is a hard 39" C. (102" F.) is the average tallow. melting point of it begins to solidify at rather After being melted tallow.
lower the
temperatures,
moment
from
33" to
46"
at
of When
solidifying the
pure, much tallow odour
temperature should
and
few
be
fairly
without
40
to 44
a
taste.
It is soluble
in from
times
its volume
of
of alcohol.
Generally,
from
it contains
0*75
to
small
cent.,
are
quantity
although
met
per
occasionally
For
with
larger
presence
quantities
with.
is not
TALLOW.
117
otherwise;
but
for lubricating
machinery
it is decidedly-
disadvantageous.
When
a
melted
tallow
is allowed
27'
to to
cool very
30"
slowly
at
temperature
forms
of not
a
less than
mass,
C.
(80" to 86"
crystallising be separated
The
process
to
F.)"it
granular
of small
the
stearin
can
form
the
as
nodules
mass
which
more
**
fluid
by
is
pressure.
is known
separation
seeding,"
stearin
and
largely
for
applied
use
the
of the the
of the
tallow
in making
as
tallow
the press is passes through which oil," and is used for lubricating machinery
Uquid
and soap-making.
When
into soap.
boiled
with
caustic
alkalies, tallow
is converted
13*79
potash it requires
19*32 taken
more
to
as
being in both
cases
chemically
conmiercial products
When
the
by
together
are
is treated
and
separated of the
found melting
amount
to 95
cent,
tallow
fatty
The
point and
acidsvary with the quality of the tallow. Tallow Among is frequently adulterated.
have been used
as
other
bodies
bone
or
and
similar
some
products.
say nothing It is by no
:
of china
means
an
to detect
cotton-seed
specific gravity of
some
point, is also
guide, while
be
a
clue to its
the
Cotton-seed
oil can
be detected
by its reducing
118
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
specific gravity, melting point, and increasing the proportion of liquid fatty acids, as well as by the silver nitrate and iodine be detected by the tallow test. Stearin from wool grease can
containing
a
of fatty acid,
can
as
well
as
by the
grease
be detected
is
a
by the tallow
phosphate
grease.
can
addition
of such
clay and
starch these
be detected
matters
rare,
by
to
melting
the tallow
allowing
insoluble
are
settle out.
Such
of adulteration
now
and
show
wax
adulterator.
Paraffin
; these
mineral
oil are
sometimes
added
may
detected
by
their reducing
the tallow
the percentage
of potash
required
a
to saponify
and
by
the
sample
having
low
flash point
is
now
At
time
it
was
engine
cylinders,
but
it has
been
now
superseded
by
the
petroleum
cylinder oils.
heavy
It is used
in small
"
quantity
for
cating lubrimills
"
and
bearings
greases.
of rolling
Tallow
largely used
; it gives
for soap-making
a
than and
any of
a
good
soap
"
hard
good
white
colour.
is modified by the colour however, .This, The taken in making the soap. the care is good
on
grain of tallow
soluble in water, freely in
not
as
use
soap
and
some
:
soaps do.
On
itis not
so
wasteful
becoming
exercise of
littlecare
over.
on
be
easily got
LAED.
119
TALLOW.
.
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
at 16" C.
OF
0-943 to 0-942. (60" F.) 50" G. (122"F.) 0-896. 100" G. (212" 0-862. F.) Melting Point, 42" to 46" C. (107" to 116" F.). Solidifying Point, 36" C. (98"F.). Insoluble Fatty Acids (Hehner Value), 96 to 96 per cent. Saponification Value (Koettstorfer 19*3 to 20 per cent. KOH. Test), Iodine absorbed 39 (Hubl Test), to 44 per cent.
.
.
.
Eeichert Viscosity
Value,
0-26
c.c.^KOH.
63.
36.
at 120" F
"
150"
212"
"
26.
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
OF
FATTY
ACIDS
FROM
TALLOW.
0*8698. (212"F.), Melting Point, 43" to 44" C. (108" to 110" F.). Solidifying Point, 42" to 43" 0. (107" to 108" F.). Molecular Weight (Combining Weight),284. Iodine absorbed 40 (Hubl Test), per cent.
at 100" C.
LARD.
Lard,
as
is well known,
is the fat obtained from the leaf of the pig. It is almost entirely used for
and
culinary purposes
used to
a
but
uses.
It is
only
limited
extent
then
a
in
making
the
best grades
of toilet soaps
where
good
white
to these points
a
ranking
with
or
oil. Lard
is
soft fat of
consistency
equal to
sUghtly harder than butter, melting to a clear, water- white oil ; itsconsistency varies It is white slightly in different samples. in colour, although it may have a faint yellowish sometimes
or
creamy
and
taste
are
sweet
and
pleasant,
good white
hard
white
soft soap
with
potash.
It consists essentially of
mixture
of stearin and
oleinin somewhat
of olein and
varying
proportions, from
60 to 65 per cent,
are
quantities of palmitin
is
to subject
120
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
being
white colour, uniform texture, and lathers freely in water, being superior in this respect to tallow
good soap ; it is free from
any
60" C.
0-931. 0-881.
100" C.
0-868.
to (80" 84" F.). to Melting Point, 40" to 42" C. (104" 108" F.). 96 per cent. Insoluble Fatty Acids (Hehner Value), 196 per cent. Saponification Value (Koettstorfer Test), Iodine Value (Hubl Test), per cent. 69
KOH.
CONSTANTS
OF
FATTY
at 100" 0.
ACIDS
FROM
LARD.
Specific Gravity
Value
GREASE.
of the
cheap
and manufacturers'
soaps, either
in admixture with other fats and oils. Its preparation As usually sold it is in the has already been described. form of a greyish-coloured, granular soft fat, its consistence
alone
or
being between
tallow and
lard.
It has
an
slight odour
one
when
unpleasant
water,
if the fat
varying
the amount
tissue, from
higher than
ranging
from
are
of lime
present
"
this constitutes
of bone
grease.
had
Two
samples
grease examined
by the author
the composition
121
100-00
100-00
Owing
to test
to the variable
quality of bone
fat it is advisable
it for moisture,
water
The
it contains
the fat and
if thought it in
a
necessary melted
be got rid
of by melting
some
keeping
condition for
hours.
The
colour of bone
fat varies
as
rule
as
to its soap-making
properties,
soap
a
into the
lyes, and
tallow
little more
still retains
soaps
soluble in water,
some some
Bone-fat
so
of the odour
scent
if used
for domestic
is required
soap
disguise
this odour;
if used
for
manufetcturing
the odour
ANIMAL
is of Uttle consequence.
SOAP
FATS.
are
Besides
of commerce
tallow and
there
are
bone
grease which
other
solid greases
origin
; such
which
are
:
are
oflferedin occasional
parcels to soap-makers
These
to make
the commonest
class
are
scouring
soaps, rough
vary in colour
or
great deal,
others
are
darker than
tallow
bone-fat, but
of
brownish
from odour.
being
make
sweet
having
and
rancid
rather
They
of
consistence
If anything
quahty
are
softer and
poorer tallow
than
or
tallow.
they
rather
very
easier than
bone-fat to saponify.
They
are
122
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
some
contain water,
others traces
of
has
had
occasion
examine and
"
many
siich soap
are
greases during
results of
some
the
following
the
The
large proportion
1 and
3 is to
be accounted
been added
OIL.
oil is obtained from tallow by melting and keeping the tallow in a warm room at about 80" to 90" F. for some hours ; the stearin it contains crystallises out in the form of Tallow
small
granular
The
particles, hence
tallow is then pressure,
as
seeding.
seeded
in
the
canvas
cloths and
put
comes
under
hydraulic
when
out, together
with
little of the
commerce.
chinery, oil,animal oil, etc. Its chief use is for lubricating mabut it is used for making a soap when white soap, rather softer and more soluble than a tallow soap, is required.
Tallow
more
some
samples
are
the proportion
of the
stearin which
is much,
then
The
same
reason
0*911 to 0"916.
Tallow
varying
samples
proportion
to
[15 or
16 per cent,
in others.
have
be
when melted
cold,
or
at the most
faint yellow
it ought
to be
quite
clear
PALM
OIL.
123
any
a
cloudiness
or
floating particles of
an
It has only
slight odour
LABD
of
animal
fat.
OIL.
Lard
used in soap-making,
in lubricating machinery.
same
It is prepared
lard by the
process the
as
taUow
oil is made
from tallow.
uses.
It resembles
It is if anything resembles
odour, which
VEGETABLE
SOAP
PALM
OILS OIL.
AND
FATS.
to tallow palm
oil used
to be
used
for
displaced by cotton
oil,
run
is cheaper
and
gives
of domestic
purposes.
Palm
palm
oil is obtained
from
the
fruit of various
of the
west
species of
coast
trees, natives
of the
oil regions
of
Africa.
The
tree which
yields the
of the
palm oil of
commerce
is the
Elaiis Guinensis.
plum,
fruit of
hangs
an
the palm is about the size of a small bunches from the trees. Like the plum pulpy
mass
in
it contains
the
outer
outer
and
an
inner
kernel.
the
From
pulp
is
or
oil, while in
kernel
yields palm-nut
but which
soap-making,
has
differentproperties to palm oil. The natives of the oil regions employ a variety of methods for the purpose the fruit. The of extracting the oil from
commonest
plan
consists in stacking
the
nuts
as
they
are
taken from
for from'seven
by the decomposition
the
of
some
of the the
and
vegetable
can
tissues surrounding
husk
of the nuts
husk
be readily removed,
The
pulp
kernel.
is of
124
a
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
rather hard
are
nature,
and
to
soften
it the
nuts,
husked,
thrown
covered
over
with
with for
a
palm
period varying
to the fancy
are
from
or
three
weeks
to three
according
who
making
will have
into
soft it
; it is now
stones, where
is
to subjected
pounding
is separated
from
into boiling
pots and
and
boiled with
off,any
water,
when
is skimmed
vegetable
tissue which
or
be separated
so
as
pulp
by heating
the
it with water
mass
squeezing
in bags, when
quality and
consistence
of the product
from
depend
partly but
more
which
it is made,
definite information
the
care
is required,
the process
but
particularly upon
has been
allowed
with
which
the
of extraction
length of time
the fruit is
same
in the pits. A long steeping results in the oil being harder, but at the time its quality is materially decreased ; it acquires a
to remain
as
bright, and
it contains
more
decomposition
short steep The
taken
and
as
place ;
a
soft oil of
odour
bright colour.
crude
as
process
of extracting that
palm
oil being
it
can
the commercial
contain
some
of vegetable
being
will in
course
about
more
the decomposition
or
PALM
OIL.
125
the consistence of butter ;
Palm it has
an
oil is
orange
colour, which
is highly
Salt Pond characteristic, but is liable to vary very much. colour, Lagos and Brass oils have usually a brownish-yellow oil is
a
bright
a
orange,
Sierra
Leone
is rather
colour
redder.
New partly
Calabar oil is
dependent
golden
the
yellow ; the
is probably
upon
species of palm
from
partly
on
which
the oil is
of
the process
best and
most
neutral quaUty,
10 per
not
the proportion
cent., and
more
the
of water
and
other
impurities
than
in consistence
as
the palm
oils.
comes on
Brass,
next
so
far
freedom
concerned,
to Lagos
palm oils,and
that account
;
in favour
with candle-makers
it usually contains by
large percentage,
variety, hence
of the worst
market,
Salt Pond
oil is
one
be found
in the
English
to amount
acid has
been
recorded
by
Norman
Tate
to be
as
high
as
little actual
poor.
oil is present.
Half
Jack, Bonny,
between
intermediate
positions Palm
and
quality generally.
oil has
to the
is communicated
Chemically
palm
oil consists
proportions, The
of
mixture varying
of palmitin
with
quantities of
of palm
oleic acids.
specific gravity
The
specific gravity
melting
from
to 0*859 ; the
point is
exceedingly
variable, ranging
from
126
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
few
degrees
lower.
When
saponified
range
from
from
combining
equivalent
Palm
oil takes
or
of caustic potash,
KOH,
from
14 to 144
per cent,
soap
to saponify
it.
Palm-oil
upon
has
orange
yellow
to yellow
oil from
odour
which
it also possesses
has already
characteristic
of the
not
been
referred to.
It is hard,
liable to go
in quality in so doing ; well, improving it lathers fairly well, and is a good cleanser, altogether being rancid, and will keep
a
first-class soap.
done
are
Palm
oil may
used
be
bleached,
a
which white
;
must
be
if the
many
oil is to be
processes
for making
soap.
There
available
the best
is Watts's
bleached
These
samples
met
by
by
means
of potash, it and by
it may
means.
be
blowing
have
other
processes
described.
Adulterated
has not
of palm
oil
are
scarcely known
; the author
in the course of his practice, nor with one that it is adulterated referred to in the text-books
CONSTANTS Specific Gravity
at 15" C.
is the fact
on
oils.
OF
PALM
.
OIL.
.
(60"F.)
50" C.
27" to 42" C.
(80"to
107"
F.).
per cent.
(Hehner Value),96*5
N
per cent.
Saponification
Reichert Value,
Value
0*5
KOH.
Iodine
Value
52 per cent.
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
Melting
ACIDS
FROM
PALM
OIL.
at 100"
Point,
60" C.
Solidifying
Point,
C.
Saponification
Value,
KOH.
Combining
Equivalent
(MolecularWeight),270.
PALM-NUT
OIL.
127
OIL.
PALM-NUT
OR
PALM-KERNEL
The
nuts
or
kernels
of the
palm
fruit
are
collected and
them,
which
In
is done
some
previously
described.
places
very crude
are
method
is in
over
use a
for extracting
the
oil ; the
nuts
put
into a pan
exudes and
fire and
charred
slightly, some
nuts
are now
is poured
with
; oflf the
roasted
up and
boiled
water,
the
a
oil they
contain
mass
off ; after
up', mixed
more
meal is reground
with
again
boiled up,
off as
when
oil is obtained.
oil obtained
for making
or
is skimmed
before.
The
by this process
good
soap.
is of
dark
oil is of white
faintly yellowish
colour, of
coconut
consistence
it resembles
oil, from
hardly
be
distinguished.
The
from
F.).
from the
upon
of oil extracted
pressed
out
are
have and
the lowest
have the
harder
point.
It takes
per cent,
of caustic potash,
to
from
15J
to 17
caustic
soda
saponify
it.
In
this respect
it
resembles coconut
oil, to which
a
also it approximates
of the
in composition,
fatty
not
containing
large
proportion
lower
caproic
oil.
"
acids, but
to
great
an
extent
as
does
coconut
Oudemans
gives
oil :
26-6.
.
.
Glycerides
of Lauric,
33-0. 40-4.
Acids
Palm-nut
to go rancid.
is not liable
128
SOAP
MANUFACTUKE.
212" F. it resembles
closely coconut
oil.
Palm-nut
of coconut
in soap-making
in the place
Palm-nut and
soap of similar properties. oil is said to be adulterated with lard, tallow fats and
other cheaper
means
oils.
Such
adulteration
can
be
detected by
adulteration.
OF PALM-NUT
.
.
OIL.
0-952. 0-9119.
(60" F.) 40" C (105" F.) 100" C. (212"F.) Solidifying Point, 20-5" C. (71"F.). to Melting Point, 27" to 28" C. (79" 80" F.). 91-1 per Insoluble Fatty Acids (Hehner Value), 24 Saponification Value (Koettstorfer Test), per
.
. .
0-9731.
Keichert Iodine
Value,
2-4
c.c.
j^KOH.
to 13 per cent.
Value
10 (Hubl Test),
CONSTANTS
OF
FATTY
ACIDS
FROM
76"
PALM-NUT
OIL.
Combining
Iodine
Equivalent
(71"to
Value,
COCONUT
OIL.
The
next
soap
oil which
or
claims
as
from
the
coconut,
coco
cocoanut
cocos
palm,
nuciferavery
is
useful product.
a
It is of
fibrous
mass,
which
is made
proper,
and
a
carpets.
outer
matter
Inside
consisting
a
of
hard
portion, useful of
a
fuel ;
inside this is
layer of pulpy
white
colour, which
idea at by the young The central portion of the nut is occupied by a fair times. milky fluid. The pulp is of a very oily nature, the proportion
is that portion of the fruit patronised
of oil usually
averaging
over
50 per cent.
COCONUT
OIL.
129
This pulp is dried by exposure to air, and in that condition is known as coprah," and is exported into this country
"
in large quantities for the purpose of extracting the oil out of it. The native method of extracting the oil consists in heating the pulp with water, when the oil rises to the top
followed when and is collected. Another method commonly inferior qualities of oil only are wanted, is to heat the pulp fluid, and to render the oil more as so with a little water
then to the subject
mass
to pressure
in
rude
kind
press, worked
and then
by
oxen.
In
some
of oil is dried
grated
by
or a
means
good quality of oil. from many Coconut into this country oil comes in South-eastern Asia ; the best is that from Ceylon.
China
oil ranks very
heated
places
Cochin
very
Malabar
comes
oil is of from
Mauritius
In this country
coconut
oil is pressed
from
coprah
by the
machinery
which
has
been
described
in previous
sections,
is carried out
in
eithera
warmer
or
in heated
presses.
Coconut
its appearance
in this country
in the
Asiatic countries it is a water white, rather limpid oil. It melts at from 20" to 25" C. to (68'' 77" F.) : its specific gravity at 60" F. is 0-931 ; at 212"
of
a
form
white
but
soft fat.
In
F. it is 0*870.
is pleasant
and
characteristic,
resembling that
rancid, when
coconut.
more
It is liable to
become
its odour
becomes
pronounced.
on
that
account
it is cold
of soaps
by
the
properties,and
white soap, possessing good lathering that for reasons which will be pointed well in .hard waters, or in waters which 9
130
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
contain from
good
in solution.
potash,
or
It takes
17*4
coconut
24*6 to 26 per
from
to
of caustic soda
than
to completely
saponify
other
larger amount
is required
for any
known
Coconut
as
oil is
one
of the most
complex The
;
composition.
present
is lauric
acid, HC12H23O2
;
there
is also
present
; capric
caproic
capryllic
are
acid,
HCgHigOg
acid, HC10H19O2.
acids
and
are
volatile when
distilled with
steam
water.
It is the presence
causes
of these lower
so
coconut
to form
a
oil to require
soap
and
which
works
are,
for the
lime
salts of these
fatty acids
comparatively
are
speaking,
more
soluble in water,
and
much
case
freely
is the
with
There
the alkali
are
also
in coconut
; palmitic
acid,
same
HCieHgiOg,
series ; there
but comparatively Of
course
it should be understood
of
fatty acids in
coconut
in it as
exist
Lauric
The comof 200. bining acid has a combining weight be extracted from cococan nut of the fatty acids which oil by saponifying and liberating the acids with sulphuric
from
water
or
196
the
to 204.
When
these
an over
fatty acids
are
distillate possesses
acid reaction
; the
acidity
of
078
a
to
0*83
of caustic
potash.
Butter
and
oil have
similar
tion. composi-
Coconut
little power
of absorbing
iodine
or
COCONUT
OIL.
131
bromine
latter 57
of the former
per
cent.
It
yields from
12
to
13
per
cent,
of
glycerine, and
In
from
soap-making, coconut
in
and
with conjunction
for making
that soap
marine
hard
water
When
is going to be used in districts little a where hard water prevails it is a good policy to use the soap, for then a lather is more of this oil in making
it is known readily obtained and
there is not
so
much
waste
of soap
by
will
stronger
a
fat ; thus
cannot
tallow
stronger
10" Tw.
be 20" to 22" Tw. strong. It with coconut oil the lye may is this feature of coconut it so useful for cold oil that makes
process soaps.
much, than It also requires
or
more
salt, nearly
twice
as
does tallow
Coconut
chiefly with
with
adulteration
of detection. reduction
of the of
specific gravity
of the amount
volatile acids
at 212"
F., and
adulteration.
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
16" C. 40" C.
OF
COCONUT
OIL. 0-930.
0-9115. 0-8736.
at
100"
Saponification
Insoluble Reichert Iodine Fatty Value,
Value Acids
3-5
F.). (70"to 80" F.). 25 (Koettstorfer Test), to 26 per cent. (Hehner Value),83 to 88 per cent.
N
KOH.
c.c.
j^KOH.
to 9-3 per cent.
Value
132
CONSTANTS Specific Gravity
SoUdifying
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
OF
FATTY
ACIDS
FROM
COCONUT
OIL.
F.),0-8354. (212" (70" F.). Point, 24" to 25" C. (75" to 77" F.). Melting Equivalent Combining (Molecular Weight),196 9-3 per cent. Iodine Value (Hubl Test),
Point, 20" C.
at 100" C.
to 206.
OLIVE
OIL.
The grows
and
which Asia,
abundantly
that
in those
on
countries
of Europe,
Africa
border
the
Mediterranean.
It is extensive
in Italy, North
Africa, Grecian
all which
pelago, ArchioUve
and
Asia
Minor,
a
from
The
olive is
fruit resembling
olive grown
and
are certain variations of the size. There in various localities due to climatical differences
to the mode
of cultivation.
The
justripe,
of oil. surrounds
and
in that
condition
Olive
oil is yielded by
The
pulp
which
the kernel.
of jdelding
oil, but
it is interesting to note
by the oil is
by the pulp.
; some
The
ohve
obtained
separated
has
from
the
use
fruit by
pressure
portion method
is also
which
by
in
of solvents. for
a
The time
simplest
been
use
long
consists in pressing
the
in
primitive
mortar,
and
separating
into
a
oil which
or
flows
and
out.
Generally
to
**
the
large tub
flows and
tank
subjected
as
pressure.
oil which
out
is known
virgin
oil".
It is of
There and
fine quality
used
chiefly for
of oil
edible purposes.
left in the
the pulp
is
considerable
proportion
pulp,
this is usually
then
extracted
by
boiling
a
with
-water,
residual pulp to
second
pressure. This
rather
obtained.
soap-making,
quality of oil is chiefly used for lubricating, A poorer and general industries. quality is residual cake
from
often got by
the subjecting
this second
OLIVE
OIL.
pressing
This
to
a
extraction
lower
by
means
of carbon.
commonest
gives
grade
of oil, used
**
purposes, and
generally
known
as
sulphur
in its quality.
some
best oils
yellowish
a
colour, while
of the
some
inferior qualities
the
of
greenish-brown tint.
60" F^
tint.
In
cases
oil has
0*916 lowering
greenish
at
The
the
specific gravity
presence of much
ranges
from
to 0*919
free acid
usually
are
it. The
best quahty
Certain
grades
of what
about known
huiles tournants,"
are
prepared
from
fermented
as
fruitswhich
largely used
in dyeing,
odour and
contain
much
as
The is sweet
When
cooled
at 6" C.
R). (23"
soUd
cent,
of KOH
to saponify
it.
It absorbs
when
mixed
with
of 41"
increase
in temperature
mixed
One
or
property
with
nitrous acid
nitrate
it becomes
solidified,
being converted
to the
same
into elaidin. by
any
This
other
property oil.
is not possessed
oil is largely oil and
degree
Olive
adulterated, the
usual the
adulterants
being cottonseed
of the
mineral
oils, but
character
presence
adulteration
varies
The
of cottonseed that
oil tends to
oil tends
reduces of
of mineral
the
same
time
To
their addition
the
of the
oil.
determine
purity
point,Koettstorfer
be paid to the specific gravity, flashing iodine value, and the Maumene test, Hubl elaidin test.
soda
OUve
yields
soap
of
smooth
brittle when
dry, breaking
with
conchoidal
fracture.
The
134 of the
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
oil ; good
oil yields
white
to cream-coloured
soap,
These qualities yellow to greenish soaps. soaps keep well, have fairly good lathering and cleansing properties. They are much used in the calico printing trade and for
the poorer
to
their freedom
The
from
smell
and
or
easy
solubility.
from
use
original Marseilles
made
from
in
trades.
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
at 16" C.
OF
OLIVE
OIL.
0-916 0-862.
to 0-919.
100" C.
Point, 6" C.
Fatty
Acids
c.c.
per
cent.
Value, 0-3
j^KOH.
to 19-6 per cent.
Saponification Iodine
Maumene
Value
KOH.
Value,
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity SoUdifying
Melting Molecular
OF
FATTY
ACIDS
FROM
OLIVE
OIL.
at 100" C.
Point,
26"
21" C.
Point,
Weight
Iodine
Value,
86 to 88 per cent,
COTTONSEED
OIL.
from
cottonseed
of
oil,but
the
common
now
into most
soaps
which
are
now
the fashion.
Cotton
from
to the genera
Gossypium,
the
that grown
cotton
in America,
Barbadense,
but
the
tree grows
in Egypt, America
and
portion of South
of the cotton
are
of comparatively
COTTONSEED
OIL.
"
135
i to f
of
an
of
an
inch
in length,
more
by
{
or
of
an
inch
broad, and
and
^
a
inch
in thickness,
colour.
less rounded,
are
of
greenish-grey
To
the seeds
attached
are
the
fibres
which give the cotton tree its value, and which into this country in large quantities, and woven
and o4heiL textile fabrics.
These
**
fibres ginning
are
".
separated
the seed by
process
known
as
To extract
are
that is they
to break
passed
through
mill, whose
so
open
hberate
clean
no
which
from
contains
much
oil of the
cotton
some
seed.
With is
free
to
attached
fibre, there
necessity
decorticate the
the fibre with
seed, but
varieties of cottonseed
such
seeds must
retain
be decorticated.
a
The cyUnder
which
machine
another
consists
of
hollow
of
in which
cylinder, the
surface
does not
touch
cylinder.
The
of the outer
number
of knives has
a
so
arranged
that when
seed passes
between
the two
faUing in two
some
parts, while
the kernel By
falls down
whole,
or
in
winnowing,
the heavy
are
kernels
either
used
fuel
or
as
manure.
The
system
cottonseed
of crushing
a
oil
as a
it
comes
from wine-red
the
press
in either
to its
is of
dark
colour, owing
containing amounting,
of red colouring
to 10 to 15
matter,
according the
to Longmore,
of oil. Before
oil
can
be
used
for any
purpose is effected
colouring
matter
must
be
removed.
This
treating the
oil with
caustic
having
dissolves out
action
on
colouring matter,
while
shght
oil. The
quantity
of caustic
used
varies in different
186
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
refineries,but
amounts
to from
in the
from
form
10 to
use a
strength
at different works,
much
as
40 Twaddell.
Perhaps
lye of from
are are
10 to 12
Twaddell
strong. The
Of this about
10 lb.
required
mixed
can
caustic and
the crude
oil
together
in wooden
a
necessary,
they
be heated
littleby
of steam,
being agitated
means
thoroughly
air pumped
This
is best effected by
the air not only
to
some
of
in by
force pump,
soda,
on
thoroughly it probably
of
agitating the
acts
as a
oil and
but
extent
a
bleaching
the
mass
agent
the oil.
to
After
stand
such
when soap
treatment
a
oil is allowed
of soda
and
time,
some on
curdy
colouring
the
matter
with
which
has
been
formed
by
action
of the
soda
the
The
or
character
of the
colour,
oil is then
more a
noted.
bright enough
and such
free from
resumed.
soda
lye is added,
more
the treatment
As
The
rule not
mass
than
to
one
addition is required.
The
whole
is
as
allowed
stand
to settle.
clear, bright
mass
oil is sold
cottonseed
matter
oil, while
soap
the
coloured
of soda,
and
is treated
in various ways.
and
One
a
colouring plan is to
greasy
treat it with
mass comes common
acid, when
up
to
it is decomposed,
top, which
can or
dark
the
be used
for making
means
very
dark-coloured
can
soaps,
out
by suitable
used
as
a
the
colouring matter
for this purpose
be taken
and
dye.
But
it cannot
compete
with
present
or
is recovered
form
suitable
in soap-making
cottonseed
candle-making.
to from
so
The
loss in refining
crude
oil amounts
oil
4 to 5 per cent.
The
amount
refined cottonseed
of stearin, and
By
a
obtained
contains
large
hence
set almost
solid.
may
be removed,
is sold
as
cotton
stearin
or
oleo-mar-
COTTONSEED
OIL.
137
while
of non-congealable
cotton
oil.
0*928
a
crude
oil has
to 0*930.
Eefined but
cotton
pale quite
it
a
can
be obtained
almost,
if not
It has
pleasant, sweet
taste, somewhat
characteristic,
while
its odour
is but
slight, and
yet
characteristic.
at 15" C, much
depending
upon
the
amount
in the
oil, which
It solidifies at from
common
0" to 2" C.
even
(32**
temperatures
contain.
F.), the
more
qualities at
the
amount
higher
they
varying Cotton
with
of stearin
oil contains
small
quantities of linolein.
the true non-drying oils, like olive, and the true drying oils, like linseed oil, becoming to the air by viscid on exposure
absorption of oxygen.
and Golourman's
Fox,
in
former
number gramme
of the
Oil
states
that
one
of cotton gas,
more
centimetres
so
of oxygen
as
not
much
cotton
nor as
a
oil cannot
well be used
lubricating
oil,
for
drying
soap-making
oil for painting, but as a food oil and into rather extensive use. it has come
KOH,
or
a
14 per rather
soda, NaOH,
more
to saponify
it, giving
than
curdy soap.
sonae
It is
difficult to saponify
soap
tallow and
much,
so
other oils,and
the
and
lyes completely
perfectly
neutral tallow
soap.
soap,
Cotton
oil soap
is
much
of the
darker
in colour than
matter
a
the small
quantity
colouring
to develop
of the
seed
which
is still left in
The soap
seeming
made
dark
colour with
the alkali.
from
easily soluble
not
in water, long
as
and therefore
does
last
as
138
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
soap
made
from
and
some
other
kept
fats.
for
Another
some
feature of cotton
is that when
a
tima it takes
fatty
it goes
some
rancid
and
acquires
peculiar
to develop
odour,
but
months
itself.
The
solid acids, insoluble acids obtainable from cotton oil are in water ; at 100" C. they have a specific gravity of 0'8494y
and
melt
at from
Cotton
cheaper
oil is rarely, if
so
adulterated,
there
must
being be
no one
any
possible adulterant
of which
or can
oils,the presence
be detected
by
will be about
400" F.,
while cotton
of such
tests.
oil does
can
not
flash below
course
475"
quantity
adulterant
of
be determined
by the usual
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
at 15" C.
OF
COTTON
.
OIL.
.
100"
0*922
to 0-925.
0-8725.
SoUdifying
Insoluble
Point, Fatty
0" to 1" C.
(32"to 33"
F.).
to 19*6 per cent. KOH.
Acids Value
Saponification Iodine
Value
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
ACIDS
FROM
COTTON
OIL.
0-880. (212"F.), (89" F.). Point, 35" C. (95" F.). Melting Equivalent Combining (Molecular Weight),286.
at 100" C. 32" C.
Solidifying Point,
Iodine
Value
LINSEED
OIL.
There
is scarcely
more as
plant, known
are
to botanists
converted
under
from
times
not
of linen,
one
textiles, while
in
variety of ways.
yields
an
In
medicine
it has
appUcations.
It
useful properties, some of which oil that has many will be considered in the present article ; while after the oil
LINSEED
OIL.
139
was
what
at
one
time quite
were
of tons
;
of it
at
one
it is
now
oilcake poorer
largely used
The
seeds
give about
of oil,and
parts of cake
and
one
of oil.
The
value
of the cakes
is sometimes
three
was
greater than
times
the value
of the oil, as
,
In earUer
times
this country
practically dependent
at the present
of seed, but
day The
linseed
greatest
in many
bulk is grown
in India.
Eussia
place,
seed
Plate
third.
The
is
varies much
in colour^
being
pale
some
green,
pale
brown,
white
some
reddish it is
on
brown,
whilst
others
nearly
; all of
can
somewhat looking at
lustrous
a
in
appearance. whether
Experts
tell,
on
sample,
Black
it has
been
grown
the
borders of the
or
Sea, the
on
the
can
Kiver
Plate, and
pretty
the
appearance
what
of each
of oil
sample
estimate
correctly
quantity
will produce.
other
quite
different quaUties
from
linseed. When
seeds of
a
linseed
oil of
high
and
pure
quaUty
from
is desired,
the Hnseed
to be removed
admixtures
in the
through
wilfuladulteration.
more
than
20 per
cent, of oil,whilst
(Bombay) occasionally
grown
yields 40
more
per cent.
any
All the
linseed grown
in India yields
oil than
of the seed
140
SOAP
MANUFACTUEB.
in Bussia.
The
difference in temperature
warmer
is supposed
to
climate
makes
and
making
the
seed
one
it poorer.
Linseed
in various
ways,
is afterwards
subjected
colour,
on
it.
a
Linseed varying
"are a
oil is
good
limpid
oil of
greenish-yellow
depends partly also
on
the
exercised
East
its refining.
India
while Black
samples
taste
of
of
Baltic
run
close in colour.
The
odour
and
peculiar and
the
to 0*937
average
being
0*935, but
temperature
the range
is from
0*932
at the standard
point, 212"
F., the
specific gravity
is about volume
0*881.
It is
at
soluble
in about
forty times
and
its
own
of alcohol
the ordinary
a.t the boihng to become
temperature,
in about
point.
When
a
exposed
solid until
temperature
of
27" 0. is reached.
It is soluble in almost
turpentine, "spirit,
benzol, etc.
a
Sulphuric
acid has
powerful
charring
action
on
this oil,
the
temperature
above
while
and
a
copious
mass
evolution of
a
of sulphur
dioxide
colour
takes place
treacly
dark
red-brown
is obtained.
upon
Nitric
acid oxidises it
readily ; much
depends
the strength
is used.
affinityfor linseed oil; it will absorb 156 per cent, of its weight of iodine and 98 In this respect hnseed oil per cent, of its weight of bromine.
Iodine
and have
a
bromine
strong
Jias
energetic properties than any other oil. Linseed oil is easily saponified by boiling with
more
either
LINSEED
OIL.
141
saponific caustic potash or caustic soda ; it requires for complete 18*9 per cent, of its weight of caustic potash or 13*25 per cent, of its weight With of caustic soda. potash
it yields
soft soap,
clear and
a
transparent,
of
brownishgood
peculiar
smell, and
having
When
the proportions
may
of alkali and
oil
carefully regulated
the soap
soda,
be obtained
of neutral
a
properties.
With of
a
caustic
reddishseed lin-
coloured soap
buttery consistency
ever
this account
oil is rarely if
domestic hard
used
in making
any
soaps, although
few
Linseed
soaps of
oil is the
commerce
oilcan
be used
pleasing
odour, which
nearly all the soft which are made, and for this purpose no better linseed oil soft soap is of a good bright appearance in colour and free from any
basis from
objectionable
are
is not the
case
with
The
some
other
oils which
soft soaps.
soap
for
advantage When
is
point of
some
little
linseed
with
; these
separated
out
of
melting
at from
a
22" C. to 25" C.
At the
they have
at
the
boiling
point
is 0*861
to
but
and
solvents.
Their
equivalent
points to
the presence
Some
of acids of high
researches
weight.
that there is present
recent
tend
in linseed oil an linolic acid having the same acid named formula as homolinoleic acid, which yields sativic acid when
acted upon by
an
alkaline
solution
of potassium
perman-
142
; the other
SOAP
MANUFACTUBB.
ganate
is named
differs from
haps Perof
less hydrogen.
important
property
of linseed
oil is that
drying
upon
exposure
to the
atmosphere
no
; this makes
on
it very
in soap-
valuable
in painting, but
has
bearing
its
use
making.
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
at 16" C.
OF
LINSEED
.
OIL.
0-932 to 0-935.
0-920. 0-881.
50" C.
100"
16" to
20" 0.
to 19-8 per cent.
Value
Test),18-9 (Koettstorfer
Test),170
FATTY
to 175 per cent.
KOH.
(Hubl
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
OF
ACIDS
FROM
LINSEED
OIL.
0-928. (60"F.), 0-892. 100" C. (212" F.), Solidifying Point, 16" C. (62"P.). Melting Point, 20" C. (68"F.). Equivalent Combining (MolecularWeight),307. Iodine Value 179 per cent. (Hubl Test),
at 15" C.
CASTOR
OIL.
The
next
oil which
claims
notice is castor
oil.
This is
communis,
obtained
a
from
native of India,
pretty
to
common
it grows
the and
plant is
so
in English
The
is famiUar
large
most
persons.
a
seeds
of comparatively
and
size,
of
greyish-green
contain
a
colour
of
lustrous appearance
nearly 50 per
or
; they
of oil,
cent., which
is extracted
in the
usual way
are
Several qualities
recognised;
extracted
by
pressure
is the
best and
commercial
purposes from
; the
average
imported
Calcutta, Madras,
Bombay
as
first pressure
as
French
is about
equal
is known
seconds
Calcutta.
Castor oil
CASTOB
OIL.
143
is
it varies from
a
colourless in in
the
the pharmaceutical
greenish
from
yellow
0*960
are
to 0*970,
being
0*964
"
occasionally below
samples
met
are
with
rare.
having
The
specific gravity
0*960,
but
such
odour
varies considerably
sorts have
same
; the
a
best qualities
odour.
are
fairly
taste
a
nauseous common
The
way
; the
qualities have
are
pecuUar
nauseous
taste from
which
free.
It does not
begin to become
solid until
temperature
of
is reached, and even then only a few flakes are -18"C. (0"F.) deposited. This oil is distinguished from other fatty oils by its peculiar physical and chemical properties ; it has a very
high viscosity.
are
The
58*5
and
sperm
1248
and
idea of the viscid character of this oil. It is readily soluble in alcohol, 1 part in 4 of rectified
some
at spirit 15" C.
any
addition
of other
oilsto be detected.
mineral oil, though
; on
It is insoluble in petroleum
spirit or in
tures temperaor
at ordinary
being
heated
petroleum
with
become
as
soluble in the
temperature
spirit
mineral
two
oil, but
the
out.
cools down
again the
liquids separate
Castor
out
when
oil consists of a little palmitin which separates the oil is cooled down and the glyceride of a
has hitherto been found pecuHar acid, ricinoleic acid, which in only in castor oil. This acid has the composition shown the formula C17H33OHCOOH ; it differs from the other fatty acids in containing three atoms of oxygen, and there is reason
for thinking
an
of oxygen
is combined
with
in the form of hydroxyl, as shown in of hydrogen the formula an given above; ricinoleic acid is therefore hydroxy-fatty acid. The presence of this hydroxyl group gives
atom
to
of forming
with
sulphuric
acid
144
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE,.
ethers ;
on
this property
is based
the
use
of castor
oil in the
preparations of oleine oil for calico printers* use. Castor oil jnelds about 9*1 per cent, of glycerine and 96'1 per cent, of fatty acids, these have a combining weight of
306 to 307 and
they
are
a
and
besides
containing
It yields saponified.
By
careful
at
one
treatment
was
obtained
cotton
which
time
the
name
finishers under
transparent,
the cheaper
kinds of transparent
such soaps
are
being
and
very wasteful
while
this may
for the
be
very
good
thing
it
is not
Castor-oil soap
apt to go rancid
on
faint odour
a
keeping.
It makes
good
is not much
It takes from
from
soda to saponify
majorityof
can
faits and
oils ;
be used, and it
of soap-
great facility.
not
a
Although
making
what
part of the
the subject,
use
of castor oil in
as oleine, soluble oil,Turkeyvariously known ,is is an oilybe touched upon. red oil or alizarine oil may .This dyers and calico printers looking product largely in use among
as
mordant
colours, and
is of great
importance
freely with
advantages used
and alizarine reds ; it printing of Turkey water in all proportions and thus presents
over
the
rancid
formerly
oil and
mixing
with it 1 lb.
CASTOB
OIL.
146
of ordinary commercial
sulphuric acid, with constant stirring, being to avoid any rise in temperature ; the mixture is the object then allowed to stand for not less than twenty-four hours, but
longer does not matter
; to it is added
half
gallon of water,
has a creamy this being well stirred in until the mass ance; appearthis mixture is also allowed to stand for twenty-four or
more
hours, when
upper
one
it will be found
to have
separated
into two
layers,an
is
now
run
mixture again allowed to stand for twenty -four hours ; the bottom layer of salt water is aext run off; a lye of caustic,
soda of about 50" Tw. is then prepared, and this is slowly run in, with constant liquid is stirring, until a clear transparent
obtained.
The
oil is now
CONSTANTS
finished and
OF CASTOR
.
.
ready
OIL.
for
use.
Specific Gravity
at 16" C.
100"
17"
c.c.
3"
F.).
Value, 1-6
Value
Tn-^^-^*
to 18 per cent. KOH.-
Saponification
lodine
Acetyl
Value Value,
CONSTANTS
Specific Gravity
X)F
FATTY
ACIDS
.
FROM
.
CASTOR
0-9609.
OIL.
at 16" C.
100" C.
0*896.
Solidifying Point,
Melting
Point,
3" C.
13" C.
(67"F.).
Combining
Iodine
Equivalent
Value
So far hftve been described all the fats and oils which
most largely into the composition
enter
of the ordinary
run
of soaps,
both soft and. hard ; there stillremain for description a few fats and are oils which occasionally used for this purpose, but owing to such circunc^stances as limited supply, higher price,bad colour, etc., are but 'rarely applied in soap-making.
10
146
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
As
a
an
to make
few
into considerable prominence of late come as a soap oil. It is obtained from the seeds of the maize in America, plant (Zea Mays) and is extensively produced in the manufacture being largely made a bye-product as of
This
oil has
starch and of
a
glucose
from
Indian
corn.
It is
a
viscid liquid
peculiar
it
bright
and
amber-yellow
sweetish
colour, has
faint and
odour,
taste, recalling
that of corn-flour;
has
comparatively
high
comparable easily
with cottonseed
soap
of yellowish
very
consistency,
closely resembliug
cotton-oil soap in its general properties. With caustic potash it gives a soft soap of a good, bright, transparent ance, appearand good
soaps
on
detergent
properties, and
of most
it is for making
The
soft
that
it will be found
service.
oil yields
at from
saponification and
and
16" to 18" C,
solidifying at from
OF
CORN
.
(MAIZE)
.
(60"F.)
0-9203.
100" C.
Insoluble
Fatty
Acids
-
0-8694.
per cent.
Saponification
BUTTER.
In
the
manufacture
a
of
the
familiar
fatty
beverage
cocoa,
there
known
is obtained
as
quantity
cocoa
of
matter
commonly
a
cacao
or
butter.
This
is of
white
or
like somewhat yellowish-white colour, of a consistency butter, but perhaps a trifleharder ; it possesses an odour of
EAPE
OIL.
147
taste.
cocoa
and has
pleasant
and
agreeable bleached,
By there
exposure
to
light and
but
is Uttle
tendency to become
It melts at about
complex
30" 0. (86'*.). F
Cacao
butter
has
very
composition,
containing
and
its odour
It is
so
of small
rarely used
in soap-making,
although
with
a
against it ; it yields
detergent
littlemore
RAPE
OIL.
This
oil is pressed
from Napus,
of various
species
etc.
of It
CampestriSy
in the
tone.
is
brownish-green
a
oil
(brown
or oil),
refined
It has
a
varieties
yellowish
oil having
greenish
peculiar and
a
characteristic odour.
little,ut usually ranges from 0*913 to 0*916, generally being b 0*914 at 60" F. it, it is converted By blowing air through
into what
is known
as
"thickened
a
rape
peculiar odour.
potash
case or
Eape
12*5
oil takes
cent,
of caustic
per cent, of
are
to saponify
a
it.
In each
soaps
obtained
of
greenish-yellow
colour
and
smell strongly of
the oil. It is in consequence : rarely used in soap-making but of then it is a costly oil. Further, the soda soaps are This oil is a too soft for hard soaps. pasty consistency, frequently adulterated, chiefly with
are
cotton
and
mineral
Eape
oils, oil
both of which
comparatively
easy
to detect.
"
brassic,rapic contains three peculiar and characteristic acids belong to the oleic and linolenic and erucic acids, which seriesof fatty acids, and
they^have
a
high
molecular
weight.
148
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
WHALE
OIL
OR
TRAIN
OIL.
This
the
oil used
at
one
time
to
be
largely
in
use
employed
in
the
manufacture
of soft soap,
fish oils, but
especially
late its
Scotland,
even
home purpose
of
the has
of
for this
or,
as
decreased
considerably.
Whale
from
oil,
the
it of
not
is often
blubber
It varies very various species of whales. but in quality. There only in composition
considerably,
are
many
species of
of whales,
and
an
each
of these may
differs in
be reasonably
some
suspected
from
yielding
oil which
respects the
the oil
Generally,
however,
whalers
mix
the
together
indiscriminately,
ships,
Then,
consequently
a
different
whaUng
capturing
again,
vary
on
variety
of whales,
the
methods
much,
of extracting
and
oil from
the blubber
very the
care
this has Of
considerable
there
the
influence been
more
late years
of
has
has
the
extraction
product
oil, and
quality of the
used
much
method
to be to store the
on some
blubber
or,
land the
the
oftener than
was
when
the
ship
water
arrived
"
home,
when
to
blubber
top and
either boiled in
the
oil rising
on
being
collected"
or
allowed
to drain
racks, the
former
time
before
in its decomposi
their it of
a
and
way
thereby
found
darker
imparting
powerful
the
a
odour.
As
rule whale
oil is extracted
from
blubber
by
the
process
of boiling it in water,
one
more
whereby
of the
advantage
process
a
store
oil. Whale
oil is
reddish-coloured
oil
BECOVERED
GREASES.
149
taste
having
fishy odour
colour, odour
and
cooled
down
as a
many
samples
of
mass
whale
oil deposit
of fish.
stearin
brownish-coloured
to
smelling
It takes
about
to
18 14
19
per
cent,
of caustic
soda
to
potash,
about 18*5
The
potash
per
are are
cent,
of caustic
soaps
;
of
browish-red
colour
have
fishy odour
have
a
they
The
are
soda
soaps soft in
dark-red
colour
and
fishy odour,
rather
consistency, and
used in the
ovnng
well be
preparation
of hard
soaps.
oil contains
of the volatile
is
one
members
fats and
oils and
soaps
used for
In currying
leather, cod
of softening
and
it. Some
as
recovered
sold
currier's grease.
wool
washing,
scouring
the waste
and
fulling liquors
cesses. pro-
soapy
they
contain
has
is recovered been
washed
by
and
various
scoured
wool
it is
of enabling
it to spin and
out
easily.
This
oil
can
be and
which
is taken
are
of the wool
may
thus
a
recovered
of soap, but
very
to buy
word
of caution is
care
a
require
considerable
only after
to
in
buying, and
has been
it would
be advisable
sample
tested
in the chemical
and
then
laboratory
only For
ascertain its
on
bought
condition
are
was
equal to sample.
as
these greases
seen
of
and
most
variable composition,
the
same
will be
presently,
vary
so
even
professedly
kind of grease
may
much
150
that
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
one
fair soap,
the
next
lot may
not.
being cautious in his buynecessity for the soap-maker A few of these greases which may ings will be readily seen.
The
into the
soap-maker's
hands
will be briefly
described.
Currier's Grease.
"
This grease
is obtained
in the currying
purpose
but
tallow,
as
castor
and
other
a
oils
are
grease,
colour
usually
a
sold, is of
soft consistency
varies in
a
from
pale
brown
to nearly
black.
It has
strong
and
very
It varies
or
in composition,
containing
animal
as
a
more
less
water,
tissue, bits of
fat will vary
soap
much.
which
and
is present
possibly
a
there may
a
unsaponifiable
oil ; by
matter
small
proportion
of mineral
itself it gives
soft,
dark-coloured
but
always
mixed
over
with
other and
fats.
Before
using for
it should
some
be melted
hot water
allowed
to stand
time
for the impurities to settle out ; if these do not do so readily it is best to pass the melted fat through a sieve. In testing
such
they
contain
ether, with petroleum it is all saponifiable and this should be tested as to whether it contains any unsaponifiable fat, and as to what or whether
should
be
ascertained
by
extraction
kind
of soap
it gives.
Grease.
"
Fuller's
The
next
recovered
grease
which
is
sometimes
connection
as
is fuller's grease, and in offered for soap-making be made is known may with it mention of what
or
Yorkshire
wool
grease.
woollen
;
two
scouring
operations
from
wool,
just as
it is removed
back, is
yOBKSHIRE
GREASE.
151 soda, to
remove
with soap,
or
with soap
and
and
grease, soapy
to
matters
facilitate any
spinning
or some
operations
other
with
spun
olive
oil.
into yarn
to to
woven
be scoured
added
dirt of
the
to
a
which
had
been
:
got
into it in the
as
this scouring
interfere degree. with
is necessary,
the
otherwise
of dyeing
are
operation
These
scouring
operations
ably invarialways,
done
with
a
but
not
aided by
as
be avoided, At
one
the wool
time
used
operations,
sent
the grease
;
into rivers
some
on
"
account
we
do not
we
his
at all events
recover
have
it
"
conceived
form, and
plan to
the
fat and
grease
in
usable
since then
recovered
many
many
thousands
the
more
of tons
of grease
have
scourer,
been
and
from
soap
Uquors
so
of the
wool
thousands
will be
run
in the future.
The
process
generally followed
where
is to
In these tanks
the
by steam,
the
and soap
then
hydrochloric
acid is
causes
in ; this decomposes
to rise to
the
top, whence
pressed, and sent into commerce. is to treat the waste soapy calcium chloride
to
somewhat
liquors with
any any soap
just sufficient
and form
decompose
present,
thereby
lime
soap,
on
which
top
with
of the
fatty matter
will
in curds
the
liquor;
this lime
collect soap is
collected, while
the
liquor
will generally be
of sufficiently
152
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
clear
and soap
lime
good is now
'The river. heated with sufficient dilute hydrochloric liberated it is decomposed, the fatty matter
quality
to
be
run
into
the
of calcium
more
lime
be obvious to most
are
kinds
the
greases
recoverable
The
liquors of
woollen
mills.
raw
liquors off
or
wool
"
firstis that obtained from the scouring shire Yorkthis is what is generally named
grease
The second oftenest. wool grease, the latter name is that obtained from scouring the cloth after manufacture fulled this is known as and after it has been
"
fuller's grease.
This latter will be considered first. Fuller's grease in appearance varies considerably
to
a
from
dirty yellowish-brown
dark-red
grease, of about
often sticky and
If prepared
from
the waste
consist simply of the oil used in the batching of the wool, free fatty acid liberated from the scouring soap and some colouring
matter;
much,
however,
depends
upon
the
care
with
scouring have been carried out, while the quality of the batching oil and of If these the scouring soap used has a material influence. be of are of poor quality, then the recovered grease must
which
the various operations of batching and
poor
quality too.
:
"
The
following
are
two
analyses
of fuller's
grease
The
first one
too much
a
is of very
good
quality, while
matter
to make
the second
contains
as
unsaponifiable
it serviceable
soap fat.
OLEIC
ACID.
15a
It
can
only
be used
in making
even
very
must
common
soft and
cheap hard
or
soaps, and
then
be mixed
with rosin
other fats in not too large quantity. is obtained from the Wool Grease, The grease which liquors of the first scouring operation is of variable quality,.
"
as
by the author
will show
"
The of
a
unsaponifiable body
This
matter
in this grease
raw
consists chiefly
and of
a
peculiar
present
in the
wool
known
as.
cholesterine.
character,
more
body
partakes upon
somewhat
waxlike
it is.
but
is not
acted
by alkalies, although
hence
or
is found in the
from them.
waste
liquors and
in the greases
recovered
It
imparts
to the grease
certain undesirable
a
properties, among
and
even
of forming
greasy-looking
recommended,
rather
sticky
a
that it is not
of
some
to be
if
fairly
large proportion
A
common
with it.
is to subject when Thi"
method
of dealing with
this grease
steam,
pale-coloured
somewhat
granular
;
a
grease
distilsover.
has been
it has
about
15 per cent, of
unsaponifiable matter,
odour
; it does
"
peculiar and
not
give any
satisfactory result.
as
Oleic Acid.
the manufacture
This product
is obtained
bye-product
in
of candlemaker's
steam,
stearin by
as
distilling fata
by Mr.
with
Wilson,
under
now,
of Price's Candle
pressure
Co.,
by
as
lime
on
in the
autoclave,
treatment
saponification it is usually
carried
80
with
subsequent
formed
with
acid.
154
In either
case means
SOAP
MANUPACTUEE.
the mixture of
an
is obtained
hydraulic press ; the oleic acid comes The in the press. out, while the solid stearic acid remains from the press is a dark-coloured oily oleic acid as it comes be refined into a pale yellowish-coloured, liquid, which can oily-looking fluid. It is sold commercially brown
a
is pressed by
as
oleic acid.
In
pale yellow to a dark red, as will have been gathered from it may contain w^hat has previously been said; sometimes In specific gravity it small quantities of solid particles. varies from
some
will give
following
analyses
The
there is
usually present
and
stearic acid, and generally acetic, suberic by the decomhave been formed position sebacic acids, which
of the fat during
the process
of manufacture,
this
hydrocarbons
decomposition
or
unsaponifiable
of the formed
have
been produced
same
by the
;
decomposition
fatty matter
are
at the
time
the
hydrocarbons
series.
probably
members
of the paraffin
is obtained,
prolonged
boiling to convert
it into
an
Oleic acid will also combine with the to form soap, and a good deal of manufacturer's
in this way.
the operation
the
is during
evolved
mass
large quantity
very
con-
to fob up
soap is
ROSIN.
155
oleic acid and carbonate of soda. oleicacid and soda ash a fairly good soap can In the distillation of Yorkshire or wool
obtained
a
made
from
By
using pale is
be made. grease
''
there
an
analogous
body known
"
as
Oleine
are
this contains
large proportion
usually present
contained
commercial
as
the
following analyses
Water Free
.
will show
fatty acid
Unsaponifiable
Saponifiable
oil oil
.
These
used
are
mostly
used
wool
they
are
rarely
in making
soap,
the
variable
quantity
them
of
rather
When
buying
greases
and
from
oleines soap-makers
should
an
always
to
see
buy
that
have
this tested by
analyst
it is
Ocular
inspection
a
grease which
so
will make
fairly good
matter
which
contains
much
unsaponifiable
to
Kosin
left behind
in the distillationof
is
run
What
comes
into this
of
is almost
in both
origin.
are
It is made,
Eussia, which
what
countries,
used locally, but
but
rosin
they
is
coming
or
into EngUsh
transparent,
to
Eosin body,
is
less
varying
in colour
from
a
pale
yellow
looked through,
156
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
black
not
on
the rosin
transparent
this is due
to
the presence
which
may
short time.
"
"
be got rid of by keeping in a warm place Several qualities of rosin are distinguished
** *' "
in trade
black," etc. common," amber," This difference in quality is due partly to the quality of the the rosin is obtained, partly to crude turpentine from which
window
glass,"
the
"
amount
"
of
care
exercised
in its extraction.
**
"
The
best
virgin
gives window-glass
**
"
becomes
more
highly developed
in structure, quite
warming.
It is usually homogeneous
and
or
amorphous, fragments
very friable, readily breaking up into small into fine powder, which has a rather rough and
peculiar feel. Its specific gravity varies, but is about 1*07 to 110. It begins to soften at a temperature of 80" C, and It is quite insoluble in melts into a limpid fluid at 100" C.
water,
hot
alcohol
(on cooling
benzene, ether, petroleum crystals of sylvic acid deposit), oils fatty oils. Eosin may be distilled in a vacuum and most but if distilled under ordinary conditions unchanged, it is decomposed liquors, a limpid and yields acid aqueous
almost
and a viscid oil with smaller quantities of other bodies. spirit, The chemical of rosin has not yet been composition thoroughly on out, and authorities differ somewhat worked
this
subject. This,
perhaps,
is due
to
the
there
will be several
varieties of rosin
prepared
different
varieties of pine resins, and those chemists who rosin have not made sufficient allowance
Some
authorities consider rosin to be composed of two isomeric rosin acids, named pinic and sylvic acids, the former of which is soluble both in hot and cold alcohol, the latter only in hot alcohol.
To these acids is assigned
the formula
HC20H29O2,
while
EOSIN.
157
consider
that
rosin contains
This
as
abietic anhydride.
body, when
alkalies, is converted
Eosin
or
carbonate
alkalies forming
rosin soaps.
a
These
have
are
strong
detergent
soft and
no
sticky in consistency.
As the soap-maker
never
body, hence
enters
rosin is
used
alone to make
it
of most The
domestic
and
soft soaps
quantity of caustic soda or potash required to saponify rosin is very variable, ranging from 17 to 19 per cent, of caustic potash, and froon 12 to 13*5 per
cent, of caustic soda.
CHAPTER
IV.
PERFUMES.
in the preparation
of perfumes,
employed
derived
of the
from
preparation
essential oils is
to obtain
comparatively
great
in the
selection of materials,
in carrying
the
operations
involved
in extracting the oil or essence possibl ; thus it is imto obtain a fine oil of violets from faded flowers, otto
finest fragrance
are can
of
roses
of the
only
be obtained
are
from
flowers which
just ripe.
in
a
Generally
press
or
the oils
obtained
either by pressure
steam,
screw
by distillation with
same
the
oils in general
of being
possessing
over
the
property
or
as current
turpentine
distilled
boiling water
in
are
mostly
in
use
for perfumery
purposes
described
in the following
are
brief notes,
which
:
"
of convenience
arranged
alphabetically
from
over
a
Anise.
anisum,
a
"
This
is obtained
grows
the
seed
of Pimpinella
ported and is exvant, Le-
wide
extent,
from
etc.
cent,
Thuringia,
Moravia, from
Chili, Spain,
Levant
giving
the
smallest, and
Spanish
anise
the
largest yield. Slight differences are observable in the odour in different localities. It is of the oil from seed grown fresh. On a faintly yellow colourless or at most oil when
keeping,
especially when
exposed
dark
PERFUMES.
159
yellow in
colour.
Badly colom:.
made
and
a
also
aromatic
It has
pleasant
taste.
a
account
of its containing
stearoptene
known
as
anethol.
On
exposure
to air anethol
some
is converted
with
resinification,oxidation taking place. Its specific gravity is 0*980, and it is soluble in an equal volume of alcohol.
This oil must which
not
be confounded adulterated.
a
with
it is often
Sometimes
or
oils
are
added, together
with
Uttle paraffin
spermaceti,
to bring
about the
solidifying of the
adulterated
oil at
lower
temperatures
Bergamot.
"
This
is obtained
a
from
species of lemon,
which
a
yields about
pale yellow
3J per
cent,
of the oil.
Wben
fresh
with
it has
a
often be met
of
a
greenish
tint, which
It has
a
been
kept
in
copper
vessel.
agreeable
odour.
solidifiesat 11" F.
It
Bergamot
oil contains
of linalool. The
is present
terpenes, linalool
linaloolacetate, and
acetate is the
small quantity
to the extent
of 40 per cent
upwards.
It
can
be estimated
by
means
oils, or oils used refined turpentine adulterants are derived from oranges and lemons, with rosin. It is advisable to keep it out of contact with air, as it
As
absorbs oxygen,
of turpentine.
and
thereby
Oil of bergamot
scenting
perfuming Oil
of
or
of soap.
"
Bitter
Almonds.
amare,
This
or
pressed
to
separate
out
all the
and
then
the
meal
is mixed
with
water,
warmed
106"
to 113" F.
160 for
some
SOAP
MANUPACTUEE.
hours
fermentative
present
principle, amygdalin,
constituents
and forms
action sets in, and a vegetable in the meal, reacts with other with
some
sugar
and
prussic
meal
(hydrocyanic)cid. a
When
a
is distilled,1 per cent, being the usual amount obtained. pure it is a colourless, very refractive liquid, having
specific gravity of 1*04, so that it is shghtly heavier than It boils at 180" C. (350" F.). On exposure to the water.
air the oil gradually undergoes
decomposition,
and is changed
into benzoic
Bitter making
but
not
in scenting
like almondwhat is
odour known
as
of which
is commonly
obtained
by using
myrbane Caeaway.
well
(nitro-benzol).'
"
Oil
of
are
This
to
is obtained
and
from
caraway
seeds,
which
known
cooks
confectioners,
are
who
delight
to add tree
them
carui,
to their cakes.
These
Carum
and The
which
Germany Eussia.
Holland, average
amount
oil which
can
be obtained
Caraway
and
colour, and
aromatic
odour
burning C.
gravity
is 0*960, and
it boils at 195"
(383" F.). It is
alone and in
largely employed
of soaps, both
combination
an
with known
is due
to
aldehyde
carvol.
from
Cassia.'^" This
wood
of the
tree
oil is obtained
Ginnamomum
both
^
flowers
former
and the
cassia
the
jdelding
per cent.
about
fresh is of a yellow colour, but on keeping Oil of cassia when it becomes It has a specific gravity of a dark-brown colour. boils at 252" C. (485" F.). It has a pleasant of 1-06 and
PERFUMES.
161
odour
not
unlike It has
a
that sharp
of cinnamon,
taste, and
but
by
no
means
so
pleasant.
is employed
in the scenting
of soap and
Cinnamon.
"
in the preparation of many perfumes. This oil is obtained from the wood of the cinnamon
zeylanicumy
laurel, Ginnamomum
which
wood
grows
very 1
extensively in China
to
and
Ceylon.
Three
The
yields from
\\
per
"
cent,
of oil.
commerce
Ceylon
known
(whichis also
cinnamon cinnamon
a
".
of cassia
as a
a oil),nd
**
oil of
the true
oil of
or
golden-yellow
golden-brown colour, according to the age, and has a burning but sweet taste. The specific gravity is 1*030, and it boils at 240" C. (464" P.), posure while at 21" C. (-6" F.) it soUdifies. On exto the air it absorbs oxygen,
becoming
The
in colour, while
is cinnamyl
Chinese
and contains
come over over
is sent oil.
It used to about 75 per cent, of the aldehyde. it very largely adulterated with rosin, etc., but now fairly pure. It is not equal in quality to Ceylon
leaves is a very inferior article,used for Oil of cinnamon adulterating the better grades of oil, and in scenting soaps. This oil is rather heavier (itsspecific gravity being 1*058)
oil,although not so heavy is largely employed Oil of cinnamon perfumes, and in scenting soaps, etc.
than Ceylon
as
the Chinese
oils. of
in the preparation
CiTRONELLE."
species of
In
India
and
Ceylon
are
gj:own
many
an yield oils having grass-like plants, which The oils from these are commonly known aromatic odour.
grass oils,of which the following are the chief : citronelle, lemon grass, vetiver, ginger grass. Citronelle is obtained
as
nardus,
11
largely grown
in Ceylon,
162
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
where
exported
to
this country.
odour.
It has
pale yellow
It is very
largely
employed
of soaps. from
in the
preparation
of
perfumes
Cloves.
This
is obtained
the which
fruit buds
comes
of the
aromaticusy
from
Am-
boina, Bourbon
cent,
and
Zanzibar. fresb
of
contain
becomes
to brown.
water,
I'OSO, and
(478"
and
a
F.).
It
has
an
exceedingly
;
strong
pleasant
spicy odour
it is largely employed
or
in the scenting
in
common
with
other oils.
This
oil is obtained
from
the seeds
of the
plant, Goriandum
satriuniy which
per cent, of the oil. The tree is grown Italy, India, North Africa and other localities. It is of
pale yellow
colour, sharp
aromatic taste, and pleasant odour. water, its specific gravity being 0*875,
150"
to
while
it boils at
from
200"
C.
It is very
largely
employed Lemon
in the scenting
Geass.
"
This
from
the
lemon
grass, Andropogon
citratus,
native
of Ceylon,
while
are
it is
From
these countries
exported
It is a colourless oil,possessing
a
pleasing odour
roses or
of lemon,
on
of
geraniums;
rose
with
geranium.
It is rather
lighter than
water,
(4'J8'
used
F.) and
in the
sohdifies at 22" C.
of soaps
(-8" F.).
It is very much
and
in the preparation
of soaps of
oe
Eose
Geeanium.
roseum,
"
In
or
Southern
France
Algiers
the
Pelargonium
geranium,
is very
PEEFUMES.
163
from
about
\
rose
per
odoriferous
the
reason
odour
not
as
unlike that
**
''
of roses,
hence
oil of
geranium
to replace
a
the true oil of roses, the where bar to its use. Oil of geranium
0*895,
cost
of
a
has
specific gravity
of
and
(480" P.).
Lavendeb.
It is very
largely used
of soaps.
no
Probably
perfume
is better known
vera,
than
which
is
grown
very
extensively
Mitcham,
in Surrey,
and
in other
localities. The
of oil. The
most
Mitcham
perfume,
the best
delicate German
the
price.
An
lavender
oil is of good
from is not
the
so
spike
as
spikum
good
oil,
although
has
a
it is sometimes
colour
supplied
and
a
in its stead.
sharp
Oil of lavender
taste ; it must
light yellow
burning
be kept in air-tight vessels, as otherwise it undergoes decomposition, losing its fine odour of lavender, and acquiring that
of turpentine.
Oil of lavender
is lighter than
water,
but its
specificgravity is very variable, ranging from 0*870 to 0*940, Oil of 186" to 192" C. and its boiling point varies from lavender is much and of perfumes, used in the preparation in the scenting of soaps, etc.
Nekoli.
tree and
"
This is obtained
from the South
from
comes
of France,
tree is cultivated
purpose.
The
oils obtained
tree vary a little in different species of orange quality; that from the Seville orange tree, Citrus vulgaruSy is
from
considered
the
best.
On
exposure
to
the
oxidation and become of a red colour; in a cool place in well -closed vessels.
they
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
an
odour
of orange,
and
a
possesses
bitter taste.
water,
having
(337" F.).
and
This
oil is employed
of
in the
preparation
various perfumes.
be confounded with the oil of neroli; while the latter is obtained from the flowers, the former is pressed from the rind of the fruit. Orange oil
Obange.
"
Oil of orange
should
not
has
golden-yellow It has
a
colour, with
an
odour
and
taste
of the
specific gravity of 0*830 to 0*860, and boils at 171" C. (330" F.). Two varieties are met with in commerce,
that
from
fruit.
the
rind of the
bitter orange
there
and
that
from
the
rind
of the
sweet
orange;
are
between
perfumes,
them.
They
mineral waters, and in scenting soaps. Sassafeas. This oil is extracted from the wood
"
of the
sassafras tree.
yields about
2|
per
odour
and
taste.
It contains
articles.
Stae
Anise.
"
This
oil is extracted
from
the
seed-pods
of
Chinese
tree
(lUicium anisatum); it
having
pods
yield about
similar oil,but to a smaller extent, is obtained from the seeds tree (Illicium of a Japanese religiosum)that possesses family
to the resemblance so good in quality. WiNTEE Geeen.
Chinese
tree.
This
not
"
This
oil is extracted
from
the leaves
and
green, Gaultheria
procumhens.
This
PERFUMES.
165
salicylate ; it has C.
boils at 220^
other
(428" F.).
specific It mixes
and
solvents.
It is largely used
in the scenting of soaps, imparting a pleasant fragrant odour. Musk. One of the most delicate perfumes is that know^n
"
as
musk
; quite
number
of plants
and
animals
common
have
this
musk and
odour.
favourite
windovsr
plant
is the
yellow
flowers
Others
are:
Erodium moschatel
moschatellina, the
mansiy the
tuberous
spikenard
argophylla, Moschoxylum
the
silver-leaved
musk wood
of
Tasmania
;
swartziiy the
and
musk
of Jamaica
Guarea woods
trichoilides
of Guiana
other
species of Guarea,
the
musk
valuable seed.
musk
Indies, while the seeds of Hibiscus abelnioschus for perfume, and are known as commercially With the exception of the last, none of the are cultivated for their odour.
which
to
animals
accorded
source
be
the
moschatus),
There
are
which
is the
ox
of the
{Ovismoschatus), noted for its skin ; the musk rat (Hiber zibethicus), also valuable for its skin ; the Indian musk rat (Sorexindicics) the alUgator of Central America ;
and
the
are
the musk
crocodile
of West
Africa
and
also have
musk
as
a
glands, perfume^
a
which The
occasionally extracted
employed
excrement
of the
gazelle
dorcas)has (Gazella
of
an
musklike
to
and
odorous
extract
musk
which nearly the whole of the musk is obtained, is a native of the Himalayas, where found on an every hill having altitude of over lives
on
deer, from
the underwood
range.
the Himalayan
It is
animal
of about
the
166
SOAP
MANUFACTUKE.
size of
nocgreyhound, shy, but very agile,and somewhat turnal in its habits. The musk pod from which the odorous secretion is obtained is found only in the males, the
a
of any odour ; the pod is found near the navel between the flesh and the skin, and is composed of several layers of thin skin in which the musk is found in the
form of grains, of irregular shape, roundish and ovoid, varying in size. The pod is developed before the animal is born ;
years after birth,the contents of the pod are soft,milky in appearance, and have rather an unpleasant odour ; at the end of the two years the contents change into
at first, and for two
and increase in quality afterwards ; at firstthe weight averages ^ oz., and at full growth may reach 2 oz. ; the It varies also with the average is, however, 1 to IJ oz. musk
^v*
being greatest in the rutting season. The animals are usually snared in specially constructed snares of fences and ropes, then killed, and the pod extracted
seasons,
sun,
are
occasionally
musk
makes its appearance in two forms in commerce in pod "and ** musk in grain"; the former is the
"
material in its natural receptacle, while the latter is that from the pod. It is imported from (1)Tonquin, removed China, and Tibet in small chests, containing twenty-five packets of musk encased in lead. This is considered the best quahty, and
the highest price, but is most adulterated. commands in bags packed in a box, (2)Assam, which comes containing 200 pods, rather irregular in size and form, and
a
strong odour. (3)Kanardin or Eussian, which is very inferior in quality,poor in odour. Musk for use in perfuming is prepared as an extract or having tincture by
of alcohol ; it is rarely used alone, but in manent with conjunction other perfumes. It is an exceedingly perperfume ; one grain of musk will emit its scent for
means
PEEFUMES.
years, and
it appears
It
to
impart
some
other perfumes.
cannot
some,
be mixed
such
as
without
deterioration ;
it, while
much.
camphor
and
valerian
change
its
of musk musk
musk
is prepared
in the following
oz.
manner
Take Grind
oz.
in grain, 10
vnth
a
alchool,
oz.
ammonia. mix
all
the
little of the
for several
the
alcohol then
days, shaking
5
oz.
together and
then
allow
to digest
tervals at in-
filter.
Add
to
residue
alcohol
and
digest again for three days, then Add another 10 oz. the first lot.
repeat the operations.
strain and
alcohol
add
tincture to and
this
to the residue
The
weak
tincture
made
with
a
third extraction
is in place of alcohol
for extracting
fresh
batch.
Another
2
oz.
method
oz.
musk
oz.
in grain,
pearl-ash.
sugar ; then
for
quarts
alcohol,
at
use.
Allow to stand
when weaker
week,
shaking
for
filter,
vnll be rather
Aetificial
there has
a
Musk.
"
Under
into
a
the
name
of "Musk
Baur" 1890,
been introduced
which
has
commerce,
since about
odour
a
white
powder,
strong
of musk,
and
it
in imparting been
musk
odour
to soaps.
The production
the discoverer, rosin spirit formula
a
of this has
patented There
can
Albert
Baur.
hydrocarbon,
butyl
The
toluene,
which
C6H4(CH3)
from
(C^Hg).
simplest method
the
for making
artificial musk
toluene to drop of
one
this is to allow
into five times
hydrocarbon
of
a
butyl
mixture
parts
slowly
its weight
two
of fuming
sulphuric
the
acid, containing
on
mass a
and heating
mixture
the
water
bath
a
for eight
or
mass
nine
of
hours.
On
pouring
into water
crystalline
168
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
impure
nitro compound
is obtained.
recrystallised from
alcohol.
toluene,
occurs
Baur,
a
in the
in
of
creamy
crystalline powder,
which
is insoluble
but
is easily soluble
in alcohol, ether,
chloroform, It has
a
petroleum
most
spirit,benzine.
It melts
at 96" to Q?*" C.
intense odour
Its odour
of musk,
and
so
may
be used in perfuming
as
soaps.
is not
quite
pleasant
that
of true
musk. the
form
It may
of
a
be added
solution
Baur
or
preferably in
spirit.
the only
Although musk
mostly
are
Musk
to be met
form
of artificial
with in
trinitro derivatives of aromatic organic compounds, known, which have a musk-like odour, and may probably
or
be
sooner
later placed
"
on
the market.
Myebane.
This product
products
is largely used
in the scenting
a
of soaps
and
other
which
require
cheap
material, owing to its pleasant odour of almonds, Chemically soaps, etc. strong agent for perfuming having
the formula
C^HgNOg,
aud is mauufactured
the benzol
of the coal-tar
distiller, with
crude
product
mixture is mixed
of nitric and
sulphuric
acids.
excess
The of
pale
with
water
or
to free it from
acids when
nitrobenzene,
of almonds;
is
straw-coloured
odour
its specific
it gravity is 1'209, so that it is heavier than water, in which freely with oils, fats, spirits, It mixes is almost insoluble.
etc.
It boils at 207" C,
a
while it can
be cooled
down
until it
It is capable solid, having a melting point of 4" C. of being distilled in a current of steam, a property which may from be taken advantage of to free the crude nitrobenzene
forms
unchanged the
benzene
or
other may
hydrocarbons.
be
made
commercial
product
by
ought
to be exact.
When
PEEFUMBS.
169
mixture of zinc and hydrochloric acid it ought to yield hydrocarbons should be left nothing but aniline, while no in a retort with steam. behind on distilling some In the soap
trade myrbane
is very largely used for scenting soaps. Being very strong, it takes but littleto develop a pleasant almond It retains odour, while it mixes well with other perfumes. itsodour for a long period.
CHAPTER
WATER
V.
AS
SOAP
MATERIAL.
ubiquitous substance and finds so many that much applications in industrial and domestic uses may be written about it of a very interesting character and which here it is appeal to almost Qvery person ; however, would
a
Water
is such
simply
proposed
to consider
the most
valuable chemical
compound
and
hydrogen,
of the
two
gaseous,
conditions it
When
and
temperature
of
an
invisible gas.
to
ture at which
boils is found
one
be
constant
and
hence
is taken
the
point
in the graduation
on
the
on
Fahrenheit
Eeaumur
a
100" When
on
the Centigrade
water
80"
the
is cooled down
at which
it sohdifies into
it solidifies is also
or
constant
one,
is taken the
as
the
zero
starting point
is 32"
on on
the the
Centigrade Fahrenheit
Eeaumur
scale.
Water
is taken
the
on
standard
account
of specific gravity of
of the fact that it can
solids and
liquids; this is
in a state of purity ; its specific gravity be obtained anywhere is 1*000. Ice is Ughter than water, having a specific gravity
of 0*9; it will therefore float upon
water,
a
property
of im-
WATEB.
171
mense
natural
importance.
some
When
water
is transformed
When
into
vv^ater
vapour it expands
1500
times in volume.
is rendered solid ice it absorbs heat which latent or imperceptible, not being capable of measurement by is 142 1 units of the thermometer; the latent heat of water
is changed
from heat.
In
manner
when
liquid water
up and
is converted
latent
a
by heating
it also takes
renders
large quantity
of water
units. When
gas is converted
out,
a
back
is given
of steam
property
which
depends
for heating
when
liquids, drying
stoves,
etc., and
is changed propertieswater to
as a
heat is dissipated.
have
very
important
; it
bearing
in relation to
not
motive
power
more
is, however,
the
intention
water
discuss
thispoint
fully here.
or
When
pure
heated
United
weighs
foot of water
When
water
is viewed
a
in large
masses,
as
in deep
tanks, the
the purer
the water
The
most
important
feature
are
about
water
few
tion varia-
some
substancea such
as
in their
own
weight
of water,
are a
chloride, caustic soda, while there will form a solution with less than their own
other hand
some
few
which
the
weight
; on
bodies, such
as
calcium
are
sulphate,
oxalate,
but
soluble.
important
influence upon
degree of
172
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
an
increase of temperature
of substances
dissolved ;
oxalate,
"thisis notably
with
such
bodies
as
ammonium dissolving
potassium
more
bichromate,
water
;
on
boiling water
cooUng When
hot
a
much
than
the
cold
solutions
solution
the water
of these
contains
bodies
as
much
of
substance
a
dissolved in it as
saturated
it is said to be
the
solution ; from
on
substance again
will
on
crystallise out
re-dissolved
The saturated
TABLE
the
original table
regained.
following
of
some
gives
strength
:
"
of
solution
OF
important
substances
AT
16"
SATUBATED
SOLUTIONS
0. (60" F.).
Water
soap
one
plays
very important
part
of
; it forms
through
whose
are
hand
and
the other
form
soap ; vnthout
water
this combination
union
cannot
"take place.
be
due
no
doubt
In addition to thus being the medium there can that water has other influences in soap-making
It is a well-known
textures
of soaps made
in different works
process often differ
materials and
by the
same
WATEB.
178
in
rather
manner;
difference in the
of the
is used in the various works. There is no such thing as pure water in nature.
The
purest
is rain water, but this always contains some gases dissolved in it,derived from the atmosphere during its passage through that medium; the next then come purest is spring water, river waters,
water.
lastly the
most
impure
natural
water
is
sea
Spring, river, and sea waters contain dissolved in them varying amounts of inorganic or mineral and organic matters derived from the rocks over they or through which which
may
have
flowed.
It may
be inferred
that
on
this account
and
our
such
waters
will vary
considerably
are
in
the
character For
which
may
contained
sea
in them.
present purpose
as
we
leave
water
entirely out
soap, and
of consideratio
it is not
used
in making Now
simply
deal
river waters.
from
or
a
it is found
that waters
derived
district in which
the rocks
consist
small
more
chiefly of granite
other
quantities of matter
contain
perhaps
but
not
an
these chiefly of
a
alkaline
Waters
which
rocks
region where
stone lime-
liable to contain in rather large in solution, sometimes hme or magnesia more The presence of these bodies imparts a quality proportion. known is more to the water, hardness a as quaUty which
magnesian
are
easily demonstrated
are
than
described; with.
at all events
such
waters
Besides
lime and
magnesia,
often, in fact nearly always, contains small quantities It is not needful here to discuss in of salt, iron, silica,etc. detail all that may be found in water.
water
Lime
and
magnesia
; the
exist in water
in two
are
and sulphate
carbonates
of these
insoluble
174
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
bodies, and
to any appreciable will not dissolve in pure water the other hand they are extent ; on soluble in water which contains carbonic acid in solution, in the form of the less bicarbonate, and as all natural waters or contain more
carbonic
acid it follows
that
such
waters
will take
and
up
the
By
from
rocks
soils.
magnesia
down
''
The
latter having
lost
; any
metals
".
be
''
temporary
are
hardness
The
sulphates
own
of Ume
and
magnesia
soluble in water
therefore
are
of their
inherent
when
properties;
water
they
not
thrown
down
is boiled ; hence
*'
any hardness
which
is due to them
is known
as
permanent Now
hardness
".
magnesia
compounds
which
are
present
will exert
fluence of in-
in the manufacture
that they soap
and
a
of soap.
This
have
of entering
into action
lime and
forming
very small
a
insoluble
magnesia
will
soaps ;
react
in water
uncommon
with
large proportion
thing
to find waters
containing
carbonate
Now
and
sulphate.
to the equation
2Na0i8H35O2
Soap
=
according
CaCOg
Calcium Carbonate +
NaoCOg
Sodium Carbonate
Ca(Ci8H8502)2
lime Soap
we
see
of calcium 606
carbonate
parts
612 soap;
parts
to form
of
an
masses
which
supposing
form
we
soap
water
is mixed
with limey
water.
Now
that contains
gallon
WATEB.
175
of that water
the formation of 183 grains of lime will cause dealing with 6000 to are soap, and if in a boiling of soap we then the
will result
getting
the texture
in the formation
of 16 to 17 lb. of lime
must
soap, which
have
some
influence
on
the sulphate
may
be
considered
which
In
contains some
as
action
as
the carbonate.
use as a
The
as
soap-maker
will desire to
magnesia
water
can
littlelime and
help
He
he
get.
cases comes
he cannot
to
take
the water
it of
him.
or
however,
adopt
the
some
method
softening
water.
removing
the
are
For
several methods
available.
original Clark process may be adopted, which hardness of the the temporary consists in first determining
water
The
and
then
adding
so
much
quick-lime
when
as
will combine
of magnesia added
the Ume
will precipitate out, and on allowing the precipitate to settle in tanks the water becomes clear and is is tedious, is softened. A modification of this plan, which
process, where
the water
the Porter-Clark
and lime
are
mixed
together in proper
a
proportions
and
the mixture
sent
through
filtering apparatus. A better method is the ArchbuttDeeley process, in in a tank with which the water is mixed the requisite amount of a mixture of carbonate of soda and lime, and the blown with air for a short time, after mixture
the precipitate is allowed to settle and the clear liquor drawn off. This process works ness well ; it will reduce the hardfrom 16" to 17" down to 3" with ease of a water and have also been devised for softenrapidity. Other methods ing
which
water,
and
it would
be worth
a
while
water
for the
to
soap-maker it before
if he is working
with
very
hard
soften
176
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
using.
It does would
out.
not
cost much,
a
while
the operation
of making
the soap
be easier and
Then for
where
be turned
steam-boiler
accrue,
and
necessary
reduction
CHAPTER
SOAP MAGHINEBY.
VI.
The
plan
on
which
the present
chapter
oils and
alkalies, used
needful
to
in soap-making,
through
the
a
various
operations
their transformation
various machines
into they
bar
of soap, and
describing
that
the
pass
through
during
process.
Incidentally,
little may
be
said about
the operation
soap-making,
but
it
or
is not. intended
to describe
of soap-making
any
detail, reserving
chapter. portion of the subjectfor a subsequent Care will be taken to point out the principles on which the is based, and to show the best working of the machinery methods It is
a
of working.
difficult matter
of
a
to give
so
general
much
advice
depends and
on
the construction
soap
as
factory,
upon
local
features, such
waterways, have
proportion of floor
a
material influence on the planning of efficient soap works. It is always best to have as much floor area as possible, so
great
that the
one
majorityof
One
so
the factory
buildings
should
shall kept
be in
storey and
in height.
that
as
little point
the
be
mind,
works soap
is to
plan
various
portions
of the
that
the operation
they
of making
fats and
room
alkalies into
to
room
progresses
will travel
from
in
steady way,
gone
over.
as
without
Another
having
point
to traverse
any
as
ground much
previously of
is to take
advantage
gravity
of oils,fats, and
alkalies
178
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
from labour
one
place
to
another
it
comes
much
cheaper
than
in carrying
"
about.
The
soap-maker
The Alkalies.
or
caustic soda
a
receives his caustic potash in large iron drums, containing the alkalies
solid form ; this it is needful to reduce to a liquid form by dissolving it in water. In many soap works this is done by breaking out the caustic from the drum, which by-the-bye is a most unpleasant operation for the workmen engaged, into an iron tank usually placed the lumps and throwing
somewhere
mass on
in
the
ground
floor ; water
is
run no
in and
means
the the
boiled vnth
This is by
defect which the
best method
met
Another
is sometimes
tank
as
with
or
works,
is having
floor.
top of the
a
level
nearly
so
with
the
This
is
bad
fault,
in the way there is great liabilityfor accidents to happen operatives falling into the lye with disastrous results.
the usual plan of dissolving the caustic,
one
source
of
In
of trouble
is met
into a solid cake with, that of the caustic forming at the bottom of the tank and refusing to dissolve, the lye thereby being weaker than it would otherwise be.
The
best method
a
of making
a room
the soda
or
or
potash
lyes is to
provide
tank
put in
place above
the soap-boiling
of this tank
tube should
off the lye.
be placed below the floor ; a be placed in the tank for the purpose
may
sjrphon tube
on
has many
the
tank
justbelow
the
surface
be placed
supports
which
On this grating the drums side to side of the tank. out, are placed. of caustic, which have had the ends knocked The water penetrating into the drum gradually dissolves out the caustic ; the solution, being heavier than the water, sinks
to
the
bottom
of the tank,
constant
circulation of fresh
ALKALI
TANKS.
179
water
or
weak
so
liquor passing
through
the drum
becoming
of the goes to the bottom solved. tank. This goes on until all the caustic in the tank is disless labour in the This method means of working handling of the caustic, which is of some ; there advantage
stronger in
doing, which
then
is
no
undissolved
caustic formed
at the
bottom
of the tank,
while the operation is done somewhat quicker. Figure 25 is an illustration of a tank constructed
on
these
principles.
Fig.
26.
The
following
table gives
some
idea of the
most
useful filled
foot of the
weight number
of caustic of
in the
of gallons of
180
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
Sometimes
mechanical
using
such
cylindrical form, fitted with in stirrers, are used, but there is no advantage over the form just described, and the stirrer
lye tanks
of
absorbs
power
it is desirable to avoid
if
possible. Fat-melting
small
Tanks.
"
Although
open
it is
custom
with
some
soap-makers
as
to break
the casks
of tallow, oil, or
the contents
other soap-stock
and throw
is required to make soap, such a course dirt, as the fats, etc., may contain much
Then,
all of which
Fig.
26.
are
up
in getting
course
and
a
best
to
shallow
and
of the
a
length
of
cask
number
two
of barrels.
stout
Along
top
of this trough
the barrels
are are
placed held
wooden the
the
supports,
which
downwards.
a
is
run
steam
or
other
trough
below, from
whence
fat flows
into
large
FAT
TANKS.
181
as
Figure
26
this arrangement.
it is possible to place the fat tanks above the soap-kettle, so that the fat can flow by gravity into is not always the kettle. This, however, possible, and then
It is best wherever
some
means
must
be found
to transfer
the melted
fat from
means
the tank
a
This
may
be done
on,
by
of
pump,
such
as
but in many
of what
soap works
the
a
means
is
often named
stock-blower.
Fig.
27.
The
stock-blower
is shown
in figure 27.
It consists of
be made can air-tight and placed cylindrical vessel which upright ; a little above the bottom is placed a dished false bottom with a hole in the centre ; this is for the purpose of allowing bottom,
kettle.
any
dirt and
prevents passes
steam
water
to
settle out
under
the
which A pipe
A
them
the
from
getting
into the
from
bottom
steam
of the vessel
soap-kettle.
pipe passes
into the
top of the
kettle.
182
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
Soap-boiling
soap, alkali and
Kettles
or
Pans.
"
In
the
manufacture
of
fat
are
are
commonly
boiled together.
These
can
This
are
is
most al-
called soap-kettles.
they
be built of
to
The
of
course,
be proportioned
made, and
quantity
of material
on
which
has to be
something
were
this point shortly. In olden times these by fire, but in modern heated always
heated
they
are
by steam,
may
sent
or
into the
not
kettle
steam
boiler.
This
steam
may
be super-
FiG.
28.
heated.
Steam
heating
has
many
advantages
over
fire
to
heating.
It is cleaner ; then
again
keep the materials in the pan well mixed of the steam heated
nearest
the passage
through
the
a
mass
ensures
this.
Then
in
fire-
pan
to
there is
or
risk that
those
portions hot
of the kettle
in contact
and
with the
any soap the
fire or
fire gases
thereto thereby
a
will will
become become
overheated,
contiguous
pan
burnt
The
or
charred, and
great
of soap
discoloured
of
difficulty there
is in keeping
pan
pasty
soap
SOAP-KETTLES.
183 Then
over
is quite
another only
absent point.
from
steam-heated
pan.
there
is
Soap
and
fob, the
and
case
for which is to draw the fire or shut ofif steam In the allow the kettle and its contents to cool down. of a fire-heated pan this is by no means easy, and should
remedy
of the
no
any
soap
materials
boil
over
and
fire,
With a steam-heated might happen. pan, shutting off the steam is all that need be done. Figure 28 is a drawing of a fire-heated kettle. The kettle
there is
telling what
Fig.
29. Steam
Soap-pan.
A may
by brickwork B size ; it is supported to serve the as B, the upper portions P P of which are made the contents of the kettle are working platform from which fireplace C is at one The side, and the heat manipulated. be made
of any and gases from E is the ashpit. As the fire pass
round
the kettle in flues D
D ;
out
of
use
not needful
heated
Steam
is
now
almost
pans, except
perhaps
184
a
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
of
steam-heated shows
soap-pan, the
manner
made
by
Messrs.
W.
Eraser pans
"
are
Co., which
usually
in which
steam
constructed.
This pan
is made,
a
riveted together ;
centre
serves
circular in shape, of stout boiler plates flange running round the pan about its
as
to act
its support,
from.
and
for constructing
platform
and
to work
the pan
It is fitted with
both open
closed steam
coils.
The open
This is almost
in soap-pans.
coil is employed
first
portions of a boil, while the closed coil is used at the last. The pipe fitted with a chain on the left of the figure is a draw-off pipe (theskimmer pipe as it is called)for the finished
soap,
convey
and
is connected
soap
to
with
pipes
or
outside
crutchers
the
as
the The
the frames
at the
opening
lyes, and
bottom
that
off the
valves and
is for
connected
pipes leading to the spent lye tanks. It is customary with large pans to fix two open
coils,so that the degree
under of boiling
can
and
two
be better
steam
and
sent
through
of pressure
of the
materials
that
of
the
If
one
full
then
the bpihng
were
might
in such
coil
turned
by
the
one
either, there
overcome
a
in
to
pressure small
a
With
the
coil
gentle
boil
can
boil. A pressure
at.
strong
to work
It is not
customary
to enclose
the soap-pans
in any
way.
SOAP-PANS.
185
hood
has been
but in
one
or
two
soap
works
wooden
fitted
in prolongation
the
pan,
floor above
through
in communication
serves
below.
the
steam
This chimney
which
shaft
the purpose
rises from
the
boiling soap
of the
over
therefore adds
serves
to the comfort
workmen.
also
to
prevent
boiling
begin
the
to fob very
much. the
loss of heat
from
sides of the
pans,
be coated This
with is not
with boards.
and
very
desirable addition, and facilitates the separation of the lye from the soap by enabling the latter to retain its heat, and
so
In
are
some
soap works
made
square.
no
So
practical working
of
one
there is
material
the
to
advantage
form
another.
As regards
any dimensions
size of soap-pans,
suit
these
of
may
be
made
of
the
quantity
large
soap
which
are
it is
desired to make.
Generally
soap-pans
easier to
manipulate and deal with than small pans ; the yield of soap is usually greater, while it is of better quality and freer from
enclosed lye. There
is
maximum
of fat requires
proportion lye
pan of about
40 gallons capacity
being
required
to give
for the
room
aqueous
the
necessary
for boiling.
same
of the
diameter,
26 to 28 tons of soap in at one to make willbe large enough batch. A pan of 7 feet in diameter and 6^ feet in depth, wall be large enough to deal with 1^ tons of fat, giving about 2 to 2 J tons of soap. figures. These are but approximate
186
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
The
soap-pans
should
the
not
be
or
placed
too
far from
the
steam,
otherwise
there
is
great
occurring
in the connecting
into the pan
an
water
to too great
to objection
extent
as
bulk of
the contents.
main
the pan
constructed
in the
manner
in the way
in figure 28 is that the various coils are This, however, is not of the pan being cleaned out.
shown
Fig.
an
30.
insuperable
and objection,
are
much
depends
on
the
manner
in which
the coils
made
out
is not needful
whatever
to clean
time
it is used, as
or
adhering
on
the
steam
a
into the
next
one
batch
soap
and
to
so
is not lost.
the pan
When
must
is made
from
another
through
the closed
steam
coil
SOAP-PANS.
187
and the water
so
should be
passed
through
condensers,
tained ob-
to the
boiler, or employed
in making
jacketed soap-pans
in soap-making.
have
been
are,
made
and
are
Such
pans
however,
only
capacity ; large
than
a
jacketed pans
pan with
a
become
coil.
much
more
expensive
simple
steam
Fig.
31.
Figure
30
shows
Dopp's
seamless
steam
jacketed pan.
This pan has the jacket cast along with the pan proper, and hence is stronger than pans in which the jacketis fastened 1 to in all sizes, from to the pan with rivets. It is made
500 gallons
capacity.
The
stays
which
join the
the inner
inner
pan
shell materially
conductors
strengthen
to the
vessel, while
pan.
of heat
Thus
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
are
more
can
economical
in
an
use
than
plain
as
jacketed
in
They
be fitted with
very
agitator,
to check
shown
useful
fobbing and
together.
One
as
is that of fobbing
at the beginning
of operations
by turning
boil up.
and
beating down
be employed. of paddles ; better still a whirling wheel may in figure 32. It is attached to the sides of Such is shown
the soap-pan handle
at
one
by
means
of loose of the
brackets and
It acts
is turned breaking
by
end
axle.
by
up the
Fig.
32.
foam,
or
froth, and
a
so
preventing form
it increasing
in quantity.
consisting of
are
Sometimes
a
more
elaborate revolving
is employed,
pair of paddles
at
a
in opposite
directions ; these
suspended
revolution
the
suitable point in the soap-pan, and by their creasin froth is broken from inup and prevented
paddles
are
The
held
in
Y-shaped
support, the
a
forming
the
bearing gearing
paddles,
pulley
with
suitable
to the paddles.
Although
more
whether
they
are
effective than
above.
A great
deal
of soap is
now
being made
under
pressure
in
suitable boiler.
SOAP-PANS.
189
a
Messrs.
W.
Fraser
"
Co.
make
high-pressure
soapboiler,
which
diameter and
is shown
in figure 33.
and
8 feet high
is made
and
steel manhole
are
The
fittings
and
valve
shown
pipe and valve, outlet pipe charging mometer at the bottom of the illustration, therthermometer,
a
tube
and
safety
valve
which
is
The boiler off at 65 or 70 lb. pressure. fireplace, the fire playing at the bottom brickwork
Fig.
33.
and
on
portion
of the
side.
are
The
boiler
brackets
are
fitted
by putting in the charge of fat, the right quantity of alkali and water, then heating and maintaining
pans
are
These
worked
the pressure
when
soap
as a
rule
next
the
saponification
run
will be
complete.
the
scent,
The
etc.,
may
be
off into
crutchers,
mixed
with
it,and then
it is framed.
The
pan
is ready
for
190
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
a run
new
charge, off.
Two
which
is
run
in immediately
may
the
old
one
is
one
batches
of
a
of soap
day.
thus
be
made
in
charge
pan
in the
course
The
weight
of the
is
1 ton.
The
soap
as
made
in this is no
manner
contains
nor
the whole
are
of the
ingredients added
to
run
; there
salting out
success
away.
of making
depends
upon
employing
quantity
the right
the proper
out
of water
comes
too soft.
analysis of
sample
of soap showed
made
by the high-pressure
:
"
system
by the author
20*70 per cent, 5-66 per cent,
it to contain
of water. of combined
sodium.
of combined
fat.
The shows
as
sample
was
firm
and
of excellent
can
quality, which
as
system
make
use,
good soap
a
commonly
out
in
a
while
larger
quantity
Some high
be turned
of
in
given time.
under
forms
apparatus devised,
some
for saponifying
pressure
a
have
been
consist of
agitators ;
of which
become
to
obsolete,
out
the
agitators made
of
no
clean
and
were
material
SOAP
FRAMES.
next
kind
of soap
as
plant
are
which
frames
they
called.
to modern
forms
the
much
differ from
due.
original form
are
to which
Soap
frames
case
in point.
SOAP
FBAMBS.
191
were
frame-like
Now
name
structure,
allowed
more
to cool.
they would
soap
take
in which box-like
appropriate
an
be soap coolers.
such
as
was on
34 shows
old wooden
an
frame had
old time
frames
were
when
are
excise duty
to be paid
made
number
one
of them
placed
top of another,
were
pegs in through
or
rods
passed
of about
45 in. deep
holding
were
of soap. wooden
dimensions
soap frames
here
are
given
fixed
by law. in
a
These
now
limited
manner,
mottled
^
"Fig.
34.
^
a
The
modern
on as
soap frame
small
may
usually consists of
so
wooden moved
base
from
board, placed
place to place is built four
wheels
that it may
be
be convenient.
or
Upon
sides of wrought
are
cast iron
to
form
nuts,
fastened apart
together
whenever of
a
so
that they
Figure
can
be taken
35
is the
drawing
"
soap
made
are
by
Messrs. E.
of cast
on
Forshaw
and
Son,
the
made
cast
iron
The
have
diagonal
bars
them.
mode
of fastening
sides of the
frame
together differs in different makes portions of the sides through which rods
are
of the frames
; sometimes
prolonged
holes frames
screw
pass,
binding
of the
by
192
The
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
nuts.
ends
of the frame
so as
are
generally made
as
to fit into
grooves
thus
in the sides
to make
tight
as joint
possible,
preventing
In the frame
illustrated
All
which
so
are as
planed
to
ensure
are
planed
being
fasten
fitted together.
have
square
The
bolts which
It
can
the frame
round
on
threads. and
moved
be swivelled direction.
centre
are
wheels made
in any
These
soap
franies
to hold
from
5 to 10 cwts. of
Fig.
36.
Iron
Soap
Frame.
allow the
soap
than large frames, in which the advantageous In the making of mottled soaps and slower. cooling is much kinds, slow cooHng is a desideratum, and sundry other special large frames. therefore it is worth while to employ the sides are made The thickness of the metal of which
thus
more
material
influence
the
rate
on
the
rapidity of coohng.
metal
be thick
to
ever, ; it is,how-
necessary
have
the
certain thickness to
withstand
the pressure
of the soap
in the frame.
SOAP
FRAMES.
This
with
wooden
bottom
sheet-ii:on sides, quickly, and with thick iron sides ribs of in the drawing.
are
which being
80
thin allow
the heat
to pass away
the soap gets cold quicker than in frames plates. To give the necessary rigidity to the as shown corrugated iron are fastened to them
The ends
are
made
of wooden
planks and
tightened
of clamps, which are easily worked, against the sides by means out in a few and permit the frame to be built up or opened
Fig.
36.
Whitaker's
Soap
Frame.
minutes.
In
such
frames
soap
thirty-fiveto forty-eight hours, according to the time of year, to strip and follows : A good frame may be made as slab. The sides are made of steel plate of about ^ in. thick, the ends sides
are are
made
of wood
of
the ends
that
of the
placed
1^ in.
angle
projects
the
the top
to the
bottom,
that when
frame is built up, the bent clamp forced down, the tapered irons Close to the top press the sides and ends together. fastened angle irons which and along the sides are
13
project
194
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
beyond,
these
serving projections
or
as
handles
apart
to manipulate
taking
the frame
are
sides ; be-
other
longitudinal
of
of
angle
irons
fixed to The
the
sides
for
the
purpose
strengthening
a
them. of about
bottom
piece of wood
IJ
Fig.
37.
Morgan's
Soap
Frame.
of this is fixed
the frame
are
an
axle carrying
on
which
can
will ;
each
end
and
to
in the centre
on a
arranged end
move
wheels
and
much
moving
to and
frame
turning
if desired.
Such
SOAP
FRAMES.
195
40 in. in depth
and
15 in. wide,
10 cwts.
of
soap.
Figure
37
is
drawing
of
soap
frame
made
by
Mr.
H. D. Morgan,
country
of wrought
steel, which
is patented This
frame
in this is made
stiffened
and
in
the
United
States.
hammered
and
of special
at the
a
mild
steel plates
flat, and
along the
upper
edge
to
by
flanging,
beaded
so
flange
prevent
is
formed the
end
tween jointbe-
side, it is cooled
in the
cavity before it
The
can
get away,
preventing
the
leakage.
sides and
to receive
cast-iron base
them.
Bolts and
are so
nuts
are
entirely dispensed
that they both
the
with.
The
clamping
bars
shaped pull
the ends
and
ends
tightly
beaded
It is
good ends.
plan
Then
to
have
two
one
bottoms
bottom
to each
pair of
and
sides and
soap
on
while
is in
use
the
it is being
slabbed
and
barred, the
and made
other
bottom
a
is
to
ends
into
frame
factories they
of the frame fit
have
so
tracks
of
can
that
they
easily
should would
be coated
inside with
Ume
This
to
defect
of iron frames
is absent with wood ones ; these gradually get their pores filled up with soap and the sides become
in the stripping of the soap, while leaving the sides of the soap smooth and glossy. Iron frames iron would be found of service in soapmade from enamelled
smooth,
which
aids much
making;
there
would
be
no
tendency
to
rust,
while
the
196
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
smooth
impart a gloss to iron would sides of the enamelled the soap, besides allowing stripping to be done more easily. if when an In framing soaps it will be found advantage into the frames and has set on the the soap has been run top, a board which justfits the frame be placed on the top
of the and soap and of then
a
weighted;
thereby This
the soap
is pressed
of the soap
becomes
better grain.
weighting
is not always
done.
SLABBING
SOAP.
been
framed
and
it has become
sufficiently
the next
proceeding
is to cut it
"J
Fig. 38.
up
into slabs of about 2 inches thick, or for the particular size of tablets which
to send out.
as
may
be required
the soap-maker
proposes
Slabbing
machine.
may
be
carried
a
out
either
by
hand the
or
by
of
Figure
38 is
drawing
showing
method
slabbing soap by hand. The by means of a scribe along cut ; this scribe is a wooden
proper
block of soap has its sides marked it has to be the lines of which
rod containing
distance apart.
The
workman of which
is provided
are
long
sometimes
to
one.
fastened
This
handles,
or
in
some
instances
wire
drawn
is fitted to the
mark
made
by
the
scribe, and
then
SLABBING
MACHINES.
197
through, thereby
dividing
slab
of soap
from
the
is repeated operation until the whole has been so slabbed. is very simple This method of working but effective ; it is still largely employed in preference to
using machines. Ralston's
block. This
main block
slabbing which
machine
shows
is represented
in the
grammati dia-
sketch
be wheeled
It consists
about from
place to place
as
occasion
may
demand.
at
of four
pillars, one
at
each
corner,
such
distances
Fig.
39.
apart that
block
of soap
can
can
be
placed
between
them,
or
rather that
one
the machine
a
be placed
round up
the block.
At
on
end is
block of wood
which
takes
the
pressure
The
consists of
the proper
means
frame
carrying
horizontal
so
distance
and
apart ; this is
made
it
can
by
of chains
windlass
be drawn
along
the machine,
and
wires cut the soap up into slabs. The is fairly quick, and is capable of doing action of the machine a large form of slabbing machine Another of work. amount therefore
the
198
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
A.
Saalfeld
"
on
Co.
consists of two
on
parallel
runs a
supported
tressels;
on
this
with soap.
wheels,
In the
block
a
of
centre
placed is machine
can
stretched
wire, the
so
height
of which
above
the trolley
can
be regulated
The
that
on
be cut.
direction,
the
block of soap
and then
first in
one
to the right
extent
is reversed and another direction of the machine slab cut. These operations are repeated until the block of soap is cut into slabs. A similar machine has been made to Ealston's and sold by some The other firms of soap machinists. construction There is a bed be briefly described. of this machine may
formed carrying
At
of
grooved
girders, in
which
and
a
wires,
upright forwards.
an
frame,
the of
an
opposite
upright working chains
is fixed
triangular
arrangement
the
block, against which the soap is There of the machine. that passing
over
is pressed
a
attached through
pulleys draw
so
The
working
the
from
frame
is placed
on
a adjusted,nd
turned.
the soap
been
slabbed
the windlass
away
chains
removed,
the
to be
barred, when
the machine
block
of soap.
is sold by Messrs. Adolphe machine which to cut a block of soap up Co. is constructed
in
one
into bars
one one
operation.
It consists
of
table
near
end
of which
is
frame
carrying
two
sets
of wires, end
the
the
on
other
of
being
worked
SLABBING
MACHINES.
199
causes
may
so
forced against the wires, and machine is not, as a rule, found of soap, power.
In
as
well adapted
the power
required
is then
too
for hand
all modern
so
slabbing
machines
the
wires
are
made
to cut
movable,
be set at any
gauge
apart
bars of any
convenient
size.
It is im-
FiQ. 40.
Soap
Waggon.
portant that these wires should be tightly stretched, so that into contact with the soap they will not they come when sag or bend in any way, such bending if it occurs spoiling the slab for cutting into bars or tablets. is the best material to make wires of. Stout piano wire
Figure
of soap
to
40
shows
soap
waggon
for wheeling
the
slabs
are
machines.
swivels round
The
on
wheels
so
arranged
that
truck
the
two
large
200 in
a
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
wheels
the
direction,
middle, feature of
waggons.
and
no
allows
easy
movement
in any
little importance
in the construction
of soap
BARRING
MACHINES.
proceeding
is to cut
have
;
into bars.
The
variety of machines
devised to carry out this operation hand-power are machines used, but
also made.
been
generally
ones
are
Fig.
41.
Figures
41 and
common
42 show
is perhaps
in soap
Figure
41 is the form
by Messrs.
by
W.
J. Fraser
Co., while
"
figure 42
is that
made
Messrs.
a
William
Neill
an
Son.
This
on
machine
consists of
near
upright with
frame;
the
rest
notches
at
2 inches
apart, From
being
back
the
usual
that
bar
is made.
the
of
the
to the
which
rests
is hinged
upright
to, forming,
BABBING
MACHINES.
201
slab of soap is placed the rest at the front of the table, and the with one edge on The cutting frame is now other against the wires. released from the hook or catch which keeps it up, and pressed down
an
hypotenuse
of
triangle.
The
through the soap, whereby the latter is cut into bars. These bars fall upon a rest which is fixed to the back of the cutting frame, and when the latter is returned to its normal position
are
removed
while
another
slab is being
placed in position.
Fig.
42.
are
provided
with
drawer
are
placed
always
under the table to receive the scraps of soap which in cutting up soap. These made scraps are thrown
afterwards
into the
next
boiling of soap.
are are
These
and
out
not
very
expensive,
not
liable to get
of order.
London
firm supplies
barring
machine
so
in which
when
a
the
wire frame
is made
to travel to and
fro,
that
slab
202
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
of soap is placed in front of the frame, and has been cut up into bars, these may be removed and another slab put in
their place.
Then
back again and the wire frame is moved This machine a saves great slab into bars.
is of comparatively
is in use which not only cuts the slab up into bars, but separates
machine
from
Thi"
one
another
is effected by having
a
table.
a
On
one
wires fixed in the centre of half, the slab to be cut is placed ; by means-
of
wheel
and
cut.
The
chain the slab is forced against the wires and bars are received on the other half of the table,,
up of wooden
are
which
soap.
is made
These
of
bar
of
connected
While webbing. the Soap close together, but when by is stretched, and
so
the bars
are
After being cut into bars, the soap is often cut into tablets ; this operation is carried out in the barring machines described
or
which
are
adapted
altered.
a
Figure
cuts
43 represents up
machine
worked and of
by power,
slabs of soap
that
to
one
into bars
two
;
tablets.
placed
which It will be
at
noticed
angles
that
it has
another
sets
wires
are
right
so
these
wires
their
and
distance
tablets,
apart, may
and
movable size of
the
A
bars
be
regulated
required.
end of the machine and slab of soap is placed at one forced against the barring wires; when it has travelled to in that direction the full length the of the machine
tablet-cutting wires by mechanism By the time the at right angles. working is ready to receive another tablets have been cut the machine
of soap
are
bars
forced
against
the
slab.
This
machine
is capable
of turning
out
very large
BAKBING
MACHINES.
203
of quarirtity soap, something like 15 tons per day, and saves a great deal of trouble. Other forms of tablet-cutting machines have been devised,
but the above will be found very efficient machines and itis not needful to describeany other forms.
Fig. 43.
SOAP-STAMPING
MACHINERY.
when soap was sold by the makers to the in retailer the form of bars,in boxes of 1 or 2 cwt., and the cut the bars up into pound pieces and sold them retailer eitherin that form or in the bar form in which he received
was
Time
of the maker of the soap he used. Now, however, matters have alteredin done in bar soap, thisrespect,for while a good trade is still and those consumers who are able willfind itthe best to buy
consumer
has
now
grown of selling
204
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
in packets,
the
name
or
these
of the
are
invariably stamped
some
of the
soap, although
the
with large
own
retailers by
names
arrangement
on
with
maker
have
their
stamped
a
the soap.
use
This
stamping
of soaps
has
and
led to these
of stamping
machines,
be described. will now At first, now, a great deal of soap and even hand
a
is stamped
a
by
stamp,
such
The
being
letters
usually made
are
like
brass box
with
and
handle.
means
formed
are
these, by
of thumb
screws,
This
system
a
is
although of tablets
large number
if he
good
makes
of which by hand,
there
are
many
steam
others by
press, so far at any rate as the appearance of the finished tablet is the soap is pressed. concerned, is the mould or die in which
by steam to work power, and others are constructed A brief risuntA of such madhines will be given. important One of the most parts of the stamping
direct.
Generally in most
to
form
the
this takes the form of two pieces, machines upper and lower surfaces of the soap tablet,
a
together with
the
tablet.
loose ring which to form serves the body of By altering the form of the ring, and by the
shape which
mould
of the upper and lower dies, the shape of the tablet This form of is formed can be altered to any extent. with loose ring is perhaps not the best that could be
tends
to stick in the ring.
a
This is
come over-
it with
from time
to
remove
to
delay, however,
them
caused
by having
the
reduces
the working
output
of the
in
one
This is avoided by making the ring and bottom die Ufting piece and fitting the press with an automatic
STAMPING
MACHINES.
apparatus
which
the upstroke
of the
on.
This
shown
later
some
presses
are
the
tablet moulds
on
are
in
separate The
the sides
hinged
to the bottom
piece.
press on this is to press all the sides up, and When for the soap. the tablet has been 80 form a mould formed and the press returned, the sides fall down leaving
action of the
Fig.
U.
the tablet
a
to be removed.
With
moulds
made
in this way
much Hand
larger output
is obtained.
soap presses
Soap
Presses.
of hand
are
made
principal forms
of press
made
noted.
form
William
grasped
Son.
The
action
of this machine
be
by
an
inspection
A plunger
carrying
the upper
mould
206
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
with
on
pair of weighted
levers, the
on
a
pulling
down
of which
the
the
bottom
quantity
die presses
of soap
one
the tablet.
With
this machine by
a
large
works
may
be got through
boy, who
hand,
while with
the other
he places the
Fig.
45.
Soap
Stamper.
it when in position and removes stamped. for automatically there is no arrangement machine
soap the
In
this
removing
tablet
of soap
from
the
press
or
mould,
and,
as
tablets sometimes
E. Forshaw
stick.
make
are
"
Son
the
soap
press shown
a
in figure 45.
In
it the levers
replaced
by
pair of fly-
STAMPING
MACHINES.
207
to be
wheels,
the
use
of which
brought
to bear upon
a
With
i;hismachine
and
fairlylarge output
This is
makes
a an
lifting the tablets out of the moulds after stamping. been The presses hitherto described have worked
hand,
lever.
by foot H. be
but
presses
46
are
also
such
made
a
which
work by
by
Figure
Dopp
shows
press made
Messrs.
can
Wm.
general
construction
of which
Fig.
46.
readily foot
on
gleaned
the
from
the
drawing.
The
on
pressure
the
on
of the
of soap
on
down
the die
cake
the
mould,
the
stamping
it,while
releasing the
die rises and at the same comes time a cam into action and forces the soap cake out of the mould, this first introduced Since it was action being a noiseless one.
pressure
this machine
the
working
has
some
improvement
and
in design ;
the working
strengthened,
of the machine
208
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
The
a
same
firms make
14 in. long.
come
press which
is capable
of taking
bar of soap We
now
to
those
stamping
presses
reasons
presses
are
which
are
worked
by
steana
power.
Such
into vogue
than
formerly,
but
for
more
just
Fig.
47.
Steam
Soap
Stamper.
been
pointed
manual
out,
it is doubtful
whether
they
will supersede
are
presses.
:
Of steam
stamping in which
presses there
the steam
at
least two
types
there
is
one
is applied
is carried through a direct, while in the other the power band and pulley. Of these two types the latter will probably be the one largely adopted, not that will be most which
STAMPING
MACHINES.
209
it is capable of doing better or more than can able work be done with a direct driven press, but that the necessary
presence
having to be
rather
pipes, and the possibility of these distance, make the former carried for some
of steam
many
from objectionable
there
a
points
a
of view.
Over
long
distances of piping
through
condensation, in the pipes which of the presses.
is
considerable
loss of power
being
formed
One
steam
presses
now
being
is that of Messrs.
E. Forshaw
" Son,
and
shown
made in figure
Fig.
48.
and works well constructed automatically. It requires the aid of two boys to work it ; one boy places the plain tablet on the table of the machine, the other boy removes it as it comes from the niachine stamped. The
47.
It is very
machine
feeds
and
discharges
itself, it works
out 1600
noiselessly tablets of
and
Any
is capable of turning
kind
of moulds
be changed
and who
very
has
large soap
manufacturers,
speak favourably
a
Figure
48 shows
steam
soap
most
stamper
made
by Messrs.
construction.
Neill "
Son,
which
is of
substantial
14
210
It
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
works
automatically,
on
a
only
needing
be
placed
feeding
back
out
a
This
is capable
of turning
of work,
being
Figure
made
shows
by Messrs.
W.
belt-driven revolving soap stamper The soap is delivered to Neill " Son.
a
Fig.
49.
Revolving
Soap
Stamper.
this machine
passes
at the front by
an
automatic
and and
through
stamped.
the
dies
or
moulds,
to
back
It is easy
work
out
large
quantity Moulds
of tablets.
used
and made and
soap
are
made
in great variety
of all kinds.
designs
with
loose
fall down
after the
;
permit
the soap
SOAP-MILLING
MACHINES.
211
common
are
solid, and
the
suitable contrivance.
other forms
serve
of presses
as
are
.made,
will
be sufficientto
types.
TOILET-SOAP
MACHINERY.
Time
was
when
or
all kinds
of soap,
uses, were
whether produced
for toilet,
solely by
industrial
as
machinery
has
hitherto
been
described.
is produced
by
machinery,
a
the
or
main
to be
more
grinding
homogeneous
milling
mass,
produce
thereby obtaining
harder
and
more
durable
so
soap
a
and
completing
of the fats
that
more
neutral
time.
first developed
where
This
system
France, where
of
in
the construction
to
a
of the necessary
machinery
has been
brought
great
perfection. It
remembers
early London
a
was
early introduced
a
into England.
The writer
one
seeing
soap-milling
machine
at
never
of
the
Exhibitions,
obtained
however,
great footing
in this country
soap-makers
are,
beginning to give more attention to the system. this system has been largely used.
The need
must
In America
It starts with a ready-made soap. milling system be, nay, hardly be pointed out that the soap should hardly be expected be, of good quality, for it can that
can
be made
the
by its
process
means
from
poor
although
some
much
improves
as
it.
the
particulars
will be given
to
first operation
To
is to cut
a
the
soap bars up
into shavings.
one
effect this
cutting machine
is used,
form
of
212
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
which Wm.
is shown
Neill
of
"
a
in figure 60 and which is sold by Messrs. Son. The portion of this cutter working
disc carrying six steel blades placed against radial slits in the disc ; the bar of soap presses against the disc by its own fed in the two weight, the bars being
consists
troughs
The
which shavings
trays
are are
seen
on
each
next
room
be done
by placing
room
them
on
in
by steam
pipes, the
Fig.
60.
Soap
Cutter.
being
soap
filled with
racks
on
which
the
to
place
the
trays
of
about
is left until it gets left in should be of water 10 per cent. ; at all events it ought not to exceed 16
soap
per cent.
Messrs. Beyer Freres This make
a
continuous
a
automatic
heated
one
drying
machine.
pipes.
a
consists
the
two
of
closed chamber
by
steam
On with
top
or
of the
more
machine
at
end
at
is fitted
mill
cylinders
revolving
TOILET-SOAP
MACHINEBY.
213
differentspeeds,
hopper
cause
Into
the
the
deposition
of the
Here
soap
in fine shavings
on
drying chamber
placed
one
below.
it is received
and
endless bands, of
one
above
the other
These
extending
the machine.
end
bands
to
continuously
other,
the
travel
from
of the
machine
the
motion
being
in
The soap shavings opposite directions in each pair of bands. drop on band, and are carried by it to the the topmost they drop off on where opposite end of the drying chamber,
Fig.
51.
Soap-Crushing
Machine.
to the band
below, by
machine.
which
From
so
on
they
end of the
band until
band number
when
three, and
carried to the other they fall to two number the last band is reached,
are
become
dry enough
operations.
This
machine
works
one man
being
of
one
for the subsequent httle very well, and with ton of toilet soap per day,
and
an
assistant.
The
214
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
machine
machine. The
where
a
is rather costly.
M.
Wallois
also makes
similar
dried soap
is next
transferred
a
to the crushing
mills,
it is passed
is shown
between
machine
of granite rollers ; such number in figure 51, that being the form sold
by Messrs. Wm.
rollers and
two
This machine
a
hoppers
divided by
slide.
hopper,
The
and
dried soap
travel
over
steel comb
which
is allowed
off the top roller ; by drawing to fall into the bottom hopper
Fig.
52.
and
again
through
the
rollers.
When
the
soap
has
thus
are
passed
added
twice
to the
through
mass
and and
perfume
in the bottom
four times
the
soap, etc.,
worked
three
or
through
and
amalgamate
the materials
obtain
mass
of soap.
One
through
often
as
The
operation
shows
may
be repeated
drawing
the gearing-wheel
is provided
runs
with
cover
to prevent
machine 62
almost
noiselessly.
Figure
is
large soap-crushing
mill made
by
M.
TOILET-SOAP
MACHINERY.
215 13
to
to
Wallois
diameter
can
with
and
four
two
granite
hoppers
at
one
a
rollers of
;
16
cwt.
inches
in
from A
IJ
ton
IJ
of soap day
can
be dealt with
out
time.
of soap
per
with
soap
a
new
such has
crushing been
machine.
worked
come
the
thoroughly
to
in
this
mill
scraper
soap
is caused in
thin
into action,
down
a
transfers
the
shavings
tin-
of keeping
Fig.
53.
a
the
of
or,
as
it is
in figure
archimedean
and
at
whereby
same
the soap
is gradually
a
driven forward
degree and
the
time the
to subjected
considerable consolidated
soap
being
of The
a
thus the
the
parabolic
form
compression
cylinder
bringing
is at first
circulates
216
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
of keeping
a
the
soap
causing
; this
heat might
if allowed
and
colour
in the soap.
as
The
known
The
the
cannon,
loss of perfume is commonly end of the machine charged. from it the soap is disas hot
mouthpiece
is kept
by
means
of
gas
jet, which
soap.
is usually
supplied
of heating The
6
cwt.
being
the- purpose with each machine, to impart a gloss and finish to the
very
soap per
travels
fast through
the
this machine, of
such
a one
about
hour
being
output
Fig.
54.
as
is shown
Son.
is made
by Messrs.
William
Neill "
Figure M.
64 is
large plodding
or
squeezing
mill made
by
will turn out 6 cwt. of soap per hour. As long as soap is supplied to the plodder through the in hopper it will issue from the mouthpiece of the cannon the shape of a continuous may be rope, the form of which
Wallois
which
varied
or
"
round,
oval
or
square
"
dies
fixed in the mouthpiece. This enables tablets of to be formed the minimum any shape with of trouble. Further, by means of an and gauge fitted to the apparatus
moulds
CBUTCHING
MACHINES.
217
cannon
be cut
stamped
into convenient by
the
lengths
next
stamping
press, various
forms
of
which
have
already
been
described.
stopped
remove
When
the plodder
has
To
working
this
a
some
soap
will
remain
in the
cone.
small that
is turned
that is left in. In
into the
some
so
mouthpiece
of these
forms
as
machines
is made it from
to turn
down
to be
free
any
adhering
soap.
Combinations
are
of the
so
crushing
no
and
plodding
be
constructed
that
labour from
need
one
machines in expended
to another.
transferring
the crushed
soap
machine
Fig.
55.
CRUTCHING
MACHINERY.
of many
soaps
with
colouring
as
toilet soaps,
used
what
known
crutching
machines,
various days
objectof
of
which
the
was
is
to
thoroughly
mix
the
the
ingredients
soap
an
together.
In
early
of soap-making
this
by hand, instrument operation usually performed with an known as the crutch, the operation being termed crutching, has come down to modern times, although and the name
now-a-days
the operation
is done
by machinery. of wrought
The
commonest
form
is
iron
or
218
SOAP
MANUFACTUBB.
In the centre
of this is fixed
a
mixing
apparatus^
usually consists of
central
shaft which
is made
arms
ta
and
in
of soap
mass.
through the mas" chain, the motion of which it to become and form a homogeneous mixed
Figure
55 is
drawing
of
machines
made
by
Messrs. of
a
Wm.
Son.
on
These
the
are
driven
by
means
donkey
engine
fixed
side of
Fig.
56.
one
of
the
machines,
on
this
being
are
in
connection
wheels
with
an
overhead
shaft
which
bevel
working
the
An
opening
in the bottom
closed
when
of
a
machine,
allows
and
which
soap
to
is ordinarily
run
kept
with
valve,
the
into the
frames
it is
properly
mixed.
66
Figure by
Messrs.
is
drawing
"
of Son.
pair
These
of
are
crutchers
made
a
E.
Forshaw
fitted with
special
driving
engine,
friction clutches
for throwing
the
CBUTCHING
MACHINES.
219
agitators in
and
out
of
gear,
are
outlet
valves,
etc.
ally, Gener-
crutching
machines
are
made
steam
jackets,
warm
the
soap
operation
be
no
trouble in crutching
plenty
soap ; the
to do
the machine
of time
its
Sometimes
this operation
and
a
is carried
good
many
on
in
makes
conjunction
of modern
really combined
remelting
and crutching
REMELTING
AND
CRUTCHING
MACHINE.
This consists of
H.
steam
jacketed pan.
have
a
The
Wm.
Dopp
and the
"
Sons,
special method
The
the
steam
the pan
supplying machine,
steam
pipes
side
of
for
the
front
while there
condense
and
of
an
water.
screw
mixing working
arrangement
consists
archimedean
in
cylinder, the
the soap
over
up
through
it to flow
body
of working. effectual manner again ; this is a most The driving gear for the screw is on the top of the machine, and is so arranged that the direction of motion of the screw
be reversed, and in place of the soap moving down, this arrangement also bringing about a
can
up it
more
movea
perfect with
admixture
of the
soap.
There
is another
feature
this
machine, and
of soap, and
be used in
for remelting
old scraps
working
with conjunction
has
the
be remarked,
and
so
open
it sides), acta
ments, to frag-
cutting apparatus,
of the soap.
220
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Another
a
form
of crutcher
which
is sometimes according
made
with
steam
jacket, and
of the
users,
at others without,
to the requirements
has
the cylinder horizontal ; the central it extends From and is also horizontal.
are
number
they
to
of
arms
which
arranged
up the
one
revolve
cause
being
to mix
and
at the
same
time
whence
of the
it
back by
to
the
a
other
end,
at
one
crutcher, it is when
end
thoroughly machine.
out
opening is forced
valve
of the
arms
The
soap
by
the working
ready
of the
which
are
placed
to receive it.
as
they
have
the
means
material
easy to
no
stir; they
power
two-horse,
hut
of
course
machine.
some
of the
larger machines
they
make
; the
power
thus
supplied is rather
excess
in
excess
of actual requirements,
and
that
may
be employed
in other
directions if needful.
REMELTING
MACHINES.
toilet soaps
of various then
may
it is
kinds
common
plan to prepare
already
made,
by
melting
other
by
heat
and
ingredients A very
pan
which
and
convenient
the
form
consists of
jacketed
previously cut into The thin shavings, has been put. pan should be provided be that the soaps, etc., can so with a stirring arrangement bad conSoap is, however, together. a thoroughly mixed
in which
soap, which
been
heat, and in a steam jacketed tents pan, unless the con"ductor of kept well stirred, the outer portions might be melted are while
the inner
portions
are
still cold
as
and
as
solid.
It is advisable
soon
possible to the
SOAP
PUMPS.
221
-wholemass by having
of soap.
a
number of upright steam the machine ; the heat is thus brought very quickly to the very centre of the mass of soap, and so the operationis soon
done.
The time ittakes to remelt a batch of soap depends upon the state of dryness of the soap ; the more water there is in
itthe quicker is the operation over. Should the soap be too dry it is often advantageous to send in a current of open
steam, whereby both heat and moisture
same are
supplied at the
time.
FiQ. 57
SOAP
PUMPS.
For the purpose of transferring the soap from one place to an other as, for instance,from the soap pan or crutcher to the frames, the best plan is to take advantage of gravity and run the soap into the place where it is required to go.
J
inasmuch But this is not always possible, the placing of the plant or machines one always be done.
Where
as
it necessitates
the machines are and this cannot on a levelitis necessary to employ some mechauical means for conveying the soap from one machine to the other ; this
222
may
a
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
labour, using ladles or scoops, but such missible. plan is tedious and costly, and in large soap works is inadThe best method is to use pumps which are made
be done by hand
specially for the purpose. Soap pumps are of the ordinary direct acting plunger in figure 57, which represents a soaptype such as is shown This " Son. pumping engine made by Messrs. E. Forshaw
is
a
very
convenient
form
Another
form, and quite satisfactory in use. is largely adopted of soap pump which
Fig.
58.
it does not necessitate the employment of a separate engine, but may be attached to the ordinary shafting of the The feature of as rotary pumps. works, is of the type known
because
circular cast-iron box with an inlet and outlet. In the box rotates a blade of a spiral form, which, catching the soap as it flows in by the inlet, forces it out by it is required. the outlet pipe and so as to place it where this form
of pump
a
is
In making
tablets should be dried a littlebefore stamping, as then a better impression is obtained, an important feature in connection fancy designs on them. Then with tablets having
c
SOAP-DRYING
-;,.;^:'^"v
^^
MACHINES.
UNIVERSITY
223
for other
sent out.
one
reasons
tablets may
convenient
have
to be dried
before being
is
"
very
machine by
shown
Messrs.
W.
the
J. Fraser
drawing.
Co.
Its construction
a
shown
in
or
a
It
consists of in a drying
through
number chamber. by
means
shallow
one
trays
drawers
placed
At
end
a
is
heating
chamber
from
the
which,
of and
surrounding
where
atmosphere
are.
sent
In its passage
warm,
chamber
water
and
its capacity
up
water
being
increased
it takes
soap and
dries
it during
machine
its passage
may
or
through
drying
chamber.
This
be
used
for drying
all kinds
shavings.
all the
been
described
different forms
of soap.
of
machines
employed
in the manufacture
Of
course
the machines
another will vary from one in minor details, although the forms bear a close resemblance. It is practically impossible to describe in detail the machines
by different makers
so
what
as
done
is to mention
those
be regarded
CHAPTER
THE
VII.
OF SOAP-MAKING.
TECHNOLOGY
WIDE
:
"
and
yet only
be into
A.
B.
Domestic
soaps.
Toilet soaps.
C. Industrial soaps.
D.
Special soaps.
soaps
are
Domestic
scouring, etc.
those soaps
"
used
those
in the house
better toilet.
as
"
for washing,
Toilet
which
"
are
employed employed
etc.
solely in the
those
in
the
trade, soaps
in
washing,
for specific
etc.
calico printing,
purposes,
as
Special
those
purposes,
shaving further
purposes,
Each
writer
of these does
be
even
not
as
believe in systems
has
of classification into
some
great variety,
been
done
by
v^iters
on
soaps.
A.
Soap
to enter
Domestic
Soaps.
an
is prepared
by
causing
alkali and
fat
or
fats
the alkalies used are combination; has but little action on Ammonia solely soda and potash. because the soap it forms is fats, while lime is of no use, insoluble in water.
into chemical
When
of either
fat
or
oil is brought
into contact
with
solution
these
(the carbonates of caustic soda or caustic potash be used action and cannot alkalies have but a weak
ordinary
to
in the
begins
process
of
soap-making)
then
saponification
take
into combination
the
with
basic
constituent,
the soap, while alkali to form glycerine, is set free. This reaction the
DOMESTIC
SOAPS.
225
is shown
in the following
equations, which
on
show
the action
"
typical oils :
3NaOH
Caustic Soda.
CsHb(OH),
Glycerine.
CJXOa CioHo,0,
Linolin. iinolin.
3K0H
Caustic Potash.
SKagHjiO^
Soap
C3Hb(OH)3
Glycerine,
(Potassium Linoleate).
on
represents
tallow,
the
constituent
the
is stearin, while
on
shows
action
of caustic potash
linseed
of which is linolin. If these equations are studied they will be found to be built upon lines, and further that there is an common exchange of
between
the
bodies of the
which
take
acid portion
fat takes
the
the
as
the chemist
is set free.
reaction between the fat and the alkali is a chemical one, and like all chemical reactions takes place in definite that is, a certain quantity of fat will always proportions; take a certain quantity of caustic soda or caustic potash to
in their another oils differ from one composition, one oil or fat will take a different proportion of alkali than another, thus, for instance, castor oil takes
as
The
18 per cent,
of caustic potash
cent., and
coconut
to saponify
it, while
tallow
takes 19
per
happens
natural products,
however,
as
that
the
same
It unoil 26 per cent. fortunate is always the case with oil varies in the amount
of alkali it requires
amount
the although with different samples, The following table compiled of variation is small.
sources
from several
gives the
percentage
of caustic potash
:
226
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
Oil.
Lard Almond Sesame Rape Poppy seed Niger seed Cod Whale Butter Palm nut Tallow Palm. Sperm Olive kernel Olive Arachis Cottonseed Linseed Hemp seed Walnut Seal Porpoise. Coconut Lard Dripping Bone fat Castor Bosin
. .
.
19-1 to 19-6 19-6 " 19-6 19 19-4 " 17-1 " 17-9 19-8 " 19-6 18-9 " 19-1 18-5 ,, 21-8 18-8 " 22-4 22-1 " 28-2 22 24-7 " 19-3 " 19-8 19-6 ,,20-2. 12-3 " U 18-8 19-1 " 19-6 19-1 ., 19-6 19-1 ,, 19-6 18-7 " 19-5 19-8 19-6 18-9 " 19-6 21-6 24-6 " 26-8 19-2 " 19-6 19-6 19-1 17-6 17
" " "
"
18-6 to 14 13-9 " 14 18-6 " 13-7 12-2 " 12-8 13-8 " 14 18-6 " 13-6 13-2 " 15-2 13-4 " 16 16-8 " 16-5 15-7 " 17-7 13-7 " 141
14
" "
14-4 10 14 14 14 14
" "
"
"
13-5
15-6
"
14
17-5 13-7
14
13-6
12-5 12-1
17-7 14 14-1 14 13 14
As
regards
the
quantity
to the proportion
"
be obtained
oil
...
from
.
various oils :
3*10 per cent. 11-96 11-09
11*10
whale
oil
...
Porpoise
oil
oil
Menhaden
"
Lard
Tallow Butter fat
10-83
1000 11-06
11-40
t^
9*82
11-70 9-71
Palm
oil
METHODS
OF
SOAP-MAKING.
227
It will be
can
seen
that from
of glycerine
which
used
be
obtained
oils commonly
in soap-making
The
methods
is from
10 to 12 per cent.
employed
in the
manufacture
:
"
of soap
of
atmospheric
pressure
of soap-boiUng.
2. Boiling the
fats and
alkalies together
under
pressure
in closed boilers. 3. By
"
mixing
fats at ordinary
tures tempera-
The
first method
most
conmionly
a
employed.
In this method
solution
for
in the
case
of hard
throws
in the form
of
collected and
allowed
with
what
which
the public
as
*'
is familiar.
lye,"
an
There
is known
spent
excess
aqueous
been
used,
also the
formed
was
during
thrown
the process
away,
of saponification.
now
this
but
it is treated
recovery
of the
glycerine
it contains.
In the second
method
a
boiled together
when
under pressure
in
boiler, and
on one
fication saponi-
is set
and
then mixed
with the alkali in the form of a strong solution, the mixture being placed on one time to allow the saponifiside for some cation to become the soap is ready for use. complete, when
In both the second
and
third methods
there is
no
salting
228
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
out, while
remains
behind
in the
soap.
Each
Hard
of these three
methods
in detail.
any
Soap.
"
It
is extremely
attempt
and classification of hard soaps ; the varieties are numerous, by simple modifications of the process of are many produced
making
and
of the
materials
or
employed.
Then
again
can
some
curd
"
by
to
one
"
the
boiling
describe
in detail the
processes
manufacture
indicate adapted.
of the
best
SOAP-MAKING
BY
THE
BOILING
PBOCESS.
Probably
country
90
soap
which
is made
in this
as
is made
in open
pans, such
have
steam,
been
the
described
by fire or by
In
latter being
modern
are
plan.
this
method
alkali
brought
as
together in
has
are
the presence
of water
in such
to make
proportions
experience
shown
not
definitely proportioned
one
the
other;
the
boiUng
brings about the saponification of the fats and forms the soap, then be finished in any way can that is desirable. which
There
way
are
soap
dependent these
"
certain
known soaps.
as
modifications
operations;
"
settled," and
run
These
independent used.
the materials
to
see
is quite clean, while the inside should be well white- washed or lime-washed ; this prevents the iron of the pan from affecting Then its corrosion. the soap in any way and prevents
SOAP-BOILING.
229
2" Tw.
;
small quantity
of weak
lye of about
is
run
in, filling
up the pan
means
to about
one-tenth
steam
of its depth
this is he,ated by
boil, and
then
of the
closed
a
coil to
near
the
there is run
fied, portion of the fats which are to be saponithis fat having been previously melted in separate tanks ;
in
consequence,
but about
one-third
is then run There of the total charge is a fair proportion. in soda lye at 10" Tw. ; a stronger lye than this should not be difficultiesin soap-boiling is to start the saponification of the fat ; if the lye be too strong this starting
used.
One
of the
and
other
difficultiesare
introduced.
By
using
;
weak
lye, however,
15
difficulty experienced
every 5 cwt. of tallow
on
about
gallons
be
steam
allowed
to
run
to bring
the
mass
to the boil.
material
may
of froth very
as
this proceeding
occurs
to soap-makers
a
This in
more
only
or
mass
starting of
it happens beaten down
to itself for
boil,
or
when
must
fat
alkali ; if
of fob
left
the
steam
turned
or
off, the
and
by the
a
hand
beater
the pan
few
hours, when
be resumed.
now
It will probably
be
found
that
boiling will
proceed
the time
reacting
the pan
has and
standing the fat and alkali have been another. with one entering into combination
been
It
it undesirable
that
soap there
pan should
be fully charged
to start with.
Sometimes
appears very little difficulty in starting the saponification, at other times there appears
on
Much
will depend
then
the condition
of the
if this be
very
neutral
it
will not be easy to start its saponifying ; on the other hand if it contain some free acid this will at once enter into combination by increasing an with the alkah and form soap, which
emulsifying
tendency
fat to
230
more
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
thoroughly
amalgamate
together, and
therefore view
tate facili-
With
custom
of many
custom
worth
following, to throw
scraps
.on
its being
may
first charged
all the
scraps
of soap
which
weak
they
have
about ; such
the
dissolving
a
in the
saponifying
of the fat to
There
are
ways al-
produced
;
in cutting
should ways al-
bars
these
one
side and
sent
into the
soap-boiling
house
for this particular purpose. the first lot of fat and lye appears
then there
to
When
thoroughly
have been be
run
amalgamated
or
together,
may
in
now
ton
of oil, then,
better simultaneously,
say 17" to 18" Tw.,
be used
and
stronger,
than
firstemployed,
one
of it 200 gallons
lot is
now
fat.
rarely
This
occur
for
ton of
Fobbing
will
at this stage.
of the time
given the
rest of the
charge
may
be
It is advisable to keep
and
open
it well
union.
in and
with
then
the steam do
itself passing
this.
In
through
case,
is almost
sufficient to
some
this
there will be
the
considerable
must
condensation
for, and
of the steam
rather
in
pan
; this
be
allowed
stronger
a
coil be
employed,
then
closed
stirred
by
end
means
of the hand
stirrers. At the mechanical little stirring will be required ; the soap paddle
known end that
as
will boil up
roses
and
are nicely and gently in what this gentle boil is some sign that the
is approachi
cannot
Soap-boiling be taught
the changes
is
one
of those things
the
a
by books
owing
to
in appearance
of
SOAP-BOILINa.
231
The
length
on
of time
pan
of soap
entirely
from
the weight
of soap being
charge
to
vary
five hours
a
for
one.
small
The
twelve
or
fifteen hours
for by
large
out
end from
of the time
to
taking
samples
them.
of the paddle
and examining
any
It should
firm
show
a
consistency,
that
more
be free from
oil
and
or
alkali is required,
on
when
;
has only
the tongue
in slight excess, show that the alkali was which Then again the appearance of the soap is some guide.
properly saponified
transparent
Wb^n
it will have
look, smooth
on
homogeneous
clear flakes ;
the
other
if it be opaque
then
or
an
in looks
and
that
in appearance,
excess
it is
excess
an
indication
of fat
other
of alkali, which
will be
shown there
by
are
the
tests
previously
are
alluded
to.
Sometimes
fat present
signs that
there
same
free
in the
soap-pan
at the
shows
conducted
properly
water
remedy
in such
is to add
and
proceed
with
the boiling.
stated here that roughly
to
It may
be
complete
more.
saponification
; coconut
one-fourth The
next
'*
Salting Out.
as
"
it is sometimes called, by throwing into the pan brine liquor. This throws
form
of grains
or
operation is that of salting out, or, **' the soap ; this is done graining
either
the
common
salt
or
strong
soap
out
of solution
in the
from
the water
the
excess
the soap curds and thus separates in the operation of boiling and employed of alkali used, process
out
from
and
from
the
glycerine
This
formed of
during
the
of
the
saponification.
soap
from the
property
salt of throwing
solution
in
which
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
soap-pan
depends
yet
upon
the
is soluble
in water
it is insoluble
therefore such are added alkaline salts ; when out of solution. of soap the latter is thrown
makers
solution
soapsalt is
Some
use
brine, but
The
ordinary
common
what
used.
at
a
small
time
until the
in small
the paddle
very
grains and
quantity
is placed practice
reached.
too large
in the
soon
soap
then
lifted out.
when
not
little
is
shows
soap-maker
this point
Care must
a
however
at
a
be taken
and
to add
the salt in
quantity adding
an
dissolve before
liabilityto get
two
reasons
"
excess
portion to there is a another portion, otherwise of salt in, and this is undesirable for
time
to allow
each
because
it is not
to
economical
do the
to
use
more
material
second,
than
excess
is necessary
required
work,
overcome
and
of salt introduces
operations. The
difficultiesto be
soap
in subsequent
smoothness
in the
more
pan
loses its
and
and
transparency,
becomes
rather
opaque
irregular, and
a
tends
to boil
in bursts, and
sometimes
there is
tendency
over.
When the
pan
been
added into
the
and
a
the contents
of
grainy
soap and
to remain
steam
is shut
to
pan
allowed
to
for four
five hours
according
here that
the size of
the batch.
to state
It may
be inaentioned
it is impossible
of salt which
to salt out
given batch
upon
of soap.
This
the
strength been
the much
there has
littlecondensation
any
of water
from
the steam
in
pan,
whether
coconut
oil
as
or
palmnut
oil has
are
been liable
used
in making
all these
factors
SOAP-BOILING.
233
with every batch of soap it is not possible to state any definite quantities of salt for salting out.
to vary
On
standing
the
mass
in the pan
one
consists
of the
soap
holding
perhaps
cent,
'*
the as while the lower layer is a liquid known This is more less dark in colour according or
of the
excess
to the
fat used
in making which
may
the
soap ; it contains
of caustic
soda
out
have
been
carbonate,
impurities
have
been
present
in the
fat, together
with
the
been formed
now
run
during
This lye is
to
be ready
of the
for subsequent
vnth
view
to the recovery
concludes
it is from
first stage
in the preparation
of all
soaps, and
arise to produce
this point that differences of treatment The operation of various kinds of soap.
to be
soap-boiling requires
and every
conducted be made
vdth
to
see
care
and
attention,
effort should
a
is complete. and
This makes
of the
or,
considerable
demand
the skill
an
experience
soap-boiler.
as
Too
strong
alkali
stated
yet
saponification, and
different strengths different of lye or will saponify with strengths. Thus oil,cottonseed oil and while tallow, palm some others will not work with lye stronger than 10" to 12"*^ Tw., coconut oil and palmnut oil will take lye up to 20" Tw.,
indeed
saponifying
best with
best with fats take for
or
the
a
strong
lye ; linseed
and
olive oils usually work Then of course some this must place ;
a
lye of intermediate
strength.
more
alkaU
than
others, and
be allowed
imperfect
littleexcess
of alkali should
234
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
should
be avoided,
as
such
excess
tends
to retard saponification
assist it.
Strength
or
Clear
now
run
Boiling,
"
The
soap
from
a
is
and then
quantity
in and
the soap
Duringthis
remain
open
and
thus
present
itself,then
added.
Some
and
soap-makers
give
preliminary
boil with
littlewater
add the
caustic to open
it again, and
course.
there
can
be
no
doubt
but that
on
this is the
strength the
preferable
The
object of
and
to
this boil
ensure
is to complete
the saponification
any
that
soap is quite
free from
unsaponified
fat.
For
this
purpose
any stronger lye than is advisable to use absolutely necessary for the purpose of justopening the soap; is harmful it tends to as any excess rather than otherwise,
it is not
tendency
to
be rather
the grain
quality of the finished soap. After boiling for three to five hours, according
made,
the
steam
to the size
is shut
off,and
of soap
up and
thirty-six hours to three days, according to the amount of soap At the end of this time the contents in the pan. of the pan
will have divided into two
"
portions
lye
"
"
one
of soap
at the top,
contains still
half-spent
it is called.
This
caustic soda, although possibly it may have a dark the colour, especially if poor fats have been used in making It should be stored in a separate tank and used in soap.
the first boil of
a
new
batch
away
of soap.
from
The
means
soap is taken
and
the
lye by any
and
set,
convenient which
will
placed
in the
frames
to cool
SOAP-BOILING.
235
to the
room.
take from
year and The
three days to
week
according
season
of the
of the frame
as
soap
as
so
made
is known from
a
"curd
soap"
(see p.
what
241). It may
"
be made
"
number
of fats, but
is
sold
as
curd soap
Curd
from tallow. is generally made soap, while it possesses excellent detergent sharp and
properties,
therefore does
toilet soap.
of the most
common
Fitted
Soaps.
In the manufacture
kinds of domestic
of boiling
treatment,
on
the process
a
strength
extent
and
further
to
the
of which
and
be varied according
special requirements
The
firsttreatment
is known
a
as
ing cleansadding
pan
and
sending steam through ; there is then run in a strong brine liquor in justsufficient amount to open the soap, and the boiling continued with either close or open
water
and
steam
for three
to
four hours
or
even
longer
twelve
the soap
run
the brine
below,
this being
The
boil
completion
of
a
therefore
in the production
wash
out
perfect
any
excess
of alkali that
on
strength,'' and
make
more
neutral
Some
second
soap-makers
cleansing
will, with' their best qualities, give boil. The brine liquor may be used
is to the quality of the soap which several times, according being made. If from good, clean fats the liquor may be used
several times ; if from poor, dirty fats it cannot
as
be used
more
than
once
or
twice,
it becomes
too
highly
charged
with
dirt to work
satisfactorily.
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
next proceeding
This is
to it
a
by placing
the
soap
in the pan,
sprinkling coil ;
more soon
on
little water
and heating
the soap
appearance
becomes
transparent
homogeneous.
and the
When
pan
this happens,
to
allowed
cool,
the soap
may
be
run
it is cut
up into slabs
and
bars and tablets, ready for sale to the pubUc. is a general description of the ordinary process of Such It is to soap-boiling. subject a littlemodification here and
to the
fancy
the
of the soap-maker,
the kind
of
and
fats used.
to discuss the methods
We various
may
now
proceed
of making
kinds of domestic
Pale
soaps.
Common
country
Soap.
"
The
soap
which
made
is made
from soap,"
in this
is
as
one
rosin, and
soap,'* etc.
is variously
In making
known
"pale
pale
of several methods
this soap the soap-boiler has a choice cate. we of procedure which will briefly india
First, however,
used.
few words
as
rosin
For
this kind
of soap
the tallow
need
not
be of the
best quahty and the cost of the soap may be reduced to some by employing A medium a cheaper extent grade of tallow. Too dark a rosin should quality of rosin may be employed. not be used, as, although out in most of the colour comes
the process, yet the soap is apt to The tallow is saponified in the salted out.
ready
come
manner
out
of
datk
colour.
justdescribed
along
and
now
The
with
saponified.
it
as
does
boil is known
as
"the
rosin
boil"; when
it is
SOAP-BOILING.
237
as
before.
In
this
case
a
the dark of
glycerine ; it will be of
of the colouring
away.
so
much
matter
be thrown
Plenty
of time should
be allowed
as
that
be
as
free
possible from
soap from
soap.
When
of
making
the pan
as
rosin, and after salting out, the contents into three layers, sometimes
on
usually separate
:
four,
follows
layer
sent
the top
"
this is
a
into the
soap, which
a
is finished
curdy
this
layer of
"
dark-coloured
the
"nigre,"
as
it is called
extent
in colour, consistency
and
according
the soap.
fats used
in
making
It is rather
troublesome
product
to deal
with ; if not
and
too strongly
coloured
next
it may
be left in the
pan
worked
up
into the
matter
;
batch
largely of soapy
along
be used
brown The soap. with other dark fats in making lowest layer consists of the spent lye ; this is dealt with as
mentioned After strength above.
the
soap
is finished by described.
In
boiling
on
and
the
"
fitting
as
previously
all these
operations
"
neat
soap
or
with; in running nigre will.be met the spent lye it is important not to
off the
run
any
it would as of the nigre into them, affect the grain of the finished soap or interfere with the treatment of the lye.
Some
add
soap-makers tallow
saponify
soap.
it to the
Unless
with
poor grades
of rosin and
mixing
in this
with
course
the
other
Although
and
the
tallow
so,
may
as
be
saponified
the spent
advisable to do
thereby
238
y
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
of glycerine, and
increasing its actual contents this increase in bulk leads to extra cost of
matters
boiling down;
of the
and impurities
lye add
to
the
difficultiesof
refining and extracting the glycerine, and it is desirable that be minimised these difficulties as as much possible. The following are some this class of recipes for making
soap
:
"
White
Castile,
Golden
16 cwt. 6
"
Pale
Soap.
6 cwt. 6
"
mutton coconut
tallow.
bleached window
palm
oil.
oil.
glass rosin.
Golden
20 cwt.
tallow.
Pale
Soap.
7 cwt.
bleached
palm
oil.
7 cwt.
window
Pale
glass rosin.
Crown
10 cwt. beef tallow.
Soap.
6 cwt. 5
"
10
,,
bone
tallow.
palmnut bleached
oil.
palm
oil.
74
cwt.
rosin.
Primrose
10 cwt.
Soap.
10 cwt.
mutton
beef tallow.
6 cwt.
tallow.
rosin.
or
Golden
Primrose
Soap
Castile Soap.
bleached
palm pahn oil.
6 cwt.
1
,,
10
mutton
tallow.
oil.
Cottonseed
oil is
soaps
now
coming
front for
the
making
the
pale
for ordinary
have
great
which
been made
rendered
this possible.
soap
which
use
:
"
lathers
The
following
are
some
DOMESTIC
SOAPS.
239
XX
10 cwt. 6
"
Crovm
oil.
Pale
Soap,
1 cwt.
cottonseed tallow.
palm
rosin.
oil.
"
Golden
Soap,
76 lb. best rosin.
3
yj
IJ cwt.
cotton
oil.
18 lb. tallow.
palm
oil.
Common
1 cwt. 1
,,
Soap.
cotton
oil.
bone
grease.
Brown
i ^
Soaps,
cwt.
"
rosin.
palm
oil.
1. 7 cwt.
tallow.
cotton
2. 4 cwt.
tallow.
3 6
"
oil.
4 2
,,.
palmnut
cotton
oil.
oil.
"
"
"
"
rosin.
palm
oil.
"
recipes will probably be sufficient for the ordinary soaps; the practical soap-maker will know makes of household how to vary them to suit his special requirements.
These Mottled known.
Soaps, is
a
"
There
are
two
kinds
a
of mottled
soaps
One
having
;
scattered through
its substance
this mottle
was
obtained
modern
mottle
fats and by using rather impure kind of mottled soap is that having
or
prominent
which is
grain
of
blue,
red
or
other
colour,
will speak of the grey kind first. in the following manner : The
early days
matters
were
in the
earthy
often
largely
contaminated
these
and
metallic
metallic
impurities;
soaps,
upon
the
fats formed
body of soap which differing in colour from the main was formed by the alkali. These came beearthy or metallic soaps in the frame in the soap as it cooled down entangled
and
imparted
of which
to it
mottled
appearance,
and
extent
depended
upon
the
character
amount
of the impurities
To
present.
produce in
mottled
soap
of
good
grain requires
usually
some
experience
soap-boiling.
The
method
followed
240
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
is to
make
soap
out
common
of
bone
grease,
kitchen
low
grease,
grades
bleached
palm
oil
or
a
tallows, using
excess
of
caustic and
adding
large
of this.
The
some
soap
is well
boiled, and then it is well boiled down it begins to curd out ; it is at once run
these
are
with
lye until
covered
over
with
cloths
keep
tend
the
to
heat
in.
During
together
the and
a
cooUng
so
the
metallic
soaps
aggregate
produce
the mottle.
lies in the the mottling
One
in making
long
mottled
soon
soap
and
it sets too
time to form
properly, while
if not
it is apt to
too
contain
an
excess
of lye, and
mottling
settles out
quickly.
It sometimes
happens
that
the
soap
there
will
are
not
mottle
properly
on
account
not
sufficient
impurities
the mottle
or
present.
case
imitates
by
adding
for
grey
little animal
black,
even
What
is known
soaps
to
as
makes
turns
of the red
near
Marseilles
exposure the end
to
have
green
mottle,
which
on
the
this is produced
a
by
adding
to
of the
200
air; boiling
little copperas
lb. of soap
a
will be
of green
sufficient ;
hydroxide
to
in
long
the
as
soap
deposit
unexposed
of iron.
this remains
colour,
soap
the
air it keeps
fresh
its green
of the
but
when
exposed
by cutting
surfaces
which
making
remains
these
permanent.
soaps
It may
also be
green
the
chief
basis
for them,
with
occasionally
sesame
of hemp
seed, poppy
oils.
Blue
Mottled soaps
Soap.
"
Of
more
recent
introduction with
a
the mottled
just described
in households purposes.
is
soap
large blue
floors and
mottle,
much
used
other rough
cleaning
CUBD
SOAPS.
241
very strongly
detergent, and
on.
contain
Soaps. without
"
Curd
the
soaps
are
chiefly made
or
from
tallow,
with
are
or
addition
down
of olive
other
oils, which
employed
to tone
and
a
difficultlylathering curd
soap the fats
are
and
saponified with
at
a
lye of 10" to
12" Tw.
care
quantities
what
is to be taken
is
a
to produce
soap, which
homogeneous,
or
pasty
mass,
free from
any
dicatio in-
of fatty matter
separated
a
"
is formed
condition.
the
'*
grained
or
"
"
cut
by salt, and
is allowed to settle. The curding forms grain soap The the final operation. grain soap is first boiled up with
a
littleweak
alkali and
wet
steam,
so
as
to again
"
**
close
it and
complete
stronger lye
when
to
is added
soap
some
and
heated curd
with
dry
steam,
the
opens
of the
and
soap
the
is formed.
out
From and
time
time
when
paste is taken
cooled, and
it sets properly
to settle out,
are
the steam
then
run
allowed soaps
and
made
from
them
any and
kind
of fats, and
only
difference
of
between
other soaps
out.
lies simply
in the method
boiling and
curding
Soaps, Paraffin
by crutching oil.
appears The
Petroleum
a
Soaps,
"
These
soaps
are
made
into
soap
addition of these products to a laundry soap to increase its detergent effect, and in particular
are
more
reaHiTywashed
with
paraffin soap
an use
ordinary
oily paraffin
Filled
wax,
Some makers of this class of soap. the oils,but a soft, low class, and somewhat on account of the odour being less.
and
Sophisticated
16
Soaps.
"
Several
varieties of
242
are
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
soaps
made
which
to the
sell at
common
low
price.
pure
These
are
duced pro-
by adding previously
cost
but bodies
grades
of soaps
described
certain while
not
which
the
cheapen appearance
their
of their
of production, soap.
may
altering
these
the
It is obvious
that
a
fillers, whatever
nature
can
be, must
In the
answer
few requirements
should
or
before they
not materially
be used.
interfere with
keeping
properties
do not
answer
they should
way.
as
of the
are
soap such
in any
Among
fillersthere have
soda,
been,
used, starch,
bodies
silicate of kieselguhr,
silicate of potash,
French
or, jelly,
chalk,
as
silicious substances, in
petroleum soap
it is called
America,
mineral
stock,
Glauber's
used;
salt, soda
not
even
crystals.
it does soap,
detract
from
not
detergent
them;
properties of
it
can
the
if
it does
increase
only
be used
of the makes
cannot
in the very cheapest of domestic soaps on account fact that it makes them strongly caustic ; it also in water. Too the soaps much rather wasteful
or
has
the soap
thin.
and
Starch in the
to soaps
a
; it forms
water
presence
of alkali
stiff gelatinous
therefore The
which
to soap
is freely
be added
without
are reduced
detergent
properties
by the employment
The
of starch.
addition
of such
such
a use
appearance
to the
and
as
French
add
cleansing
properties
in any
respect,
it more while they tend to break the grain of the soap, make to wash unpleasant with. wasteful in use and sometimes Glauber's
salt and
soda
crystals
are
sometimes
added
to
SIIilCATED
SOAPS.
243
soaps to make
them The
of crystaUising.
reduces
One defect of the soap, the latter tends to increase them. tion they have is that they are liable to bring about the formaof
which
white saline efflorescence on the surface of the soap is not at all desirable, while further they make the
a
in
use.
Mineral
is
kind of impure
vaseline
or
jelly,ffects the soap simply by making it more a petroleum It is greasy to work with. pasty in consistency and more used in this country, but in America, where rarely if ever
they
seem
to
have
particular penchant
to
common
for sophisticated
soaps.
Having
which
are
thus
briefly discussed
we
the various
filling agents
of
used,
may
proceed
using them.
Silicated
soaps
Soaps.
"
These
are
frequently
or
known
**
as
run
Their
potash
as
runnings*'.
; Messrs.
Messrs. this
Thomas
Gossage
largely.
Sons
have
also made
class of soap
very
Silicate of soda
is sold usually
in the form
of
viscous
some
hquid
grades
the
having
reach
specific gravity
140"
of 100" Tw.,
method of
although
Tw.
The
mixing
and
quantity used vary very greatly with different soapbut little use There are some make of who makers.
"
"
runnings
all their
; there
are
others
who
make
great
use
of them,
common or
grades
of soap
containing
silicate of soda
in
more
less quantity.
The
soap
to
method
be
this material
The
steam
into
crutcher,
by
A
soap
good
made
grade from
is made
oil and
by taking
tallow
neat
in the
244 usual
manner,
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
and
adding
to it in the
crutcher
1 cwt. of
a
to each ton of soap. silicate at 100" Tw. a will be stififernd harder after the fillingthan a good quality for ordinary use.
X
Such
soap
before ; and is
When
it is desired to make
1 ton of neat 32" Tw.
very weak
soap, then
there
is taken
soap and
there is crutched
silicate at
very
This
A
soap
will be thin
and
wasteful
ton
in
soap
use.
more
limited
use
is to add A
few
IJ
cwt.
per
use
of
of
silicate at 10"
Tw.
makers
2 cwt.
Usually
"XX,'*
pale/'
primrose,"
To
into
silicated soaps appear harder, they are often put drying oven and dried quickly for a few hours ; the
make
outside thereby
the soap keep
becomes better.
covered
with
plan
skin which
the
makes
same
Another
a
of obtaining
of Glauber's tends
an
salt.
One
soap
to become
covered
with
powdery
coat, which
gives it
not
unpleasant
see,
as
appearance
as
an
which
the customer
an
does
like to
he takes it
indication of
inferior
make
of soap. analyses
may
now
Some
on.
We
have
i
few words
to other methods
which
been
employed
Starch
rather
when
mass
is sometimes
are
when
highly
It has
a
watered
the
and
caustic soaps
made.
property
boiled with
caustic soda
of forming
thick glutinous
present in soap, acts as a binding material which, when It dissolves freely in and helps to keep the soap together. water, and while it does not add to the detergent properties Two from them. of the soap in any way, detracts but little per cent, is
French
a
fair quantity
or
to
use.
chalk
ground
may
COLD-PBOCESS
SOAPS.
245
be added
to
the extent
of 5 to 10
per
cent,
without time
being
it
was
by simple
inspection. but
and
now
At
one
it is rarely met
binding
property
simply
washing
soda.
This
to
the
extent
of 6 per
as
cent,
of the
cause
larger
quantity cannot
on
be used,
it would
both
much
efflorescence
the soap.
and
This material
adds
one
cheapens
to the detergent
There
is
of soda
hard
water,
and
a
when
this is
its use
leads to
Glauber's
hardening properties
Borax
one
salt
sulphate
on
of soda. It does
This
not
action
nor
soap.
add
to its detergent
water.
may
be used
as
and
therefore cannot
is an
excellent
expensive It soaps.
detergent
on
an
effects
it.
of potash.
Pearlash sometimes
them,
"
carbonate
to soaps
This
substance of hardening
is
added
second
finer texture.
This
brought
and
and
about
by
double
decomposition
between
the pearlash, resulting in the formation of a potash soap improves the texture of sodium carbonate ; the former
it smoother it.
and
more
transparent, pearlash
while
not
Too
much
should
be used
or
too
soft and
AND
pasty.
FBOM SPECIAL
SOAP-MAKING
SPECIAL
PBOGESSES
MATEBIALS.
Cold process
In these two
246
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
in theory
in practice, to employ the fats and alkalies in the proportions in which they combine to form soap ; the
if not
is not
separated
has
out
but remains
in
use
cold process
been
for
years, and
no
being
comparatively
employed
own
simple
process, requiring
users
by small
The
of
soap
who
to
make
their
soap.
pressure
process
is of
modern
introduction
and
requires
special
We
some
may
attention
of which which
the
theory
ment employ-
has
been
has taken
idea of the
process
whether
it be
cold
process
or
with
justthe
amount
complete
neutral
soap, although
of alkah
an
Although
place during
yet here.
on
equations
reaction
which
takes
the saponification
to
save
of fats have
been
reference
it may
the
be well
to repeat them
The
first equation
shows
3NaOH
Caustic
SNaCigHsjOa
Sodium Oleate
Soda.
CgHj-^
Glycerine.
(Soap).
it is easy
take
of olein and
are
alkali which
to
calculate
the
being
there
formed
912
parts of sodiDin
92 parts of glycerine.
constituent
:
"
of tallow
ana
becomes
COLD-PROCESS
SOAPS.
247
Stearin.
Prom
this equation
we
can
calculate
that
890
parts
by
weight of the glyceride require 120 parts of caustic soda to 918 parts of soap and 92 parts of saponify it,and produce glycerine. Palmitin, the glyceride of palm in the equation : soda, as shown
"
oil,saponifies with
caustic
fCieHaiO^
CsHg-^
Prom
CieH3i02 iGijjHgjOa
3NaOH
Caustic Soda.
aNaCigHsjOa
Sodium
Palmitate.
OH CaH^-^ I OH
Glycerine.
fOH
Palmitin.
which
it may
be
calculated
that
806
parts
of the
shown
in the equation
"
DjHg-^
GiaHjgOa
3NaOH
Caustic
SNaCi^HagOg
Sodium Laurate.
VC12H28O2
Laurin.
Soda.
638 parts of laurin require 120 parts of caustic soda, and produce
666 parts of soap and
92 parts of glycerine.
oils were
matter
composed
to make
simply
of
one
glyceride
of soap oils and
be
an
easy
truly scientific proceeding, but unfortunately fats have not the simple composition which
been
assumed
mixtures
in various
Thus
proportions
of
different glycerides.
tallow contains
both
stearin and
olein ; palm
even
oil is
more
laurin, caproin,
time his
to time
hence
the
soap-maker
assume
fats will
248 always
have
a
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
constant
composition,
of
under
on
must,
or
should
be, carried
in such
way
that
an
ought
to be placed
in
or
amount
caustic potash
can
lot
or
parcel
take ; this he
do by ascertaining
by
means
storfer test the proportion of alkali required to saponify any given fat or oil. The method of carrying out this test we
describe.
Test Koettstorfer
"
To
carry
out
oz.
cork, through
which
passes wide.
a
piece of will
about
3 feet long
a
and
inch
There
be required
water
bath
heated
by
bunseri burner
in
use.
of heating
a
There
and 30
burette, 25
pipette and
are a
balance
of
weights.
chemicals
required
solution
grammes
a
caustic potash
in 1000
c.c.
of alcohol and
standard
as
solution of sulphuric acid, or better what is known of strength, that is, containing 24*5 grammes seminormal
pure
of the oil
or
fat to be
of the alcoholic solution of caustic potash the water bath for half aij hour, shaking up at
the end of the
intervals. been
At
time
completely
the
test
saponified, and
excess
stated the fat will have what remains to be done is This is done by
to determine
diluting the
drops of
an
solution with
little water,
adding
few
phthalein, which will impart a red coloration, then carefully from the adding burette the standard acid until this red colour disappears, The flask is noting the number of c.c.'s of acid required.
alcoholic solution of phenol
"
COLD-PBOCESS
SOAPS.
249
next
blank
test made
by
on
measuring
the water the phenol the
solution, boiling up
water,
bath
as
before, then
diluting with
adding
titrating from
the
burette
with
objectof
in the
justdescribed,
as
then
which
on
may
be caused
used acting To
required of
from
to
c.c.'s
in the
the
number
used
in the
blank
the
of alkali,KOH, and
of fat taken, To
take
a
this multiplied
example
:
concrete
as
of
described, the number of of acid used being 8*2, the blank test taking 22 '1. Then
taken and treated
:
"
have
Blank
test
22-1
Oil test
DifEerence 13-9
X
8-2
13*9 0-028
=
0-3892.
0*3892
is the
weight
of
KOH
required this by 60
to
we
grammes
of tallow.
Multiplying
the percentage
tallow.
of caustic potash,
KOH,
required
Should
soda
of caustic
required, then
difference in the
In
the
standard
we
is multiplied
13*9
X
by
=
0*02.
above
x
case
0-02
0*278.
0*278
50
gives 13*9
the
percentage
to saponify
tallow.
In the
same
way
equivalent
260
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
knowing
the
actual
strength
caustic soda
he
must
use
to
convert
given quantity
the cold process Thus
mixture
by
either
the pressure
supposing
the
soap-maker
wishes
to make
soap
from
:
"
Koettstorfer
value of 13*5
cwt.
of tallow with
Koettstorfer
a
value of 13*9
2 cwt. of coconut
and 95*5
oil with
Koettstorfer
value of 18*4
is using
74
caustic which
then
we
contains
to
per
cent,
shall have
make
The
kitchen fat will take : 100 : 13-5 : : 112 : 15-12 lb. of caustic soda.
tallow will take
100
:
The
"
1319
: :
112
1556
:
"
The
coconut
100 Then
we
18-4 have
224
1512
15*56
40-21
A total of 70*89 lb. of caustic soda required to saponify weight of fats given.
Next soda
to
; :
the
we
have
to
quantity
the
of commercial
be used.
:
For
have
proportion
95*5:
100
70-89
74*3.
There
will therefore
be
lb. of 74 per cent, caustic soda to saponify be made In a similar way calculations may
other mixtures
concerning
of fats and
oils.
or
The
Koettstorfer
values
various
oils have
already
been
COIiD-PROCESS
SOAPS.
261 is recommended
to
without much
error,
be using,
of testing
The method considerably. commercial caustics for their real strength has when dealing with alkalies.
they
often
vary
been
given
There
is another
point which
processes
consideration,
contain
when
of water
they must
be borne in mind
of manufacture
that whatever
water
is
the process
remains
in the soap
has been
used,
if
an
excess
employed.
a
The
soap-maker
a
soap with
given proportion
he adds this result, and this of course along with his caustic in the form of lye. Thus supposing that in working up the fats given in the example above he which
wishes to produce
to make
his calculations
and
:
of fat employed
sum
"
to
the proportion
:
30
446
74-3
223-9
to add
in making
his soap.
soda.
This
water
he
will of
add
to the caustic
THE
COLD
now
PROCESS
OF
SOAP-MAKING.
The
process
to be considered
is perhaps
the simplest
of all processes
justheating
melted mixture
soap.
which
then
is to
be made
the
sufficiently to
fat with
to stand
thoroughly
then
mixing
strong
for
at
a
allowing
the
The
and
the
end
of the
The
the soap
is made.
is of
262
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
simple
process
The
may
character,
and
having
come
the
inducemeut
for the
advantages
of the up.
"cold
process"
of soap-making
and
thus
be
simimed
It is very
simple
easily
quantities
littlelabour
means,
and
plant. is not
a
Small
the
case
be made
by its
The
which
too
with
the
boiling process.
a
soap
has
than
not
its form
crack
readily
as
boiled soap.
adapted
for making
is chiefly employed. The yield of soap from any given weight of the fact that of fat is larger on account the soap remains in. all the material used in making The disadvantage of the cold-process soap is that it is
the cold process
difficult,indeed of the
these
they
impossible, to
secure
complete always
whole soaps
a
There
^
saponification is present in
Then
small
a
of free fat.
causes
the soap to
presence
work
feel sharp
skins.
The
of
sometimes
when dry up
rancid.
Cold-process
to sweat
soaps
they
to the air
are
and
dissolves
;
freely in water
therefore lathers
a
better
for hard
waters
boiled soap.
are
which
used
remain
in the soap,
it is evident that all the materials used should be of the best quality if a good grade of soap is to be made. The fat most soap by used and best adapted for making this process
that
a
is coconut
soap
oil.
At
one
time
it
was
considered
without this oil could not be made This however forming fully one half of the fats used. was at highly causticised lyes were the time when and not made howNow unknown. when caustics of high strength were
cold-proces*
COLD-PROCESS
SOAPS.
263
ever
any
kind
of fat may
one
be
employed,
still coconut
oil
used.
readily
any
strong
fat.
alkalies such
a
as
than
It yields
soap
of
fine colour, it dissolves easily in cold water and lathers very freely; on it is apt to be harsh and feel the other hand
sharp to dehcate Tallow
skins.
is also very largely used for cold soaps, giving good white soaps of a firm texture, durable in use. oil is also largely used, indeed may use soap-maker any
Palm
when
he vdshes
to produce
are
a
as
The
fat
admixture
of fats
soap having
desired properties.
should be of a good quality, free from any foreign matter It is advisable to and be fresh. to a clarifying process before using them ; this them subject Whatever
used they process may
or
fats
the
fat may
case
and in each
top.
allowing to settle, be melted over a salt lye of about 10" Tw., using only the clear fat which rises to the
of melting and
to
use
It is of great importance
any
fats
free from
great proportion
the free fatty acids, when the alkali is mixed with the fat, immediately combining with it to form soap which separates from the rest of the mass in the form of grains and curds ;
the presence of the soap.
destroys of which If it be suspected
the
homogeneous
character of
fat contains too much free fatty acid, such may by heating the fat to just about its melting
thoroughly
be removed
point, from
out
then
mixing
2" to
little weak
; the
lye made
soda the
ash of about
strong
alkali takes
By
of soap, which F.
dissolves in lye.
keeping
at 130" to 150"
top and
may
be skimmed
off and
the
If any
difficultybe
experienced
in separating
clear fat
264
remove
SOAP
MANUFACTURE,
will fat.
it. It pays
best to
use
alkali used must be the highest grade of caustic that be bought, either the 77 per cent, solid caustic soda or can hquid The the 100" Tw. caustic soda. strength of lye
The
most
commonly
used
is 70"
to
72"
Tw.
The
and
be made
caustic
with
are
as
soft
water
as
can
be got.
soap
grades of
by the cold process, inasmuch the foreign salts and impurities they contain as interfere with the complete saponification of the fat and lead
to the production
contains again if
a a
large proportion
very
low
grade
salts would
be liableto
spoil the appearance of the in which it may be placed. soap and of any wrappers As regards the quantity the proper of lye used and it, this necessarily varies with the strength at which to use
efflorescence and
the surface
kind
more
Coconut
one
stronger
oil, for instance, will require be used than is the case may
vnth
It has been
found
lye
at
that coconut
best
and
with
most
72" Tw.,
oil and cotton oil saponify while for tallow, palm oil best at 66"
then the
other
fats the
a
saponification proceeds
should
Tw.
soap
Too
strong
lye
be
avoided,
and the
as
is made
rather curdy
in texture
but
to
and
use
lye
one
or
two
degrees
weaker
than
100 lb. of the oil taking before mentioned, takes the most, from 77 per cent, caustic 50 lb. of lye at 72" Tw. made
If a lower grade of caustic, say 70 per cent., then the soda. be made lye may the same stronger, say 77" Tw., and quantity
used.
COLD-PROCESS
SOAPS.
266
Tallow, cotton
so
oil,palm
oil, and
other
it is best to use lye of 66" a alkaU ; in their case Tw., and of this 60 lb. will be required for each 100 lb. of fat.
much
Using
the
fats and
oils and
lyes in the
which
water
is
fair average
If
soap
containing
used, while
must
more
be desired, then
weaker then
a
be lye
be employed.
It may
be
never
stated
that
in the
;
cold
process
the
complete
there
is always
in the
free alkali. In makUttle free fat and a little ing the fats and a toilet soap it is advisable to so proportion alkalies and the strength of the lye used as to leave as httle
free alkali
as
Having
so
with
the
materials
we
and
now
principles
proceed
to
of soap-making,
may
itself.
"
Working
are
of
the Gold
Process,
a
The
fats and
ought
oils which
to be
to be used
are
placed in
pan, which
fitted
fats are melted by heat The arrangement. with a mixing in any convenient fire. A suitable or way, either by steam is that made by Dopp York of New pan for this purpose and already illustrated,figure 31, page 187.
The
temperature
should
not
be too
When
high, simply
coconut
that
which
is sufiicient to
mixture
of coconut
F., with tallow and other greases from 110" to 120" F. When is in with constant melted the lye is run stirring, which continued until the mass of fat and lye begins to thicken
and flow from
a
paddle
in
uniform
sluggish stream.
of
an
The
temperature
be that
is
no
average
or warm
summer
need
to heat
it in
266
summer,
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
be advisable to heat the lye to the oil. After the lye and oil
is been mixed and it begins to thicken the soap mass into the frames, which are then covered over with sacking to keep the heat in as much left for from as possible, and
a
three days to
week
to fully form,
after which
it may
vnth all processes be conducted the cold process must of soap-making, with care and attention to some points of detail or otherwise the product will not be quite right. Some points of detail have
already
to.
Although
been
ensure
mentioned,
a
others
may
now
be briefly referred
To
product, the
or
fats must
otherwise
be of
the
good
soap
quahty
and
is liable to turn
The
or
homogeneous
in
fats should
otherwise
then
be at the right temperature, not they might set on adding the lye, nor
may
or
take place
The grainy soap be produced. strength of the lye has already been dealt with and does not The need repeating here. mixing or crutching of the fat but not too prolonged. and lye together should be thorough
rapidly and
curdy
or
place during
afterwards.
too prolonged
the
mixing
It is found
then
separate
out
in the frames,
produced,
to throw
with
which
only
thing
be done
and that is
The should
into the soap-boiler and boil them up. into which the soap is run from the crutchers
large ; those holding from
2 to
not
be too
2J
cwt.
are
best, and it is preferable that these should be low and broad The latter shape of frames reand high. tains rather than narrow
the heat too long, and the soap does
not
set properly,
COLD-PROCESS
SOAPS.
267
while with the low flatframes covered with sacking the heat isretained,sufficient ensure to the proper saponification taking place.
a
Too
much
heat
should
be
avoided,
as
then there is
In risk of oil separating out. specially to be guarded against. Filling Cold-process Soaps.
summer
"
The
by it.
of Toilet
Soaps.
be
and
added before
has been
mixed
so
in the crutchers
the
is finished,
that
perfume
has
time
to
Cold-process
with the whole of the soap stock. be coloured to any extent soaps may
In the
case
and
with any
such
etc., which
of employing green,
to the
bodies
are
as
chrome
be added
the soap.
Of
employ
any
which
is acted
matters
matter,
blue, soluble
alkali.
regards
safranine, eosine, and the coal-tar dyes in general, the best plan is.to dissolve these in water, straining the solution to free it from any undissolved particleswhich might lead to the production of specks in the
colouring
soap, and add the solution to the lye, using this rather stronger,
it,although perhaps, to allow for the dye solution weakening when there is but a small quantity of dye stufifbeing used
this point does not need
much
as
or
attention.
added
towards
extent.
the
last while
are
They
best added
17
just before
framing,
258 the
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
although
on
practice of soap-makers
varies very
ably consider-
this point.
on
Toilet Soaps
will be found
number
we
of
shall
White
Soap."
100
lb. good
white
tallow, 50 lb.
Water
Soap.
"
100
lb. coconut
oil, 60 lb.
Soap.
50
lb. tallow,
50
lb. coconut
oil, 50
lb.
Soap,
Yellow.
"
50 lb. coconut
oil, 50 lb. caustic soda lye at 70" Tw. 50 lb. coconut Soap. oil, 25 lb. tallow,
"
lb.
The
oil,63 lb. caustic soda lye at 70" Tw. of a portion of the soda lye, say oneof the
and the
same
fourth, by
potash
strength, much
proves imsoaps.
both
Soap-makers reckon
on
appearance
from
quality
above
of
these
can
working
the
recipes
and
easily
respective
quantities of soda
potash.
SOAP-MAKING
UNDER
PRESSURE.
recent
years
there
has
been
introduced
chapter
system
on
soap
under
pressure, and
in the
a
Soap
there has
The
been
described
plant
are
which
materials
and
employed
any
cold process,
given under
under For
that
head
may
pressure.
a
good
yellow
soap
there
may
be
used
charge
of
7 cwt.
of tallow
oil,3 cwt.
oil and
may
; or
there
be
140
tallow, 2 cwt.
PRESSURE-PROCESS
SOAPS.
259
This
will make
drier
but may
charge. through
however The
the
sufficiently large to hold 1 ton of charge, be built larger to take 2 tons in one
is simple
;
method manhole
the
apparatus
in the
boiler stands
at 50 to 60 lb.,
jetprovided
is
The
length of time
is from
of which
and mixed
time with
into
scent
the
crutchers
may
matter
that
be
It is
required, after which quite possible when two charges a day. quality and
into the
high made
frames
to set.
working
The
soap
to
pressure
system
to
use
is generally excellent in
quite equal
the
that
made soap
by the
ordinary
cesses. pro-
Like
cold-process
glycerine and
process
other materials
of making.
Gibbs'
process
farther
on.)
Oleic acid is prepared by-product in the manufacture Soap.
"
Oleic Acid
and
is used
for
which
that
of soap-making
products,
sold in two
straw
principal
and
pale
light
colour,
brown
oleic acid
a
reddish which
amber
colour, both
varieties having
The
peculiar
odour
is rather
somewhat
means
characteristic.
from
time
to
composition
time, according
of which
it is made. it contains
and
traces
is,of
course,
oleicacid, but
matter,
traces
carbon of hydroescaped
has
following
analyses,
recently
made
samples
of conmiercial
260
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
of the commercial articlecan which the average composition be readily gleaned. The specific gravity is also given at 60" F., and the temperature at which it begins to set.
"Pale." "Brown."
Hydrocarbon
Specific gravity Turbid
at
0-897
42" F.
There
will be
present, these
as
a
together
may
concrete
be
ascertained
example
the
by
the
usual of the
Taking
oleic acid
of oleic
analysis
a
brown
given
charge
that the 77
of 1 ton per
cent,
:
"
caustic
soda
is to be
used,
we
shall have
282
: :
following
40
: :
87*7
100
2240
which
to
as
being
saponify
ton
of this brown
oleic acid.
required As there is
the additional
thus,
quantity
allovnng
of caustic to saponify
this may
be calculated
"
14
: :
9*41
2240
which gives 29*5 lb. as the additional quantity to add. Oleic acid combines immediately or almost immediately in the cold vnth caustic soda and caustic potash, and it will
react
also with
case
a
the
carbonates
of soda
and
potash
in the
latter place.
considerable
evolution
of carbonic
acid taking
Soap
may
or
be
made
caustic soda
caustic
carbonate
or
potash
carbonate
sample
of potash
if soft soaps
are
required.
A good
of
OLEIC
ACID
SOAPS.
261
caustic soda
two
or
at 66" Tw.
The
cold
substances boihng
; when
may
be
brought
together
brought
so
of grains In
a
which
apt
to
contain
unsaponified
oleic acid.
occur
somewhat
lesser degree
when the
to
run
best method
is
pan, steam-jacketed
which
is
agitator.
There
is then with
as
added
the
required
agitation.
mass.
At the
The
time
is turned
on
so
to heat the
pasty until a uniform agitating are continued is obtained. be added any required scent To this may mass into frames to set. or colouring matter, after which it is run
heating
and
The
same
plan may
be adopted
if caustic potash
be employed
equivalents
between
the
56 of
alkalies
The
soap-maker
calculate
or
these
proportions
of caustic soda
any
caustic potash
which As
combine
with
given
charge
a
of oleic acid.
small
commercial
contains
percentage
of unsaponifiable
slight
excess
of alkali may
be added
this will ensure complete saponification of the fatty matter. In place of employing the caustic alkalies, the cheaper carbonates is be used ; but in this case the soap-maker may
troubled with
a
considerable
amount
of frothing,
owing
to
the formation
employment soap,
of carbonic
necessitates
the
which
of very large vessels for the production is in many cases rather inconvenient.
of soda ash of 52
soda
to
of the The
proportion
taken
as
per 100
be
19
lb. of
3J
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
ash.
employed,
quantity of If needful the better qualities of alkalies may be less quantity will be used. a proportionately when lb. of oleic acid require 53 lb. of sodium 69 lb. of potassium carbonate for saponification. difficulty in making a good soap from oleic acid,
282
will be required
to dissolve that
Theoretically
carbonate
There and is
no or
should
be used
warm
and
the solution of
of the
on
the soda
allowing
means
subsidence be carried
frothing, by which
more
the process
with
added
the
effective control.
mass
been
the form
of soap
a
should
until it assumes
it is ready
of
smooth,
homogeneous
paste, when
for
running
for cooling.
If thought
be combined would
with
other
fats
or
good
proportion
or
be 3 cwt.
of
of rosin,
3 cwt.
oil, and
1 cwt.
of rosin.
When
are
used
oleic
mixture
requires
boiling rather
longer
when
rather better
in taste and
alone.
sweeter
in odour
soaps soap
made
from
oleic acid
It may
be noted
that
the
made
from
brown
;
darker
with
HYDRATED
SOAPS.
similar
plan
of
in
working making
is
what
one
are a
which
has
been
knovm
especially
as
followed
generally
marine
the
afterwards.
The
method
is
as
follows
The
in the pan
; the alkali
of the required
amount
of strength
in, but
not in sufficient
to completely
The
mixture
PRESSURE-PROCESS
SOAPS.
263
is thoroughly
complete
as
boiled, and
possible
more
when
and
for cooling. Any kind of fat may be used for this purpose, and it is known Each kind of fat requires a certain partias marine soap. cular alkali. The soap
frames strength of alkali to
ensure
is then
into the
is best saponified at 16" Tw., coconut The at 28" Tw., oJive oil at 25" Tw.
the following
^ven
oil in
table
"
take
16" Tw.
100 lb. of coconut oil take 130 lb. of lye at 32" Tw. 100 lb. of palm oil take 114 lb. of lye at 28" Tw. 100 lb. of olive oil take 120 lb. of lye at 25" Tw.
Hydrated
on
soaps
are
not
made
to
any
great
extent
now,
account
during in the
greases
or
the soap.
are
it does
soaps
not
pay
are
which
made
sometimes
s
hardened
by cratching
them
very
in soda crystals
harder,
Glauber
some
salt, which
makes
much
and
in
cases
value.
SAPONIFICATION
UNDER Gibbs*
PRESSURE.
(Bennet "
Many attempts have
Process.)
to produce
been
made
soap
by other
than and
the ordinary
boiling and
cold processes
in which
agitation
of the
materials
Messrs.
a
the preliminary
Bennet
"
Gibbs
of
New
which
York
obtained
patent
in 1865 for
mechanical
:
process
1, Eapidity
of manufacture;
quantity of soap produced in fuel ; 6, the use of cheaper materials ; 7, saponification enters of all grease ; 8, saving of all the glycerine which
264
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
into the
soap.
The
last may
have
been thought
an
advantage
it is rather
disadvantage.
:
"
The
of the process
Their
process
consists
or
in
agitating
materials
water
with
a
caustic
carbonated
under
in
a
closed
as
vessel, while
to
cause
a
the
such
manner
thorough
alkaline solution and of the fatty acids with the base of the alkaline combination be enclosed in a If a quantity of fatty matter solutions. of soda in water, and vessel with a solution of carbonate
with
heat square
the
applied
to
a
produce
pressure
of 220
to
280
a
lb. per
inch and
tion combinasolution
between
the
soda
of the
in contact
with
the under
surface
lye occupying
produced If the where
mass
the lower
part of the
vessel, and
soap will be
be
agitated
mix
to
stir
together
whole
even
and
thoroughly
the contents
converted
into
homogeneous
use no more
on
and
water
It is advisable
soap.
to
to
than
in the
The
a
process
is carried
in
boiler
cyUnder
similar
heated
both
heads
of the and
cylinder
are
so as
made
so
as
to be convenientl
removable,
the
full size
of the
inner
of
diameter
a
of the
cylinder,
to admit
of the long
as
insertion
the
revolving
shaft, which
shaft, which
should
be
as
itself. The
is in the centre
both ends in stuffing boxes; works carried through and is applied to revolve the shaft. On the shaft are power fastened arms with floats or stirrers, extending nearly to the
PRESSUBE-PROCESS
SOAPS.
265
sides of the
the
arms,
floats
or
agitators
on
one
side of the
revolved
carrying the
on
fat down
into
the
agitators
the under
other
side carry
heat and
pressure,
of the
even,
whole,
causing
the conversion
a
contents
uniform,
and good At
one
one
quality of soap.
end of the cylinder
are
placed
two
on an
safety valves,
at the
top of the
cylinder, the
other
There of
outlet pipe
a
of the cylinder.
is also
mercury
bath
of
about
inches
or
in
length
gas-pipe
which
is
screwed
cylinder
in any
convenient
place
thermometer
an
bulb.
for the
an
At the opposite
cylinder
the
is
opening
insertion
of
supply
pipe ; at
other end
is also
opening
for the
is intended to insertion of a second outlet pipe, and which be used only when it is desired to draw off the whole contents is first put into operation, the machine of the vessel. When if carbonate of soda is used, it is necessary to allow some carbonic acid to escape
prevent undue
by
one
of the
the
pressure
by
liberation
fatty acids
of the
with
carbonic
the
to
acid when
takes
place.
combination
If any
alkali
escape
liquids be
allowed
should
be
to the cylinder.
safety valve
an
on
the
outlet
at
a
pipe may
pressure
be
so
loaded
to
as
escape
of soap
of 250
270
lb.
A quantity
of lye and
oil may
be pumped
a
in at the opposite
stream
ends, the agitation being kept up ; flows out at the other end. The
continual
may
of soap
product
then
be prepared
for the
market
by
cooling, moulding
use.
(framing), and
the soap
By
is
one
hour
from
the
ingredients
thorough
into
the
boiler, but
uniform
266
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
saponification
pressure
is obtained
at the
instant that
the
heat and
degree,
be the time
the
long
or
in five minutes
soap is
proportions
employed
100
are
as
follows
carbonate
or
of
at 48" 27
lb., water
lb. of carbonate of soda will, it is said, make by the quantity soap for soft water; obtained
neutral
the
above
process
is 200
lb. of soap
for every
100
is stated to be applicable to making any kind of soap, including soft soap, which is prepared with the same rapidity, without potash as in requiring the use of so much
The
process the ordinary
process.
the original inventors
Although
soda
recommend
carbonate
as
of
the
it would
and
with
caustic soda,
annoyance
by
the evolution
of carbonic
acid would
thereby
Soaps.
colour, in toilet soaps
The
variety of
name,
are
from the
one
penny
to half
a
crown
former
is that of
what
a
poor
and
yet
out
it is wonderful
be turned
penny
for
soap
of superb
quality, packed
appeals strongly
in the
naanner,
and
which
support.
are
of two
kinds
"
the ordinary
opaque
kind
soaps.
are
Toilet soaps
the soap-makers
we
made
by two
processes,
those
known
to
as
a
Again
are
may
draw
further
distinction between
those which
TOILET
SOAPS.
267
or
milled, and
The
the
those which
are
made
by crutching
has
boiling process
first part
of soap-making
been
remelting. described in
same
of this chapter.
Practically,
it is the
more
when
being
cold process
and of
is much
described.
In the preparation
a
toilet soaps
whether
ready-made
or
soap,
by the boiling
is immaterial,
he converts
and by carr}ring out certain finishing operations his soap into a toilet soap. Toilet Soap.
Common
soaps
are
very
simply
and
common
toilet
is taken
soap
when
just hot,
; there
before
added
it is framed
a a
it is put
into
crutcher
or
is then
small
quantity
or
of palm
of coconut
oil,according
the of object
as
coloured
white
oil soap is
being made,
last traces There
matter
of alkaH
which
a
be contained
in the
some
soap.
is then
added
colouring
to cool,
allowed
then
up
bars, stacked
firm, then
cut
stamped.
or
scenting
materials
almonds,
usually
mirbane
artificialoil of
most
common
or
citronelle and
matters
to add
an
oil of caraway.
are
The
colouring
soap
Bismarck
to
brown, chrysoiaine
upon, the
yellow.
a
As
example
work
following
recipe for
Brown
Windsor
soap
from
made
a
in this way
of tallow
may
and
be taken
oil.
"
mixture
palm
of Bismarck
brown.
can
A white
Windsor
soap
be made
from tallow
from
and
"
coconut
oil.
268
The
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
recipes to be found
some
further
on
manufacturer soap
idea of how
to make
qualities of
Toilet Soaps
and
Crutching.
"
A large quantity
stock soaps
of toilet soaps
made
in this country
to
a
from
by remelting perfume
and
and
then
them subjecting
matter.
mixing
with the
colouring
manner:
This method
soap
or
in the
employed
a a
following
are
The
soaps
are
cut
up
may
into shavings,
take any
which
The
then
put into
remelter, which
form.
an
best is however
serves
fitted with
and
are
to
keep
it.
the stock
castor
excess
in motion
there
mix
the
ingredients with
As
justhinted
soaps from
toilet soap-maker
his oil,
oil,palm-nut
made,
oil, palm
as
oil.
These
be
carefully
free from
of caustic alkali
The is
a
contain about
"
littleor
no
salt.
water
soap good
should
not
25 per cent, of
proportion
for it to contain
remelting
the
case
losing
some
In little
it may
be advisable to send
open
steam
the necessary
degree
of moisture.
If the remelter
is fitted with
an
agitator, when
the soap
is melted
may
and perfume,
be added,
when
all
are
mixed,
the soap
is run
into
to set.
It will be found
the remelter
as
while carrying
out
as
to avoid
littleloss of perfume
an
possible.
the soap
is not
run
fitted with
a
agitator, then
and the perfume,
into
crutcher
etc., mixed
with it there
before running
The soaps
to set.
several kinds
an
of toilet
intelhgent
soap-
TOILET
SOAPS.
269
maker
own,
may
use
them
as
guides, and
using
colour
any he
particular perfume
any
likes.
The
as
recipes
described
adapted
for soaps
to
be made
by remelting,
Brown Tallow
Witidsor Soap.
Coconut
Palm
oil soap
Oleic
darker
little
new
Heliotrope Tallow
Soap,
Bouquet Tallow
Soap.
soap
Coconut
i
Santal
Soap,
26 lb.
1
"
Tallow
soap
oil oil
Santal
Bergamot
oz.
Citron
Tallow Palm
Soap.
161b.
4
"
soap
oil soap
Bergamot
Oil of lemon
oil
1 1
oz.
"
Soap,
76 lb.
26 12
2
"
Coconut
oz.
"
270
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
Brown
Windsor
Soap,
60 lb.
Tallow
soap
oil soap
.
.
Coconut
Palm
26
26
4
"
oil soap
,,
Oil of cinnamon Oil of cloves Oil of caraway Oil of sassafras Oil of bergamot
Bismarck brown
Honey Tallow Palm
oz.
"
2 1
.
"
2 4
"
,,
"
Soap.
.
soap
oil soap
76 lb.
26
,,
oz.
"
Another
Tallow Palm
formula
soap
is :
"
60 lb.
26 26
"
"
oz.
,,
6
5
"
"
These presently
may
will be found
will be
head which another given under utilise for this process if he thinks fit.
soap-maker.
Toilet Soaps
"
The
cold
process may
be employed
soaps. another
grades of toilet The details of this process will be found described in formulae some place; here will be given simply of the cheaper be used. which
It may
may
for making
which
every
may
be
pointed
out
on
that it is not
account
perfume
be employed,
materials
of the
presence
of alkali in the
during
may
use
the
a
process of
manufacture.
Still,the soap-maker
and produce
a
large number
of formulae
cold process.
White Windsor
Soap.
60 lb. 60 60
"
Coconut
White Caustic
oil
tallow
"
TOILET
SOAPS.
271
together
with the alkali ;
add
6
^
oz.
2J
Windsor
"
Soap.
45 lb. 45
"
Coconut
Tallow
oil
Palm
oil
10
"
Caustic
lye at 70" Tw
50
"
2J
6
oz.
"
ij J
3
"
"
"
Violet Soap.
Coconut
Tallow
oil
lye at 70" Tw
40 lb. 10
"
Caustic
Dried Violet
soda orange
root
25
"
peel
Tincture
IJ 2J IJ oz"
" "
"
"
IJ
. ,
"
| ^
"
"
balsam
,^
Another
Coconut
Tallow
formula
oil
is :
"
40 lb.
10
25
1
"
"
oz.
"
2
1
.
.
"
2 1
"
"
Almond
Soap.
40 lb. 60
"
Coconut
Tallow
oil
Caustic
Mirbane
soda lye
.
"
60
"
"
Oil of bergamot
,^
272
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Rose
Soap.
100 lb.
60 5 5 i 1
"
Coconut
oil
oz.
"
Tincture
Eosine
of musk
"
"
Glycerine
Coconut
oil
Soap,
50 lb.
Caustic
Glycerine
soda
lye at 70" Tw
50 4
"
"
1^
"
^ I
"
"
Another
Coconut
Palm
formula
oil
is :
"
48
2
lb.
"
lye at 70" Tw
25
"
"
h
1
"
""
oz.
1^ | ^ \
"
"
"
"
Lemon
Soap.
50 lb. 50
"
Coconut
Tallow
oil
Caustic
50
"
|
5
"
oz.
grass
"
2^
"
Honey
Soap.
60 lb.
40
"
Coconut Tallow
Palm oil
oil
10
.
"
Oil of citronelle Oil of bergamot Oil of caraway Caustic soda lye at 70" Tw
"
^
'
.
.
"
"
60
"
MILLED
TOILET
SOAPS.
273
Bouquet Soap.
Coconut oil Tallow. Bleached palm oil Oil of bergajnot Oil of adssafras Oil of cloves Oil of thyme Oil of neroli
.
501b. 40
10 12
"
"
oz.
"
"
4
4
4
2
"
"
601b.
Orange Soap,
Coconut oil Tallow. Palm oil
.
501b.
25 25 12
.
.
" "
*
.
Oil of orange peel Oil of cinnamon Oil of thyme Caustic soda lye at 70" Tw
. .
oz.
"
2^
"
60 lb.
If it be desired to produce coloured soaps by the cold ^ process, the soap-maker will find a wide range of the cold- (P(sX-^ tar colours open to him. Eosine will give him a variety of
deep pink. Acid green may be used for green tints,acid blue for blue tints, acid violetfor lavender to violetshades, Bismarck brown for
rose
to
browns, acid yellow for yellow. With these by combining them together a variety of pleasing effectsmay be obtained. (See farther on aa,to colouring soaps.)
-
may now proceed to consider in some detail the production of toiletsoaps by a process of comparatively modem origin, but which promises in the
"
We
future to almost, if not quite, entirely replace the older methods of preparing toiletsoaps. The milling system had
its origin in France, where more attention has been paid to toilet soaps than in any other country ; from there it has gradually spread to other countries. It is to the credit of that the best machines for carrying out the milling system are of French invention. There is no question of the superiority of milled soaps 18 the
French
274
over
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
other soaps.
they the
Weight
for weight
they
are
an
of
more
value,
because
contain
less water,
to
while it is
the
acknowledged
are
fact that
reworking
which
soaps
subjected
are
improves
their quality. usually again, milled soaps prepared from the best materials, as it is hardly worth while involved in milling into a to put the extra work and expense
soap made
to other
Then
from
crude
use
materials.
on
Milled
soaps
are
superior
soaps in
account
proportion
waste
of water
and
their dense
than
them
to
away
less rapidly
soap
ordinary
soap.
to
a
The
ance, appear-
too, of milled
is much
superior
toilet soap
made
by other processes.
process
to one mechanical and it is carried out in which a well-boiled soap is subjected, has been previously described in special machinery, which
The
of milling
is
merely
the
not
chapter repeat
on
Soap
Machinery
(see p. 211).
simply
We
shall of the
these
descriptions
here, but
speak
process itself,pointing out its special features, and emphasising the points which require attention from the soap-maker. The soaps
employed
are,
used
(1)
Cutting four
(2)drying machine, (3)crushing mill with granite rollers, (4)continuous squeezing machine, or, as
machine,
known, the
it is sonuetimes
stamping The
means
plodding
machine,
(5) steam-
process. soap
which
is
.to
of the
to
cutting drying
has
machine,
machine.
some
which
degree
on
they
are
transferred
the
The
of fineness of
of drying
influence than
so
drying
quicker
coarse
In
some
the
drying
machine
can
is
constructed
this preliminary
soap dealt
cutting with
case
as
be
dispensed
with, and
it comes
from
the soap-kettles.
This is done
drying
machine;
in the
the
of using
the continuous
automatic
MILLED
TOILET
SOAPS.
275
from
soap-pan,
of
mill at
one
end
one
of the machine
or
with
three cylinders
to the number
and
receivers,
two
miUings,
according
of cylinders, and
the
thin shavings
into
the
are
chamber
are
which
forms
on
are
the
real drying
machine;
which
shavings
so
received
that they
endless
one
linen
the These
so
bands
other
arranged
over
the
full width
of the
and the
chamber.
are
put
at
into
one
motion
on
arranged band
that
end
topmost
of the
carried along to the other end, whence Unen band; this in turn passes it to
so on
third
one,
and
until it
comes
to the
last
one,
or
the
lowest, which
the
out
of the
In
lower part
drying by
machine
steam.
is
which
is preferably
with
paratus ap-
heated
The
is furnished
a
for drawing
the heated
air at
This
temperature
of about
the
60''C. through
the
chamber.
on
hot
air meets
soap
shavings moisture
as
they travel
with the
then
escapes
through
the top of
the apparatus
by the ventilator, while the soap, dried to the desired extent, passes out at the bottom of the drying stove. This
stove
which
manner,
paste in
an
automatic
and
continuous
who
uses
good
45
it, has by
one
about
and
and
;
can
be
a
manipulated
yield of
more
workman
one
assistant
The
it gives
power
than
ton
of dried soap.
motive
two
horse power,
and
the expense
for heating
Coloured
"
Soaps.
mineral
"
which
"
are
against heat
among
comes
others
out
can
be
mixed
when
it
of the boiler,
are
delicate shades
of fine soaps
wanted,
that
276
to incorporate
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
the colour
shavings
have
been
dried, and
in the crushing
Eegarding
a
the incorporation
as
liquid state,
is necessary
with
the
remelted
First of all the soap paste is heated to a temperature of 100''C, which effects a change in the perfumes, and secondly a considerable portion of the latter is wasted by in the drying stove; the evaporation during the treatment better added to the soap in either the crushing are perfumes
method is faulty.
or
the plodding To
ensure
mill.
the
most
perfect
machines
it is essential that
to
a
of the
succeeding
soap
of the stock
soap must soap
proper
degree.
not be too
too damp
or
works
pasty in
a
the crushing
soap of good
plodding
machines,
be
while
texture
cannot
made.
Generally
the dried
It will
soap should
contain
from
be found
will depend
on
the make
of
best with
amount
soap
with
moderate
The
crushing
machines,
resting
in one
piece,
two
are
composed
diameter,
of which above
lie underneath
them,
any
placed
the
horizontally, the other two being former supporting the latter. The
and
the colouring
matter
perfume
is fed
of the crushing
out
mill which
the lower
has two
ones
ments, compartcarried
is passed
the
from
These
and
at
round
by
cylinders.
by
revolving
different
a real progressive milling, the soap to undergo velocities cause into the carrying it from the bottom to the top and passing it
upper
from
whence
it undergoes
the
same
process
mated until the soap is entirely milled and perfectly amalgaThe triple crushing with the perfumes and the colour. by the passage
through
the four cyHnders
caused
requires only
MILLED
TOILET
SOAPS.
277 be repeated
two
five minutes
three
for about
as
66
lb.
It
can
or
times,
may
be required, the
soap
not
leaving
the
is obtained. mass crushiog mill until a perfectly homogeneous The pressure between the rollers may be increased as the soap passes through the mill so as to increase the efficiency
and
turn out
a
The
plodding
it opening, whereby is made very dense in texture, while the friction which takes imparts a gloss to the soap and a mouthpiece place between
considerable
pressure
the
soap
fine appearance.
By
varying
the
may
be made
the soap flows the bar of which of any desired form ready to cut up into
Continuous
occurs
as
working
the soap
passes
tends
to
the heating
of the latter.
This
working
of the mill.
This
mouthpiece
provided
cool by running
or
jacket
the
work
or
plodding
machine,
mill, to
compressed,
is to collect the
press it into
a
prepared and
solid
bring
in uniform,
The end
of the mouthpiece, especially in the extreme of the nozzle, is good, as it increases the gloss of the heating
Too
much
soap.
too
cause
polish, and
the
surface
tends
to become
it is advisable that the first portions be returned to it, from the machine of the soap which come then liable as these are not sufficiently compressed and are
streaky.
case,
to crack.
If the
soap
goes
into
the
plodder
too
dry, then
it is
278
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
wanting
in
pliancy.
This
may
be
remedied
by adding
littleglycerine or fresh stock soap. from the plodder After coming into cakes,
and
is cut up stamping
these
are
then
passed
to
the
Having
now
described
some
the
process
of milling
them.
soaps,
we
may
give
Soap.
.
White
100 lb.
6 1 1 1 1
oz.
"
"
"
"
Broum Tallow
Windsor
Soap.
76 lb.
26 26 26
"
soap
oil soap
Coconut
Palm
oil soap
"
"
2
2
oz.
"
2
2
"
Bergamot
Bismarck brown
"
"
Santal
Tallow soap
oil
Soap.
1001b,
6
"
Santal
1^"
Soap.
100 lb. 25
6 6
4
"
oz.
"
"
Soap. 1001b.
26
^,
soap
3
1
"
Bergamot
"
MILLED
TOILET
SOAPS.
279
280
SOAP
MANUFACTUBB.
Soap. Elder-flower
Tallow Palm soap
oil soap oil soap
.
601b.
25
26
"
Coconut
"
Oil of bergamot Oil of lavender Oil of caraway Oil of peppermint Oil of thyme
2
.
"
h, ^" in
2oz.
White
Tallow soap
Windsor
Soap.
801b.
20
"
Coconut
..
Oil of caraway
H"
Ess.'botiqiiet Soap,
White
Palm
soap
601b.
50 4
1
"
"
"
Powdered
Musk
orris root
"
80 grains.
.
2
5
oz.
"
5
5 12
"
"
"
Soap.
501b.
60
"
White
Palm
Soap
oil soap
Powdered
Musk
orris root
10
"
30 grains.
Hoz.
^
8
3
,.
"
Soap
brown Flower
"
Soap,
501b.
White
Palm
Soap
.
50
4 1
"
"
,,
Powdered
Powdered Musk
orris root
"
catechu
\.
16 grains.
MILLED
TOILET
SOAPS.
281
2oz.
2
"
oil
.
oil balsam
rosa
2
2 2
"
"
oil
"
Geranium
Bergamot
oil
oil
2
2
"
.,
Goumarin
These
have
been
large
number,
be sufficient to show
work
which
the soap-maker
in making been
recipes
which
may
have
already
kinds
of
toilet soaps
The should
be consulted
are
with advantage.
used
in making
be of good
boiled
from
oils, well
caustic
so
to be
thoroughly
not
saponified.
Eancid
and
to rob
discoloured
the perfumes
in making
thing which
the is
of their The
aroma
and
delicacy
thoroughly
condition that the fat or oil should be ing saponified has an important bearing on the keepAny
unsaponified
rancid, thereby
cannot
fat
or
oil will
the soap
to become
perfume.
be remedied
no
by
the milhng
there is
a
doubt The
care
the
process completes
must
soap.
soap too
be
free from
lye, and
too
much
cannot
be
in condition for milling should be too short in texture, and when fresh made ought to
together makes
when
a
adhere
worked good
between
the fingers.
Tallow
stock soap
for milling.
Both
unbleached
palm
for this
it is important
rancid and
violet-Uke odour
a
oil to perfection.
Coconut
282
care
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
ought
to be
taken
with
it to
see
that it is thoroughly
oil does not make a good stock soap for milling. Castor oil yields a fair soap ; other fats and oils Sire not admissible for various reasons.
saponified.
Cottonseed
be coloured
to any
is such obtained
they
variety of them
with
tint
be
do not
in any
further, being
the soap
to
be
more
easily mixed
with
colour
uniform
whereas,
a
diffusion of the
with
on
throughout
the
soap
was
mass;
the
old mineral
colourings, there
always
tendency
colouring materials to separate from the soap and settle dovni in the frame in which the soap cools down. It is not every colouring ing niatter that is available for tintsoap.
There
are
some
that
are
more
or
less affected
as
or
altered
in colour
by alkahes
Prussian
usually
blue, chrome
soap being
cannot
be
used
for
coal-tar colours
matter
are
used
in
very
simple
or
manner.
colouring
is dissolved in water,
in
few
cases
of water and alcohol; the solution should be mixture filtered,and then it is poured into the melted soap paste and
thoroughly
"
quantity required is very small ^ to I oz. will colour 1 cwt. of soap in some strong tints. In a few instances a littlecaustic soda may be added to the
crutched
in.
The
colour
solution.
yellows there may
For yellow,
be used
Fluoresceine
there
are
yellow. Soap
two
kinds
"
one
and Metanil yellow. "soluble in water, the other in spirit), The following recipes will give some idea of the quantities to he used. Each is for 1 cwt. of soap.
COLOURING
SOAPS.
283 dissolved
Sulphur
in
5
oz.
Yellow,
"
Use
^
or
oz.
Fluoresceine
oz.
yellow
boiling
water,
oz.
Quinoline yellow
spirit.
(spirit
dissolved in 5 soluble)
Lemon
methylated
oz. 1:^
Yellow.
"
Use
Fluoresceine
used
yellow dissolved
in 5
oz.
boiling water.
shows
1
oz.
a
When
fine green
fluorescence
or
bloom.
Use
oz.
Soap
yellow dissolved in
Metanil
these
yellow
dissolved
in
water.
Both
yellows
give good
results in colouring
soaps.
Bed
Colours,
"
There
may
be used
of Eosine
and Erythrosine
mines, which
give bright pinks ; the Ehodaand also give bluish pinks to reds ; Ponceaus
dyes, which
;
"
Scarlets for
Bright
roses
Cardinal Use
Bose.
1|
B
oz.
Brilliant
oz.
a
rose
dissolved in
of
rose
J pint
be
a
boiling water.
got ;
By
using
3^
deep
shade
can
1^
oz.
Ehodamine
dissolved in
pint water
gives
Use
J
1
dissolved in 3
Pink,
"
"
oz.
or
J oz. Safranine
oz.
Deep
Use
2
oz.
oz.
Erythrosine
red B 2 E
in 6
water.
Bed.
Use
or
Cardinal
Ponceau
dissolved in
water, water.
oz.
dissolved in
pint boiling
Salmon.
"
Use
oz.
Mandarine
shade
can
extra
dissolved in 5
oz.
boiling water.
Another
same
quantity of Chrysoidine
dissolved in water.
oz.
Sea Green,
"
Use 2
Fast
light green
dissolved in
pint
boiling water.
Pea
Green,
"
fine shade
is got
from
oz.
Fast
light
green and
water.
J oz. Fluoresceine
Use
2
oz.
yellow
dissolved in
J pint boihng
J pint
Orange,
"
Brilliant orange
dissolved in
boihng water.
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
"
Use 6
oz.
Soap
brown
S dissolved in 1 pint
Use
oz.
Methylene
blue 2 B
dissolved in
pint
boiling water.
Violet
"
Use
oz.
Formyl
violet S 4 B
dissolved in
\ pint
boiling water.
Chestnut
Brown,
"
Use
oz.
Soudan
brown
dissolved in
pint spirit.
By
mixing
can
these
different colours
together
variety of
to particularly
tints
be obtained.
on
It is impossible, however,
paper.
Thus,
a
by using
mixture
rose
of
Quinoline yellow,
mixture lilac shades of various
green
fine bright
and
scarlet
is will
obtainable ;
produce
of Safranine
Methylene
blue
violet and
greens
; Methylene
blue and
yellow
tones
; Methylene
blue
so on.
Chrysoidine
soap-maker
bronze by
to olive shades,
can soon
and.
experimenting
become
expert
in
mixing colours. It may be pointed out that some of the coal-tar colours being mixed on change with the hot soap paste ; thus the Eosines
yellows back.
The
and
Ehodamines
but
on
may
turn
yellow,
or
some
of the
comes
go brown,
cooling
are
as
follows:
"
Cadmium
of soap
a
good
or
yellow.
burnt
soaps ;
sugar
is
fine colouring
agent
for
have Ocjires
; only
the
best
ochre
and
"
strongest
the
so-called gold
green
should
Ultramarine
with
green, giving
lb. of the
good
sea
green
to 1 cwt.
of soap.
rose-coloured
Vermilion
soaps, but it
TBANSPARBNT
SOAPS.
285
is rather heavy, and therefore tends to settle out unless well crutched in and the soap quickly cooled.
Chrome
it has
green is very suitable for colouring soaps green ; fine colour and readily mixes with the soap, and is
quite permanent.
Umbers
are
used
for making
brown
soaps ;
to
Ultramarine
blue mottled
soaps ;
TRANSPARENT
SOAPS.
The carried
on
manufacture
of transparent
and
soaps
is very
largely
toilet soaps
persons.
being
It is by
a
no
easy to make
transparent
soaps ;
it requires
a
good
experience
to enable
soap-maker
In making
to turn
perfect product.
soaps there
are
a
few points which require attention ; firstin regard to the oils and fats used. better than There are some adapt themselves which transparent others
to the production
more
of transparent
soaps.
Castor oil in
soaps
than
readily to transparent
comes
other oil,perhaps
next
coconut
liquid oils. Solid fats,like tallow and palm oil,are most difficult to transform into transparent soaps, and they should be sparingly used. The great bulk of the transparent better qualities,are
the
use
made
with
alcohol
to
methylated
cost
spirits,
of which
are
of
course
reasons
adds
the
use
of production.
There
perhaps
a
two
for the
the
saponification of As every soap-maker be complete. knows, the transparent it is ; perfect a fat is saponified the more this saponification and so helps to alcohol promotes
perfect transparent
soap the
286
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Then bring about transparency of the soap. again, alcohol is a more perfect solvent for soap than water, and by its on means a clear, transparent solution is obtained, which
evaporation
mass.
of the
as
transparent
but it transparency, addition of glycerine promotes has to be used with care, or otherwise a pasty, sticky soap is obtained which is not at all satisfactory.
The
Sugar
is often added
to transparent
soaps,
as
it increases
soaps
can
are
matter
which
a
be used
one
being
Safranine, of which
half to
pound
is required
For
of soap, according to the depth of tint required. Butter yellow or Soap yellow as yellow, what is known
is used.
Any
employed.
(See Colouring
kind
of perfume
of the
maker
may
be
Each
maker
has
possibly
his
own
method useful.
of working;
those described
Transparent
below
will be found
very
"
Soap
by Cold Process.
Take
50 lb. of stearic
oil and
melted, the
until they
are
then
lye made
from
a
best
strength
to stand
for
few
with days.
so
allowed
Next
the soap
made
is mixed
with
a
clear transparent
liquid
is obtained. For the purpose of saving alcohol it is best to conduct this operation in a still connected with a condenser, so that the alcohol or spirit which is volatilised during the operation
can
be recovered
TRANSPARENT
SOAPS.
287 During
be thus recovered.
the saponification
mass
transparent
is obtained
sugar
about
40 lb. of crystal
made
into
syrup
and
when
to
are
been incorporated,
up
is ready
be
framed for
;
some
when
it is cut
a
into
tablets ; these
daring which
placed the
time in
gradually
room,
time and
alcohol
away,
the
soap hardens,
Transparent
the transparency
becomes
"
perfect.
Soap
a a
by
Boiling.
one,
The and
process
many
described
above is necessarily
would like to have
slow
soap-makers
the following
quicker
method.
Then used
process may
be adopted,
the materials
being
the
same
quantity.
melted together
are
oils
are
at
gentle
heat, then
the
the spirit
mixed
together and
thorough
added
;
to
ensure
admixture
the
mass
is kept at
and
a
gentle
heat
mass
complete
transparent
hours.
from three
added and
may
to four
Then
as
ingredients
and
are
before.
Colour
perfume
be added
The
use
may
be deemed is not
necessary.
to the
of glycerine
production of transparent
shows
the
materials
"
required
transparent
soap
without
glycerine :
Transparent
Tallow
or
Soap.
60 lb. 60 40 75 50 20 20
"
stearic acid
oil
oil
"
"
"
"
Water
"
288 The
whole
SOAP
MANUPACTUBB.
fats
are
melted,
then
treated
vdth
the
formed,
the
with
alcohol
any
is added, then
the other
and
ents, ingredithat
together
are
colouring matter
soap
may
perfume
required, when
the
be
manner.
There
these
is
just one
point
that
is important
in preparing
must not
soaps
by heat, and
to be too high,
that
or
be allowed
which
is not
transparent
soap
cannot
be obtained.
Transparent
Soap
:
"
ivithout Alcohol.
Provide
the following
materials
Tallow
"
481b. oil
oil
. .
Coconut Castor
40 60
"
"
Caustic
74
36 36 6 10
"
"
"
"
"
Melt
with
hours, then
or
four
hours
mass
to
is obtained, the heat is withdrawn, and the hour or so to stand for an until it has a about There
170" F., and
are
is allowed of
temperature
is
more
or a
less of
i jellyn
appearance.
now
added
with
a
the sugar
made
into
syrup
with
the
water,
then
the soda
crystals, then
any perfume
to
and
colouring matter,
Exercising
after which
it is allowed
care
a
stand
soap
until cold.
will be
all ordinary
a
By
soap
ciently suffifor the cheaper classes of these soaps. good quality using a rather larger proportion of sugar, transparent
may
transparent
readily obtained, of
be
made
without
either alcohol
:
"
or
to the following
formula
INDUSTRIAL
SOAPS.
289
541b.
Tallow
oil oil
44
54
"
"
soda
lye, 70" Tw
84
48 26
"
sugar
described
"
"
Worked
as
above.
of making
care
transparent
soap that
on
without
the
alcohol
and
glycerine,
must
be taken
saponification
the
of the
fats is complete
before going
Another
with
of
finishing processes.
plan
is often transparent soaps making A good ordinary sort of soap prepared works.
good tallow
or
from
other
high grade
put into
a
and
or
shaved.
with The
sufficient alcohol
pan
may
methylated
spirit
to dissolve it.
sufficient.
a
The
as
solution
is best effected in
so as
condenser
described above,
to
save
When all is dissolved, of the alcohol as possible. insoluble the solution is allowed to allow any to stand
much
matters, such
of soda, and sulphate of soda, to settle out. The clear portion is then transferred to a three-fourths of the spirit is distilled off and still, here w
salt, carbonate condensed
as
again
for further
frames,
use.
The
and
residual
scented
soap
is
transferred to the
coloured
if needful,
are then allowed to cool, then cut up into tablets, which kept in a warm At firstthe tablet is not transto set. room parent,
but gradually
and water evaporates.
becomes
so
as
the
excess
of alcohol
C.
In many
Industeial
Soaps.
for the performance
uses
The silk manufacturer of certain operations. to free the raw matter silk from the gummy 19
soap
it naturally
290
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
woollen
manufacturer
finds
soap
the
best
grease from
uses
the wool
prior to spinning
soap he
users
for clearing
and for
his
printed
cloths the
thickening
supply
are are
uses
brightening
colours.
To
the
indicated Generally
care cases
as
large quantities
annually
not
made.
industrial soaps
domestic
or
made
with
soaps.
the
same
ordinary
household
In
many
the element
are
of price enters
and
into the
question
paid
of what
to the
users
materials
process
used
the
degree
on
of attention
of making.
The
desire
the
for cheapness
soaps
often
leads to many
very
of the
materials.
soaps
of these
being made
we
from
poor
sections
used make
shall indicate
those
which
most
in manufacturing
them
operations
and
from.
"
Wool
Soaps.
of wool
Soap
is
very useful
agent
in the with
manufacture
into cloth.
into the it the
The
firstoperation
the
raw
wool
to
as
it
comes
woollen and
manufacturer's
hands
is
extract
grease
dirt it contains.
or
It has
been foimd
soap and
in
mixture
of
of effecting this
operation.
generally and
grade
This used
as
wool
poor
scouring. grade
There
is
for this
rather
of soap, colour
Bone
quality not
tallows, These
are
being of much
cheap
importance.
fat, low
are
palm
are
oils, and
always made
at
:
"
oleic acid
used
largely.
and
soaps salted
are
and
framed
once
following
mixtures
1 cwt.
much J
^
cwt. cwt.
used
cotton
bone
low
oleic acid.
1^ 1^
cwt.
cwt.
palm
bone
\ cwt.
cotton
A slight
excess
"
in fact is rather
"
INDUSTRIAL
SOAPS.
291
be avoided, as it tends to cause the wool to be diflBcult o bleach in the subsequent operations through which t it is passed. Generally to contain 62 these soaps are made
an
excess
must
6J
about
free alkali.
should
not
contain
more
are
more
expensive
to any
soaps,
hence
not
made
the wool
much
silky in
tendency
while
they It has
fats
have
also
are
the
yellowing scouring
soaps.
greater
as
properties. soda
per
soaps.
oils and
potash
used
in making
50
to
good
soap
per
will contain
52
cent,
of
water,
43
to
44
5 to 6 per
cent,
alkali, and
to
per
cent,
The
are
soap
liquors from
the
raw
wool
scouring
or
operation
other substance
to separate
they
contain,
which
is sold
under
the
grease.
After
being
it is necessary,
for the
purpose
of
facilitating the spinning and weaving of the wool, to oil it ; this is done with various kinds of oil,both fatty and mineral. it is needful to extract this oil After being spun and woven,
out
before it
can
be
can
to subjected
the process
of
dyeing
a
finishing.
same
This
be done
as
by treatment
was
kind of soap
employed
with in the
desirable that It is however operation. scouring be used, so that anything it a slightly better quality should not interfere with the process of dyeing. might contain may original
The
from soap
a
which
is most
used
is
one
made
mixture
of equal parts
tallow and
cottonseed
292
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
oil ; another favourite soap is made from palm oil and cotton oil. The latter is really the better of the two for the purpose, for the soap made from the bone tallow is liable to contain lime
compounds
which, if they are leftin the cloth, have a tendency to affect the dyeing by forming colour lakes with the dyes,
and
thereby
resulting in poor
Soaps
made
from
shades
recovered
as
and
obtained.
greases
they
often
contain getting
quantities of unsaponifiable
cloth, form
matter
which,
the
on
grease
spots and
prevent
going
remark
that, from
view,
soap
the
method
of extracting
oil from
by
means
of
scientific.
the woollen
as
After
the
cloth has
often to undergo
operation
is to
a
known
cause
which
produce weather
the
fuller cloth,
more
impervious
to the
and
that
clothes. of
It
a
is found
soap
this milHng
in the presence
no
liquor;
to do.
in this
MilHng
; they
case
has
actual
chemical
work
and
soaps
must,
not
however,
well
a
made
should
contain
this has
tendency
to act
upon
it to
run
or
a
bleed, and
sometimes
it would
shade, The
on
therefore
soap ought
the cloth
to contain
any
this would
settle
and
form
grease
spots.
soap should
to
The
cotton
of
cotton
oil,and
oil, thoroughly
saponifying
the
oils and
settling well.
INDUSTRIAL
SOAPS.
293
A the
potash
soap
a
if it could be made
be be
best, but
sufficient degree
soap without
"
Printer's
Soap.
of soap
in his works,
necessary
The
that it is not
on
in all
To
enable him
to print
to mix
matters
with gum,
bodies, to thicken
printing
on
the
cloth.
thickening
a
to
a
be removed, and
a
and
soap bath
material
has
convenient
has
simple further
means
of doing
In
some
cases
the soap
into combination
making
these
with
much
some
of the
colours,
doing
brighter.
calico printer's soap must have
the following
features
it should
be
fairly soluble
in water,
it ought
any
to be
quite
free alkali it
might
act
upon
some
of the colours
and
change
their tint.
The utmost
amount
calico printer's soap have any tendency to leave, any odour behind it. objectionable It is found by experience that the two best materials to make
of olive oil. The use found to react rosin is not permissible, as rosin soaps are too alkahne for this purpose ; a tallow soap is apt to contract is scarcely soluble enough. A little an odour, and
of free alkali which is permissible in a is 0*2 per cent. It should not leave, or
such
soap
from
are
palm
oil and
tallow may,
however,
be used
in
with conjunction
the other
oil, although
to be rather
an
it makes
very
on objectionable, account
odour
to
the
goods,
and
the
thing
applies to castor
oil.
never
The
to object
pay
good
price
294
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
they
find it to be
in the end
of the smaller
the
most
printers
grades
of soap, which
or
be produced
unless low
grades
of fat be used
by
rosin. employing be In making a must calico printer's soap, great care This can only be done by caretaken in getting it neutral. ful and saponification in the first instance, and complete
thoroughly
fitting the
soap
afterwards,
so
as
to eliminate
all
from bleached
palm
printers prefer
made An
These soaps are olive oil soap. to contain 64 to 65 per cent, of fatty matter.
an
of calico printer's soap by the writer gave the following figures : analysis of
good
make
"
made
Fat
Free
Water
29*4
Silk Soap.
gummy using
as
"
matter
it from the In the boiling off of silk to fi:ee it naturally contains, a strong soap bath,
as
much
of the silk,
is employed. The soap used for this purpose should be well acter. made, be fairly soluble in water, and not too alkaUne in charimportance Alkalinity in this soap is not of so much
in calico printer's soap, still it should not be too not to exceed of free alkali ought and the amount
as
strong,
0*4 per
as
cent.
The
a
solubility is of much
yet
importance,
can
inasmuch
on
then
strong and
be got ;
this
account
be the
make
:
best material
a
to make
silk soap
reason,
a
Coconut
oil would
to two
good
soap
for this
but
it is open
defects
it is not
easy to make
to objection
neutral soap
from
is the
the rancid
it.
SPECIAL
SOAPS.
295
it needful to have a soluble feature which makes the soap out soap is that it is necessary to thoroughly wash
Another
boiled in it.
Ground-nut
palm
silk soap, olive oil is the best. good results ; soap ought
a
littlebleached
well
made,
be added.
The
to be
no
the principal
fat.
in which
the soap
is employed
done
is in dyeing, much
soap, other
a
of this being
to the writer
bath of
method
which might
seems
to be
relic from
no
days, and
be
abandoned. is used
the
have
There
is
arity peculia
about oHve
which
good the
oil soap
best
"
only
a
is to
avoid
presence
good
soluble soap.
D.
Special
Soaps.
to the production
or,
We
may
now
turn
our
attention
of
some
perhaps,
in
supposed
are
names,
to be made
numerous
These
soaps
rather and
and
variety of
leave
a
fancy
good
prices which
margin
Medicated
Soaps.
"
A
to
large
have
no
number
of soaps
are
made
That have
which
some
are
supposed
have
some
medicinal
that
value.
others
of them
such
there is
doubt, but
an
any
open
question.
The
cess pro-
First of all
way,
or
ordinary
soap
stock in the
usual
and
the
into
this is worked
by
means
of the
crutcher,
by
giving
special substance
course,
which
gives value
character
Makers
stock
will, of which
differ in the
use
of the the
soap
same
they
will
for what
is normally
296
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
soap, but
this is
small
point
which
is of very
little moment.
Carbolic
Soaps.
"
Of
all the
various
or,
kinds
as
of medicated
calls made poses. pur-
carbolic acid,
the most
are
the chemist
it,phenol,
are
perhaps
important,
for
common
for they
are
used
household
any good soap carbolic soaps almost be used, but this is usually varied according to the
making
quality
or
Thus, the
the lowest
grades soaps
bolic of car-
soaps
made stock.
from
The
nigres
of pale
mixed
are
with
made
best grades
of these
palm
soaps
pale soaps
of tallow, bleached
a
oil, and
rosin.
plan
to
stock
the soap
quantity
are
of carbohc
made
containing should
to
This
is the minimum
value of the
quantity
soap
which
be added,
the medicinal
will be reduced
pale
nil.
the
For used.
carbohc
adding
Before quantity
best crystal acid should be be mixed with a to the soap this may
soaps
to
small
of water
make
it liquid.
usually
For
are
the of
a
moner com-
class of carbolic
soaps, which
dark The
brown
process
way,
colour,
the
crude The
run
is simple.
be
used.
in the ordinary
acid is crutched
in in the
adding and
the soap
is framed
it may
the usual
way.
Naphthol
Soap.
"
Another
disinfectant
soap
which
is
is naphthol This is made by crutchmade soap. ing sometimes into 1 cwt. of a good soap and finishing 10 lb. of naphthol In place of naphthol, be used. as usual. naphthalene may
MEDICATED
SOAPS.
297
The
makers
Sanitas,
with
them
manner
by
mixing
ordinary
soaps
in the
"
described
Sulphur
for washing disease.
soap made
Soap.
A soap containing
sulphur
is largely used
of skin
dogs, and
soaps
These
very
simply
made
good
white
and oil is employed, into it while melted, after it has been fitted,are stirred flowers of sulphur, 10 to 20 lb. to 1 cwt. of soap, a little perfume being added to improve the odour of the soap. from
tallow and
coconut
Tar
Soap,
"
black-coloured
For
tar
soap is made
and
used
it may
The
some
be used
either coalrather
more
medicinal
is free from
An
ordinary
no
objectionable
is taken
the
"
soap
stock
it
"
if
to objection
and
tar, in
quantity, making
per cent.
a smaller of about 10 per cent., sometimes in. Wood is also used in is crutched creosote
similar
soaps,
the
amount
usually
added
being
Mercurial
Soap.
"
This
is sometimes
prepared
for treating
dogs and other animals, and for preserving skins in taxidermy. It contains corrosive sublimate. One drachm of the latter compound
with 1 oz. of rectified spirit, and 4 oz. of a good soap, cut up into fine shavings, is then incorporated The by careful are whole added.
a
is dissolved
in
mortar
grinding.
Arsenical
cats,
Soap
is also frequently
and
used
for washing
dogs, A
good white
camphor,
and
other
animals,
in preserving in
a
skins.
4
formula
soap, 1
for making
oz.
this is to mix
oz.
mortar
oz.
oz.
white
arsenic, 1
soda
crystals, and
to together, adding a little water grinding the whole facilitate the ease is obmass of working until a smooth tained.
298
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
Tooth
made
a
Soap.
"
Tooth
soaps
soap,
are
made
by
taking
well-
and
neutral
tallow
and
adding
to it, while
in
molten and
condition,
starch.
:
powder,
may
prepared
chalk
as
a
quantities
be
taken
2 lb. of
guide
20
powder,
chalk, and
| lb. of
Soaps.
use are
"
Sand
Of
class of soap
of cleaning and
has
come
largely into
metals.
out under
for the
polishing
and
may,
sent
They
a
manufactured
by many
names.
makers
great
them
a
variety of fancy
all here
soap made under
We
name
include
They
the
of sand way
consist of
in the ordinary
which
been
stone,
incorporated kieselguhr
with
and
fine sand,
finely-powdered
pumice
while
is taken
The
in
melted
state, and
are
it should
ground
not
be too dry.
extent
mineral
ingredients of the
put
then
in to the
soap-maker
may
and
the soap
paste is form
a
into moulds
pressed, to consolidate
it and
The
following
formulae
will
:
"
serve
to show
of what
materials
such
soaps may
soap
be made
1. Tallow
201b.
80 20 40 40 10 15 40
i
.
Fine
2. Palm
sand
oil soap
"
"
Fine
"
"
3. Tallow
soap
oil soap
"
Coconut Fine
,,
pumice Kieselguhr
4. Tallow
"
35
15
,,
,,
Palm Red
10
5
"
"
60
25
"
earth
"
Shaving
a
Soaps,
"
Shaving
soaps
are
required
placed
to produce
on
good
and
when
the face,
SHAVING
SOAPS.
299
At the same time the soap will remain without drjring up. tender that the skin, however not have any action on must be. To make amount of such a soap a considerable may
care
is required.
coconut
The
can
be used
use
are
tallow
and
oil, and
to
both
soda
and
potash
are
in their preparation,
then
can
soaps
by
the
some
obtained. boihng
Shaving
process soap
soaps
or
a
ordinary
makes added
by
the
In has
of shaving
to
Uttle gum
of
been
promote
permanence
lathering
qualities.
or
Very
1^
2. cwt.
of soap, and
convenient
point in the
process
The
of making.
following
"
formulae
may
be followed in making
these
soaps
Cold-process
1. Tallow
.
.
Shaving
Soap.
100
.
lb.
"
Coconut Soda
12^
60
"
6 88
"
"
Lard
..12^,,
oil
25 56
"
Coconut
Soda
Potash 3. Tallow
lye at 71" Tw
"
15 100
20 52 8
"
"
Coconut
"
Soda
"
"
These may
soaps may
and the
be scented
in any
way
approve,
given
for scenting
Boiled Shaving
care
Soap.
to
"
In making
such
soap considerable
If potash
must
be taken
ensure
neutrality.
as
be employed
along
with
the
soda,
given
in the
out.
cold process
be salted
the
soap
Just
made
enough nearly^
being
300
if not from
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
soap then
well
an
boiled
excess or
so
as
to
free it
of water,
a
and
of alkali is killed
coconut
by the addition of
oil.
The
be followed
"
as
to the
fats employed.
to
These
are
toilet soaps
bodies
as
is which in about
Cold-water
that they
are
Soaps.
a
"
These copious
coconut
itis claimed
They
are
will yield
lather with
cold water.
made
chiefly from
oil
or
palm-nut
a
oil, and
They
contain
are
they
1
oz.
Antimonial
Soap,
"
Take
antimony mix
orange
and
oz.
solve dis-
in 3
oz.
caustic potash
a
lye, then
with
12
white
tallow soap to
Tannin
smooth
"
paste.
Soap,
97
lb. good
white
soap
and
3 lb. tannic
acid.
Salicyl Soap.
acid.
"
98 lb. good
white
soap
and
2 lb. salicylic
Thymol
Benzoic
Soap. Soap.
"
97 lb. good
"
98 lb. good
acid. Floating
then soap
or
Toilet Soap.
"
The
an
stock
soap
is remelted this
means
and
the
more
strongly
agitator'; by
and
becomes
with
;
air bubbles it is
now
therefore
cut
less spongy
in texture
makes
framed,
into bars,
dried, which
stamped.
it rather
lighter, cut
Skin
have
Soaps.
"
Soaps
mixed
name
"
cornflour,
been
the
Liquid
Soap.
acid, 66
then
and
lb. coconut
oil,228
when
20 lb. glycerine
enough
methylated
spirit to make
SOFT
SOAP.
301 30 lb.fuller'searth.
to the
Fuller's Earth
Soap.
"
The
fuller'searth
is thoroughly
soap, and
cent,
25 to 30 per
water.
Borax
Soap.
"
90 lb. good
"
soap and
10 lb. borax.
Soaps, Superfatted
are
''
Soaps
made
'*
often sold
as
superfatted
main
advantage
to
use
of such
soaps
are
agreeable
due to the absence Iodine Soap, 98 lb. neutral white soap and 2 lb. iodine. This should be made fresh as required as it does not keep, the iodine gradually acting on and combining with the alkali
"
with
skins,
fact
of the soap, thereby losiug its medicinal virtues. Farrier's Soap. A soft soap made from fish oil, caustic
"
Soft soap is a very important article in the soap trade ; in some districts it is very extensively manufactured, while in in comparatively Soft others it is made small quantities.
soap
is
an
amber-coloured
of butter.
to
reddish-brown
more
material
of
the consistency
It is much
soluble in water
than the ordinary hard soap, and usually rather more alkaline in its nature. Its detergent and scouring properties are, therefore, greater. The
littlesoda is
yet
a
therewith, conjunction
soft
"
be made as way with soda only, in the same hard soaps cannot be made Soft soaps owe with potash. their consistency to the fact of the greater solubility and hygroscopicity
Soft soaps
of potash
are
soaps.
more
much
simply
made
than
hard
soaps.
302
The
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
fats and
oils are
and
tion is complete,
to
is made,
and
only wants
be
run
into firkins or
as
Simple, however,
easy to make.
and
then
it is in principle, soft soap is by no means It is liable sometimes ing, to go wrong in the boilit becomes difficult matter to set it right. a
should
The
aim
be to produce
clear,
transparent
too
odour, not
in
some
cases
''figging" well.
"
streaks of peculiar appearance to strike from the sides of the vessel white usually found holding the soap inwards. Figging is usually considered to
Figging
in soft soap
is
indicate
the
case.
good
such
is not
really
A first-class be made soft soap can which will not be produced on the other hand a poor soap can
on
figging is usually ascribed to the presence of stearate of soda in the soap, which crystallises out the soap becoming cold, the crystals which are thereby giving rise to the
figging.
formed
Figging
is mostly
of
not
met
in winter time. Unless the proportion stearic acid in the soap is very large it does with
summer
soda
occur
and
in
The
seed lin-
oil,whale
oil and
cottonseed
oil. These
one
the basis
as
Linseed
gives
oil is the
a
chiefly used,
it
good
pale-coloured, transparent
odour, and
which
good
keeps well.
cheap. They
Whale
are
however
soaps,
produce
though
the
clear
but
depends
on
of
is used. Fish oil soaps have a fishy odour, " oil which Cottonseed oil makes which is not altogether objectionable. ging fairly good soft soap, pale in colour and transparent, figa is not the case well, which with the other two oils
SOFT
SOAP.
303
are
that have
to acquire
been named.
a
Cotton
on
liable,however,
quahty
the of the
rancid
oil has
The
odour
a
The
on
cottonseed the
soap.
material
refined
commoner
influence
quahty
of
best
oils produce
grades
are
pale-coloured,
transparent
soaps ; the
apt
to
give
soaps, which
owing
apt
to
to. the
contain
are
fig strongly.
is
to them occasionally added in making soft soaps, to cause fig. Olive oil soft soap is made for special purposes, such
as
silk washing,
commonly
etc., but
oHve
oil, owing
to
its cost,
nut
is
not
added
to soft soaps.
Sometimes
oil is
added.
When
case
white
soft soaps
are
required,
cotton coconut
as
is sometimes
must
the
in the tallow,
or
trade, such
be
made
a
from
good
white
oil, and
perhaps
small quantity
must
of lard
paid
to
a
other
fat, and of
be
the good
used
quality white
caustic
used,
which
The
should
be
of
caustic potash
in making
was
at
one
time prepared
pearlash
by the soap-maker
for his
by causticising
Now, ever, how-
(carbonateof potash)with
for the the smaller from
quickhme.
makers
it is the custom
ready method prepared of making
to purchase
it
alkali-maker
has
in iron drums.
already been
The
caustic potash
described
in the chapter on alkalies, page 36, and need not be repeated here. bought When an ready made, it is advisable to make examination of it to see that it is up to full strength, of good
colour, fairly free from
much,
carbonate,
Much
and
does
not
contain
grades
one
of the
are
lower
of
or
caustic potash
which
are
produced
defective in
It is advisable
least two potash
that
the
soap-maker
should
"
prepare
at
one
of 14" Tw.,
Some
makers
provide
lyes of three
SOAP
MANUFAOTUEE.
strengths, depends
on
23" Tw.
and
38" Tw.
Much
of
course
the construction
of the soap
boiler in which
one
the
is being
made.
a
If the
boiler be
which
is
weak
may
be used
heating,
advantage,
if the
with
open
may
be
as
Because
proceeds the
open
working
to get
with
weaker.
the
tendency
is for them
It is however
the soap
in pans
In
open
coils.
half
of the full
soft soap
run
charge
steam
only
of the
closed
fire it is heated
quantity of lye at
run
14" Tw.,
steam
sent
equal
in volume
Eun
to the
oil, is
open
in.
mixing
of
the
lye and
Presently
begin
to saponify, then
a^
this is seen
may
lye, equal
in volume,
be
run
in and
the
boiling continued.
Two
things
may
take place
lye may in the early stage of soap-making : the oil and In either it may or over, set into a stiff, pasty mass.
boil
case
trouble may
to turn
be looked
and
for. beat
The down
case
remedy
in the first
case
is
off steam
;
the
bubbling
soap
with
more
as
the paddle
and
tedious, because
they
they
are
of soap, and
not
easily dissolved
in the
boiling soap
in which
float.
troubles will be avoided if a quantity of finished soap be left in the pan from a preceding operation.
These
When
the
oil and
lye have
amalgamated,
then
the rest
of the charge
of oil may
be
run
in and
SOFT
SOAP.
305
be mentioned here that as a rule 100 lb. of oil require 200 lb. of caustic potash lye at 32" Tw. to saponify, so that the soap-maker may base his calculations as to the quantity of alkali required
of alkali at 32" Tw.
may
be added.
It may
on
these data.
now
The
steam
soap is coil.
or
the
closed
Generally it is not needful to stir it,the boiling keeps it in continual agitation ; it is a good plan now and agaip to send a sharp current of open steam through it or to stir it up with an iron paddle, taking special note of any
hard lumps
the pan.
of soap that may
settle down
at
the bottom
of
After
and
time
the
the
soap
plete saponification of the oil will be comformed. To ascertain this, take out a
a
sample of the
soap with
spatula, and
one
place it
on
piece
soap the
may soap
be
clear and
that
is properly
strength. has
a
only
boiling down
2. The
case
to the proper
spot
of cold soap
fatty border.
In
this
add
more
as of either 23", or even up a httle longer, when another how the soap is progressing.
some
the
boil
see
be drawn
to
3. The
spot of soap
granular
is of
grey
somewhat
in appearance. and
to remedy
this
a
case
too
much
been
has
added,
this
quantity
lye
of oil
been
the
mixed
soap
with
little weak
further.
should
be
added, and
boiled up
The
experienced
tell by the manner soap-maker can of the soap boiling how itis lye or oil. The more progressing and whether it wants boiling ing. should go on quietly, free from any jumping or bumpThe
boiling down
is carried 20
on
until
sample
taken
306
out
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
and
cooled
on
the proper
consistency
and
of potash, which
too much
a
motes promust
brightness, but
will become much
not
be
added,
or
on
the
thin, and
the
ness white-
will form
it.
lye induces
same
fect. de-
coupled
with
the
habit of careful
to tell when
enable
the soap-maker
he
When
finished the
soft soap
is
run
firkinsor
other packages
to cool, when
a
it is ready
a
Linseed
pleasant
oil yields
soap of
dark
amber
colour, with
odour.
Whale
dark reddish
somewhat
in colour
to the quality
having
a
fishy smell.
Other
be used with
similar result.
soap varying
to
from
golden to
an
colour, according
Freshly
made
are
cotton-oil soaps
rather
free from
being kept
odour.
apt to
become
rancid and
to greenish
oil gives
oil gives
gives
a a
green-coloured
soap.
soap.
fine white
stiffsoap, apt to fig somewhat. depends colour of the finished soap much
on
the
care
and
no
attention given to the soap during the process of making, There is the manner of heating the soap pan. also on
doubt
a
but
that
produces
darker
than
steam-heated
soap is of pan by
sumers con-
to be preferred.
Light-coloured
soaps
preferred
a
to dark-coloured
soaps, and
command
readier sale.
SOFT
SOAP.
307
The
following mixtures
of oils may
be used
"
1 ton.
These
last
having
first two.
the two
than the
oils may
E. Palm
Tallow oil
Linseed F.
oil
24 tons. i IJ
"
m
3^ 1^
2
"
"
G.
Cotton
Tallow
oil
"
J
oil
In 21 2
"
Linseed
H.
cwt.
"
IJ tons.
7
cwt.
Many
other mixtures
oil
"
may
be used.
1 ton.
I. Coconut
Tallow
Lard
4" ^
"
This will yield a soft white soap. figging is brought about Sometimes
by using
littlesoda
along
lOOO 32" 160 32"
for instance, in the following recipe : boiled with 536 lb. caustic potash lye at
as,
Tw.,
to start the
saponification.
and
Then
there
are
added
lb. potash
Tw.
308
The
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
2J
to
2J times the
weight
Good
10 per
and
of water
; some
samples
as
have
as
as
low
as
much By
50 per cent.
using any of the above recipes a pure soft soap is and competition, some made, but for the sake of cheapness at a cheaper price by using such samples are filledand made
materials
moss,
as
and
agent for soft soaps owing to its making a soap having good detergent properties. When using rosin it is a good plan to saponify by itself and then from the other oils. Some makers add it to the soap made
employ
soda to convert
over
case
the
rosin is melted
another pan
water
in
pan, steam-jacketed
are
while
a
in
ordinary
soda
crystals
dissolved in
56
small
quantity
of water.
The
proportions
The
are
in small quantities at a time, waiting until all effervescence before adding each succeeding quantity of soda. After ceases the soap is boiled up for a short time to finish all is added
the saponification.
When
this is completed
into the pan of soft soap. Should the colour of the finished soap be.a matter
and
as
portance of im-
rosin of the
soap, then
an
usual
run
of grades
may
produces
darkish-coloured
improvement
"
be eflfected
either of the following plans using a better grade The rosin of rosin, or purifying it by the following piocess. is saponified by soda, as described above, then the rosin soap
by adopting
is salted out by the addition of ordinary salt and for the soap to settle out. Then the lye is run
it
a
time allowed
off,and
of the
with
rosin
large proportion
of the
colouring
matter
SOFT
SOAP.
309
The
soap.
rosin
soap
thus
purified may
be
added
to
the
soft
The
seventh
proportion
to one-tenth
of rosin which
may
be added
may
be
one-
The
way
:"
following
recipes may
be followed
in the ordinary
A.
Linseed
Tallow Rosin
oil
"
"
"
"
B.
Linseed
260
"
Cottonseed
Rosin
oil
250 50
"
"
600
145
"
"
25
a
"
colour of
its sale
"
soft soap is
matter
more
of importance
as
readily it sells.
of
rosin is used there is a very considerable darkening if the plan of purifying described above colour, even
Even
when
pure
be
a*dopted.
the
oils are
fireheat is employed.
Too
Steam
this account.
of the
prolonged
boiling
be
darkening
colour, and
should
of the
for
soft
soap
is silicate of potash.
or
It has
advantages
of
has
having
some
body washing
consistency,
power, and
is clear
what
and
more
transparent,
is
is easily used.
Silicate of potash is used by itself and also in soap-makers add at the same with farina. Some caustic potash, but this is not necessary.
The soap while still hot
to cool down
conjunction
time
some
should
to about
be
run
and
allowed
180" F. ; then
cate sili-
firkin of soap, is
310
run
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
in and
crutched
The
quahty
70" Tw.
of silicate
to bring cwt.
gravity
4" Tw.,
then
add
this liquor to 10
to
of
the
it is ready
mix
with
If farina is used
then 1 cwt.
in
with conjunction
and
of farina is taken
carbonate mucilage
of potash
clear transparent
is obtained.
the
This is added
(10 cwt.)and
proportions,
cwt. of soap.
mixture
in the
required
which
will be at about
the rate
of 20 lb. to the
Another the
method
is much
on
above
in silicate of potash
a
at the
to prepare
and
caustic soda
The
lye, and
crutch
mixture.
starch
preparation heating
by taking
or
to about at
160"
adding
each
farina in small
quantities
time,
is added
is obtained,
mixture
of ordinary
soap
Irish
or
jelly.The
made
from
be the ordinary
other cheap
pale
better, one
The
bone
fats, without
rosin.
at 100" Tw.
manner
:
The
are
is jelly
in the
an
following
hour, to
27 lb.
steeped
and
a
in cold water
away
for half
wash
dirt and
sand ; 65 gallons
to
placed in
moss
wooden
tub and
and
heated
the boil.
the cleaned
is added
the whole
DEY
SOAPS.
311
to enable it to keep
an
it is drained
oflf, nd a
time
Irish
small
moss or
quantity of caustic potash lye may be jelly, unfortunately, does not keep any
it might
length of time,
uses
otherwise
find very
many
more
than
One
cwt.
of the soap
is sliced
the
then jelly,
1 J cwt.
near
of silicate of soda is
mixture
kept
when
the
boil until
all
for
are
thoroughly
and it may
incorporated,
the
filling is ready
at the rate
use,
be added
to the
soft soap
of 8 to 10
time
to time
other
filling agents
sooner
or
are
offered, but
themselves and
generally prove
unsatisfactory, and
later make
of the soap-maker
his trade.
this,as in many
a
The
author's
shows
that in
like supplying
and maintain
a
genuine
article to enable
to build up
good trade.
DRY
SOAPS,
SOAP
POWDERS.
Dry
years
soaps,
as an
they
are
called, have
during
become
^o
not
important
much
branch
of the
soap
industry.
greater
They
vary
in their composition,
of ordinary
others
are
the and
number
of them
some
being composed
are
soap
sodium
makes,
carbonate ;
sold under
are
scented,
names, some
not.
Some
special
contain
other
constituents
to the
which
supposed The
to give
special value
soap.
process
of manufacture
many
is very
simple, and
its simplicity
has induced
persons
to take up
the manufacture
some
care
of dry
soaps.
Still, even
though
simple,
must
A needs be exercised to turn out a dry soap of good quality. first-ratedry soap should be in a fine powder, smooth, not gritty to
together
the
feel, not
nor
exhibit
any
to
aggregate
way.
in lumps,
a
in any
soap
It is considered
sine qua
of
good
that
it
312
SOAP
MANUFAGTUEE.
should
lather freely.
as
We
may
proceed
to make
to the character
of the materials
which
making
The
dry soaps.
Soap.
"
This, the
in this class of
goods, should
known another
as
be present
contains
One
of the best
makes has
as
from
as
much
30 per cent.,
are
get down
name
as
low
more
dry soaps A
only in
and
to put
or
less frauds
on
the
public.
The
fair quantity
ought
to
in is
from from
soap
as
be well made
free fat and
materials, but
a
as
free
possible
from
"
containing
small proportion
more
of water
15 per cent, is a
than
20 per from
cent, should
ought
or
to
be
made
palm
of
or
a
oil
coconut
oil,give hard
of such
small quantity
oils as
cotton
other oils,or
oil, hnseed
not
; too objectionable
should
be used,
as
then the
soap
becomes almost
so
comes it be-
impossible
A
palm
good oil,
is made
from
40 lb. bleached
oil. Another
mixture
is 40 lb. palm
oil.
yellower-coloured
soap
this is
is
sometimes
by
customers.
mixture
40 lb. bleached
palm
oil,20
lb. tallow, 10
lb. Hnseed
the soap
oil. is made
But
of fat from
no
which
it will
serve
good
purpose
to enumerate
them
Sodium
crystals.
Carbonate.
This
is used
the
a
in the
soap
form
show
of soda
Occasionally, should
pasty
dry
signs of
becoming
during
working,
small quantity
in the form
to combine
This appears
DBT
SOAPS.
313
with the
excess
of moisture
the pastiness
Glauber's
sodium
Salt,
"
This
which
soap
is
in
crystallised
sulphate,
the
to dry
place of soda
cheapening
an
be able to turn
article at
the
best grade
soaps, and
of dry soaps.
Borax
material
is occasionally added
to add
; the only
to dry
is
very good
objection
to it is that it is expensive.
Phosphate
of soda has
been
added
to dry
writer
a
sees
no
very material
any
advantage detergent
in ita addition.
neutral
salt, without
properties, while it is
of
wax
or
to
dry
2
quantity
added
more
oftener not
It is generally
conceded
that
Perfumes of various kinds are properties of soap. often added, but the best known makes are not scented at all, and such odour ad they possess is due to the fats used in
washing
sometimes
added
for various
on
reasons
to
Such
will be mentioned
later
; the above
form
it were
Every
his
own
manner
of working.
The
underlies
and
the
great
of majority This
mill,
the processes
may
is to grind
the soap
means
salts together.
either by
or
when then
crystals
Glauber's
in and
there
gradually is sometimes
worked
a
this manner
tendency
be too soft. In such an event it may by throwing in a small quantity of 58 per cent,
alkali.
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
difficulty is that
A
the edgerunner.does
not
grind fine
to
better plan
is to
in
dry
use
an
edgerunner
mix
ingredients, and
grind
devil disintegrator.
and works
a
This
is admirable
any
for grinding
soap
better than
of great
other form
product
fineness, which
is
very important
at.
should always
Another is to
The
be aimed
plan
the they
which
is sometimes heating
them
followed
melt
water
by
in
pan.
contain,
water
then
add
of
grind up in the usual way. in this process over the one Having
above.
and
described
some
the
materials
the method
of
making,
soaps.
recipes may
be given
for making
various dry
Standard
Dry
Soap.
"
Dry
Soap.
"
Soap.
"
crystals, 5 lb.
Borax
Dry
Soap.
"
25
crystals, 5 lb.
can
borax,
from
10 lb. refined
25 lb. soap,
alkali.
be made
10 lb. refined
15 lb. borax.
Dry Paraffin
Soap.
"
Soap.
"
7 lb. oatmeal.
be added
to any
extent
and of any
character
the soap-maker
desires.
Dry Disinfectant
Soaps.
"
be the
means
of
DEY
SOAPS.
315
applying
disinfectants, which
as
are
simply added
in the desired
which
is hquid
desirable to reduce
the proportion
of soda
crease in-
powder,
or
some
absorbent,
to the soap.
over
Hke
kieselguhr
or
French method
chalk, may
has
some
be added
advantage
Perhaps
the latter
the former
plan.
is called washing
It might
perhaps soda
be added
that what
crystals ground
a
up
with
littlesoap,
blue
is
Sometimes
soap
m
little ultramarine
to take away
the
dry
order
so
any
yellowish
tinge it might
A
possess, and
make
it appear
or
blue dry soap has been made which less than ordinary dry soap, to which
has
been
added
are :
"
The
now
on
following
the market
few
analyses
of dry
soaps
that
are
are
made
with sodium
are
"
carbonate.
with
following carbonate:
some
made
Glauber's
salt and
CHAPTER
GLYCERINE
IN
VIII.
SOAP
LYES.
When
an
oil is saponified
as
one
by
boiling with
caustic alkali^
of the reaction.
glycerine is formed
of the products
proportion of glycerine yielded by the different oils variesconsiderably ; thus the characteristic ingredient of butter fat, butyrin, will yield as much 30 per cent, of glycerine, while as brassin, the characteristic constituent of rape oil, will only The average percentage of yield 8*7 per cent, of glycerine.
The
glycerine yielded by
various oils and fats :
"
fats is about
10.
Allen
the
to the
Oil.
Glycerine
per cent.
Porpoise
X1'09
11-96 11*10
Whale
Menhaden Lard Tallow Butter fat
?
. .
10-83
9-9-10-O
.
.
11-06
10-1.11-4 9-82 9*94 9-60 9*39 913
OUve
Rape Sesame
Cottonseed
Linseed Castor
Coconut
Palmnut
Palm
12-11
11-70
9-71
the latter soap, and on being salted out in the soap-kettle, remains in the spent lyes. it was Formerly thrown away, but of late years the demand
This
glycerine
passes
into the
attention
to be paid to processes
for
GLYCERINE
IN
SOAP
LYES.
317
the recovery
which,
11548
of the glycerine from the spent lyes, a sample of by the author, had a specific gravity of examined
and
(30-90Tw.)
contained
:"
Glycerine
is
an
absolutely
glycerine glycerine, and the ordinary commercial generally has a specific gravity of 1*260 to 1*263, and contains
a
little water.
It has
as
sweet
taste, and
was
originally
in the
**
known
in consequence
the sweet
as the glycerine industry the crude material is known The With water it mixes in all proportions. water".
sweet
following
table
showing
the
specific gravities
and
strengths useful
:
"
of
various mixtures
of these two
TABLE
OF
SPECIFIC
GRAVITIES SOLUTIONS
OF
AND
STRENGTHS
OF
AQUEOUS
GLYCERINE.
Specific gra"ity 15" C. Per cent, of glycerine.
Specific gravity
1-2660
1-2625
100 99
98
1-1990 1-1865
11716
75
70
65 60 65 60 46 40 35 30 25 20 16 10 5
1-2600
1-2675 1-2660 1-2626 1-2499
97
1-1670
1-1430 1-1290 1-1166 1-1020 1-0885
96
96
94
1-2473 1-2447
1-2421
93
92 91 90
88
1-0750
10620 1-0490
1-2395
1-2341 1-2287 1-2233
.
86
84 82
1-0365
1-0240
1-2179
1-0120
1-2126
80
318
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Glycerine
in ether. A
slightly
so
of chloroform
and
benzene,
for salts,
spirit and
oils. It is
powerful
solvent
It is composed
oxygen
in the
proportions
CgHgOg
; in its relationships
it belongs
of organic compounds,
hydrochloric
acids, such monobasic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, it is capable of with
the
forming
compounds
containing
OH,
and
one,
two
or
three equivalents
the formula
therefore having
OH OH OH
D3H5}
and
be
mentioned
that
by
looseness of
glycerine is often spoken expression which is very common, of as the base of the oils and fats, yet glycerine as such does during the various not exist in the oils, but is formed of the real base processes of saponification by the combination
glyceryl, C3H5, with the radicle hydroxyl.
are
The Heated
strong
sulphuric acid
and
it energetically, forming
formed
manner
of the
is carried
Heated
with
in
the
presence
of caustic carbonic
manner,
potash, glycerine
as
this reaction
advantage
in
definite
of for the
quantitative
estimation
of
GLYCEBINE.
319
When
takes
these
glycerine is heated
ethers
are
place, and
have
and
many
palmitin,
with
the prefix
mono,
as
of the acid
are
combined
show
lent equiva-
Chemists,
to
the* analogy
to it the
between
glycerine
name
given
systematic
use
thought
better to
the
more
familiar term
The
first attempt
made
glycerine from
lyes
was
by Eeynolds
essentially
in evaporation
a
great many
have
been
to
devised.
a
depend
lyes.
large
upon
the
soap
It is largely
influenced
to
by such
the
alkali used
it be from high grade caustic lyes, whether caustic soda, low grade caustic soda, or by causticising soda ash or black ash lyes. The character of the fats and rosins make
effect on the method of extraction to be will also have some Fuller and King's process, devised Messrs. Thomas, adopted.
the lye
so
as
to throw
a
much
as
boiled with
little acid and the fatty matter after which the liquor is again
comes
the crude
glycerine
left behind
is
to subjected
distillation.
boils down
that separates
Young
by
means
neutralises the used lyes with acid and of steam, filtering oflfany fatty matter Whiting
out. to
a
paste, which
is next added and the mixture evaporated is then placed in a hydro-extractor ; the
the glycerine is collected and
to subjected
acid to neutrahse
the
lyes and
separate
any
320
fatty matter
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
that may
collect, then
adds
tannic
the albuminous
down off, the liquor evaporated and then the caustic lyes used to saponify the fats
distilled. When
are
black ash
compounds
or
crude
are
very
such
cyanide
which be adopted
have
boils to neutralise the caustic alkali which is next added the lyes. To the mixture
may
be present in
acid,
hydrochloric
which may separates out the rosin or fatty matters which be present ; then there is added ferric chloride, which precipitates in the form of Prussian blue; compounds any cyanogen
these
are
filtered off.
a
Air is
now
blown
in for
powder
some
time,
after which
small
quantity
of bleaching
is added,
in the of the sulphur compounds which precipitates most form of free sulphur, which is filtered off ; next the liquor is neutralised by the addition of soda and then evaporated down.
Messrs. Allen
and
NicholFs
process
the precipitation of the and ferrocyanides, together with sulphides, sulphocyanides The precipitate is the fatty matter which may be present. by filtration, soda is added to neutralise the free removed sulphate, which and distilled. acid and the liquor boiled down These are but a few of the processes which patented The
have
been
of separating glycerine from soap lyes. in any process which is to be comto merciall objects be aimed at
successful,
fatty matters of the
are
the
removal
which
may
be present -in
and of all albuminous in the lyes ; the removal process, and, thirdly,
salt which
is deposited
the
in concentration and treatment the exercise of economy in The following method of extracting crude glycerine is
BECOVEBING
GLYCERINE.
321
Qse.
The
lye is evaporated
in
an
iron
tank
to
specific
gravity of 40" to 50" Tw. ; this evaporation may be conducted in shallow pans heated by a steam rator, coil from another evapoflue leading from the by placing the pan over or a
second
boiling pan
the concentration
to cool, and
will be referred to presently. After into a tank and then allowed the lye is run
which
or
any
fatty
soapy
matter
which
may
separate
sent back
To the liquor
is next
causes
added
quantity
of caustic soda
at 70" Tw.
matter,
This
of the
albuminous
way.
which
is
separated
convenient
To
the
liquor
is next
acid to make
and
plan
that
is adopted
the
fatty matter
series of
stone,
are
above
an
the
other, and
between
to
there is
arrangement
the
of syphon of the
that the
one
lye
can
be
run
a
from
bottom
top
to the
below
it, and
similar arrangement
The
is adopted
the
throughout of the
a
series.
running collection
and
off from
on
bottom
of
permits
of the
the
surface
fairly
the lye
large proportion
of the soapy
fatty matter
which
contains ; this is neutralised and sent back the lye being dealt with as described above.
One
are
on
on
salt the
crystallises out
the steam
the surface
may
of the for
boiling tanks
the purpose
coils which
be used
of heating
these pans
; this leads to
considerable
of the salt,
to the non-conducting
powers
to
it becomes
necessary
on
to
take
steps
prevent
steam
this
coils,
to the
are
kettle and
to this end
adopted.
21
322
Figure
as
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
59 is a sketch
seen,
of
will be
is heated
being such
of the pan.
that the
This
heating
pan
is made
perforated
The salt
sides.
as
vessel, which
from
Fig.
59.
out and
the
salt emptied
into
draining
which
The
liquor is concentrated
until it reaches
boiling
it constitutes crude glycerine. point of 300" F., when have been One of the most successful processes which devised for the separation of crude glycerine is that of Messrs. Thomas is represented in figures 60 and and Domier, which
OLYCERINE
PLANT.
323
61. The lye isfirst tank or a flue concentrated in eithera coil, boilingpan, from whence it is run into a tank. The concentration of the liquidduring the boihng has the effect causof ing
on
"
PLAN
Fig. 60.
added 1 or 2 per cent, of hydrochloric acid, which causes the decomposition of any soap that may be present,precipitates any albuminous and fatty matter together with other
for impurities, and these, on the lye being allowed to stand twenty-four hours, come up to the surface and are collected The Hquor is next placed in a boiling pan and boiled down,
324
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
RECOVERING
GLYCERINE.
325
which
may pan
be done
heated
boiling
from
time to time.
which
In
will be
seen,
the
steam
is generated
from
the
varied
works.
boiling vessel is used for the purpose of concentrating be This process may the lye in a coil boiling pan. to suit the character at different of the lyes made
The
salt contains
large proportion
into
deal
trough
and
washed
good
with colouring matter, this brine being sent into the tanks to be passed through the process ; the salt is thrown into the cage of a hydro-extractor, and then
of the lye together
lye extracted from it. The salt is then sufl"ciently pure to be used in salting out fresh batches of soap. The crude glycerine obtained in the above processes is
a
brine
ling charcoal and distilrefined by a process of filtering through in a vacuum but for the details of this the reader is still,
referred to chemical
dictionaries.
CHAPTER
LAYING OUT
A
IX.
SOAP FACTORY.
there of any article of manufacture production in the financial point of producing it at the comes always lowest possible cost. has not only to consider the cost One in the production of the goods, of the materials employed in this but but other expenses connected and there is much
"
In
the
"
therewith,
works,
management
and
While
vary
from
be such
may
difiference
works
be working
expenses.
good
profit, another
only be
justpaying
In the
first case,
probably,
considerable
works
of the
the
cost
machinery
while
and
plant;
a
of labour
fuel is low;
there is also
case
large output
works
In the other
the
is probably
cases
old
one,
from
and works
the is high
cost of labour
too.
fuel is apt
while
rent
In
one
entirely confined
and
to that
which
is
but little,and
of the
a
that the
required
in the handling
about
raw
and
finished
of
This
and
is brought arrangement
by
judiciouslanning p
machines,
of the
various
that
the
materials
without
travel from
much
one
to the other
In another
scattered
irregularly, and
the
in transferring
materials
PLANNING
SOAP
FACTOBY.
327 and is
from
a
one
machine
nQost
important
There
position
the
is another
of the works.
to the
item to be
In works
these days
at the away
materials
lowest
with the least expense. Therefore the situation of the works in regard to the point of facilitiesfor the delivery of its raw materials, fuel, etc., is important an question, and requires careful consideration.
to send
The
is that
one
or
which
will have
facilities
It should
be by
the
one an
of these
means
of transport ; if close to
away
its
finished
the
works
means,
products,
means
while
possibly
canal
raw
best
or
is situated
then
distance
from and
the expense
of carting
are
to
fro becomes
great,
other compensating
advantages,
will tend to reduce the profits very materially. There is also another point to consider, and
that is the
a
question
of water
of water,
supply. hence
he
The
must
soap-maker
have
a
uses
large
plentiful supply of The this article at, needless to say, the lowest possible cost. w^ater should also be of good quality, the softer and freer from
quantity
the better. At every soap-works there magnesia to be a well from which be pumped the water may ; ought this supply may, if the works be in a large town, be supplemented
lime
and
froip the
town
supply.
On
the question
of water
reference may be made to Chapter V., p. 170 et seq. In selecting a site for a soap-works there must
also be
considered
ravsr
proximity
to the
means
sources
of supply
and
of fuel and
of freight
cheap
low
rates
to the works,
also proximity
are
to the markets
of sale of the
con
questions
of pro and
which
328
can
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
hardly
be considered
in
an
stances circumwill
A London
a
soap-works
to pay
more
Manchester
the
raw
soap-works,
account
distance from
source
of supply.
rather
On
the other
materials
at hand
cheaper, products.
In
and
much
larger market
for its
planning
and
a
soap-works
many
points have
to be considered,
variety of factors
a
taken
which of the
an
influence, various
in
marked and
manner,
the
so
buildings
which
machinery,
that
arrangeme
would
economical
costly to
some
one
for
one
place, would
It may
and
work
these
at another.
profitable to discuss
In the
of
factors before
going
the
farther.
manner
first place it is
the fuel and
raw
advisable to consider
materials, etc., reach
"
in which
whether
the works,
by canal, rail,river
or all these ; the plans being drawn so road, either by one that the least possible labour is required in putting these into
or
again is the question of sending away the labour the finished products, with a view of keeping down item of putting these on boats or on rail for sending away to
position for
use.
Then
all-important question of the size and is to be erected, the works on shape which of the ground irregular in shape. flat or sloping, rectangular or whether A flat site is better than a sloping site,and in some respects
Then
comes
the
rectangular
piece of ground
is easier to plan
out
than
an
irregular piece.
Next quantity
comes
of subject
out
the
a
output
or
of finished goods
be sent
at
given
time.
Combined
with this is also the question of the character of the kind of soap only or many kinds, one goods made, whether Thus it and the character and extent of the processes used.
OPEN
YARD
! I
TOIL
TWO
FLOORS
TOP
FT
FLOOR
MAOHYNERY
SOAP
DOXINfi
_.
LABELLING
.
I
I
OPEN
ENQIMq^
BOTTOM
FLOOR
BOX
MAKING
I I I
I
I
YARD
PACKING
STORING
I
[^^\^-^"^^^^^"^^^
SCALE
!^^^"^^$^^^^^^^
20
30
01
To
face page,
329.
PLANNING
SOAP
FACTORY.
329
decided bougbt
wbetber
tbe
soap-maker
shall make
his
solid caustic, by
alkali,or by making
these depend
causticising soda ash or the alkali outright from salt. Upon all
and
extent
the character
of the machinery
to
be fitted up, and therefore the size of the buildings. in There is also another Soap has to be wrapped point. into boxes and labelled. The question packets and packed
arises, will the printed matter
done
soap-maker and
of the
undertake
the production
of all This is
as
needful
packing
boxes ?
advantage
in many
considerable
to
principle in the arrangement of a works ought to be in a carried out as far as possible, that is to perform work
progressive machine
and
same
manner,
an
the goods
manner
travelling
without and
the
out
from
in
orderly
too
without
travelling
or,
backwards
words,
forwards
raw
the
enter
ground,
in other
one
materials
other
at
end
and
pass
at the
end
in
of finished products.
Assuming
100 tons
up
on
a
that week
works
out
some
of various
be fitted
of the
works.
There
in figure 62, which is an outline plan four blocks of buildings of two are front block
storeys in height.
The
(D E) in the plan
This
which
is
an
shown
contains
goods
are
lodge-keeper's sundry
and
small
fittings store-room
and chemist's
a
behind,
over
laboratory
important
to adjuncts
soap
factory.
the manager's
right-hand
;
block (B)
figures 62
830
ally of two
doors,
as
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
shown
in B
in figure 64 ; and
in figure
vMmm^'^^
OD
IE
63, which
is
sectional elevation
boilers
PLANNING
SOAP
FACTORY.
331
are
^hawTL
iszliich
may
be of aay
ia
TAWKS
B
" OAP
1-W
FRAMES
CItUTCHEftS
\h
may
be fitted to the pans, or beaters such as shown in figure Close to this is a water tower, this tower also acting as 32. On the top of the for the hoist and for the pump. house
PLANNING
SOAP
FACTOEY.
331
are
shown
which
a
may
be of any
one.
shown
in
figure 29 being
shown, and may
good
These
supported
on
pillars as
tion composi-
be surrounded
the heat
as
by non-conducting
much
as
to economise
are
possible.
These
a
pans
convenient
so
storey forms
working
platform
are
for them.
arranged the
room are
As
shown
one
in the plan,
at the
along
side and
The
other
as
portion, arranged
and
the
"
side of a frame
The
building
and
is in
the
the
lower
to hold
engines
frames
65,
shown
in
the
figure
second
made
by
space
W.
Neill
the
Son.
On
floor the
filled with
salt, which keeping
pans kept
forms
on
very
convenient
store
for the
a
is
it
sides about
one
foot high
a gallery on which side of it runs is placed the tanks (figure 26) for melting and storing the fats, the barrels containing the latter being run ways up inclined gang-
within
bounds.
Along
at either end
of the gallery
as
shown
in figure 64.
The
gallery enables the fat tanks to be so placed that the melted into the soap pans direct. Should, however, fats can be run it be considered not desirable that the fats be melted in tanks
so
placed, but
more
on
level with
the
soap
pans, then
it
will be needful to either melt them in a blower such as figure 27, or to pump fat from the tanks to the pans. the melted If convenience is desired for making small lots of soap, then be found for a pan like that shown in figure 30, room may
which
is
small steam
jacketed pan
made
by Messrs.
for making
Dopp soap
if convenience
is also needed
by the cold process, then room may also be found for a few in figure 31. Above the soap pans pans hke that shown should be arranged shafting to drive any agitators which
may
or
beaters such
tower,
as
shown
in figure
as
32.
a
water
this tower
pump.
also acting
house
for the
On
332
tower
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
is placed
steam
water
which
pipes
and
are
laid to
the
or
the
water
boilers, soap
This
of
water
a
lye tanks
wherever
a
is wanted.
means
is kept
well
spring by
pump. formed
means
As
there
great deal
attached
to to
of condensed
pipes be
the various
soap pans,
taken
collect
the pump
to the tower,
while which
pans
so
while to arrange
through through
coils and
and
the
jackets the of
be
sent
condensers,
condensed
water
formed
or, preferably, to the either to the tower to be preferred to well lye tanks, for, being pure, it is much
also sent
or
spring water
A
on
storeys
on
the left-hand
on
on
In this building is carried side of the works. the making of toilet soap, boxing, labelling and printing floor is the box-making the top floor, while in the bottom
and
storing
are
here.
own
boxes
and
do its own
an
printing
open
yard
far
as
possible.
Surrounding
for the
of the works
between
block
and
C.
The
are
lower
frame
in it
also placed
42
and
43.
The
"
first is
barring
is
machine
a
made
by
Messrs.
naade
W.
J. Fraser
by Messrs.
and
Neill "
barring
firm.
shown
stores
on case
a
tablet-cutting
made
Continental
as are
Stamping
is also done
On
the
by
such
are
machines
placed
may the
in figure 44.
and
top floor
alkali
figure 25.
the
These
be placed in which
the tanks
nearest
boiling house,
soap
pans,
or
PLANNING
SOAP
FACTOEY.
333
may
be placed
used
to
two to
on
be
send
case
pumps pans.
must
not
soap
The
yard
contains
the
other
boiler houses,
work
the
engine
for the
machinery,
recovery
chimney,
house, while
water-tank
there
glycerine
storage of
is also
tanks
if necessary.
that the thence
raw
It will be observed
products
are
boiling house
into C
B ; from up
passes
to be cut
and
stamped
to A,
it is labour
packed
and
ready
to be sent
away.
The
of handling
is reduced
continuous
to
minimum,
while it is
conveyers
to
impossible
carry
mechanical
the
soap
from
place to place.
a
plan of
smaller works,
consisting
and
main
blocks of buildings,
one
The
or
general
description
more
so some
planned,
however,
at
that
enlargement
a
could
new
be carried out
if required could be
boiling house
having
The
the
built by
side of the
one
shown,
boiler house
are
between.
to be put forward
as
plans
not intended
some
finished
may
of the general
out
at
be worked
they
upon
must
in the
laying
of
soap
ously Obvi-
be altered
as was
various
times
to suit local
circumstances,
indicated
above, while
of
course
the
character of the soaps made, and therefore of the machinery have some to be employed, must material influence upon the
of the plant.
CHAPTER
SOAP ANALYSIS.
X.
Soap
manufacturers
of other makers'
may
a
may
contain.
Occasionally
the
they
desire to
particularly
Such
constituents
as
of
particular
alluded to,
information
a
is here
"
chemical
analysis
more
or
less
of the sample
when
being made.
Soap,
pure, consists essentially *ofthree substances, less intimate or water, in a state of more
in any
so,
process
of soap-making
it is impossible,
fat which
nearly
to completely
is used, soap
free and free and of
cases
usually contains
conditions, i.e.,
combined,
while
the
alkali may
the fat.
the
be present, partly
partly combined
with
In the great
majority
to
it suffices to determine
a
above
constituents
soap. elaborate
more
analysis
is required, and
silicate of soda, salt and sulphate of soda have been added for various may and other bodies which desire to know the Then reasons. may again a soap-maker
constituents,
nature
the sample.
of the
Free
fat,
fat,
Sodium
Sodium
Borax,
Combined
Free
Mineral
Glycerine,
SOAP
ANALYSIS,
335
Notwithstanding
the
as
^reat
advance
to
in the
practice
of
analytical chemistry
prepared
applied
products
from
them,
stillmuch
in every
perfection, and
a
boast that he
exact
come
has given
perfectly true
report
as
to
the
composition
under
of any
his notice.
commencing
analysis of any
to obtain
a
particular
piece
of it,and herein we may briefly touch upon a point of diflSculty that the soap analyst must guard against if he desires to obtain good results. been made for some
that there is central from
on
of soap it is of great
importance
good
sample
If
one
that has
time, be cut
a
it will be
observed
than
are
the outside
skin which
Now,
is harder
the
portion
outer
of
and
the
bar.
if portions
taken
the
bar, and
analysed,
it
will be found
skin containing
that
different results
less water
are
obtained,
the
the
outer
much
than
inner
portion.
Now
as
portions for the different constituents, it is obvious that concordant results will not be obtained unless the analyst is exceedingly careful in selecting his sample and in cutting it In order to avoid this dijS"culty many up. analysts have
devised
only
one
schemes
for the
analysis
Some
of
sample
of soap have
from
not
weighed
portion.
of these
one
schemes
and
of
or
two
of these will be
such
schemes and
is that
they
considerable
Then,
time
to work
through,
soap
often time is
some
element.
again,
may
the
some
is
to subjected
on
operations
of the other
as
which
have
effect
the
character that
constituents
the
preliminary
soap
is dried, then
the heat
necessary
for this purpose bring about the saponification of some may free fat with the free alkali present, and the soap would be
336
as
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
returned
neutral
when
it may
really be alkaline.
reasons
Again,
if the soap
latter might
be treated
for certain
with
alcohol, the
the complete
saponification of
free alkali.
On making
the whole
if
care
be taken
in sampling
the
soap and
all weighings
at the
same
time,
it will be found
better, and
quite
as
good
results will be
obtained, to
estimations. Water
use
different samples
in Soap.
an
"
Clean
a
thoroughly
and
heat
for
short
basin, then porcelain evaporating scrape the sample of soap allow to cool, and weigh it. Then into the basin. Next into fine shreds and weigh 10 grammes time
over
air bath
into
hot-air
oven
heated
to about
allow
to
cool
in
desiccator;
an
then hour,
weigh
again
it. Next
allow to
replace
cool, and
it in the weigh
oven
it ; repeat
operations
until there is no
be taken as The loss of weight may further loss of weight. soaps a littleof the spirit water, although if in transparent
be left in, it will
the water.
Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight Loss
also
an
be
volatilised and
:
"
reckoned
with
To
of basin of basin of soap
take
+
example
Grammes.
soap
36-368
25-368
taken
10*000 basin
of soap and
of soap and
basin
(B) (A)
X
35-368
33-276
2-092
of weight
2092 10
=
20-92.
2092
the water
It has
one
slow and
taking
some
to do.
that
is the soap is in
suitable condition to
described
by
Watson
Smith.
ALKALI
IN
SOAP.
337
An
evaporating basin with a short length of glass rod is 5 grammes of the soap to be weighed, and into it is weighed basin and its contents a are tested. The placed on sand
over
a
bath
bunsen
burner
is readily perceptible. The heating is then stopped, to cool, when they the basin and its contents allowed
the loss being the water
soap
weighed,
Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
Loss
in the soap.
Qrammes.
36'979 31-879
6*000 36-879 35*853 1026
of weight 1026
X
20
20*52.
method
of soap there is 20*52 per cent, of water. of working, carefully followed, gives good
Alkali
two
in Soap.
free and
"
The
alkali in soap
A good
may
be present
in
forms,
combined.
any
sample
of well-made diflBiso
soap
should
not contain
a
it is very
any, and
cult to make
the
best of soaps
only
frequently
means
present.
to
It is
when
special
have
been
taken
prevent
its
The
this constituent.
is combined
with
the
fat to
form
the soap.
The
or
as
carbonate
the
removed
in the finishing
operations ; the latter, when present, has usually been added It will be convenient if we firstdescribe as a fillingmaterial. the estimation of the total alkali in the soap, then the free
alkali both
Total
as
hydroxide in
and
"
Alkali
Soap.
of the
soap
are
338
out
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
weighed
boiling.
as
and
the
dissolved
in 100
much
to
150
c.c.
of water
by
To
solution
a
as
methyl
orange
is added from
run
a
will
justimpart
a
yellow
tint to the
liquid ; then
burette
in
The
normal
standard
a
solution of sulphuric
pink coloration
the of
acid is
(titrated) until
solution may
Note
permanent
is obtained. with
be
kept
warm
during
operation
o.c.*s
advantage.
is taken
of the number
of standard
to consider
soap
as
combination
of soda,
sodium
with
of
the
sodium
oleate would
formula
Having is customary
and and
this view
on
of the
part
composition
of chemists
as
of soap
in mind, it
the free
the
to calculate
combined
accordingly
alkali in soap
the number
soda
of
c.c.'s
of standard
by
grammes
0"031, which
gives the
amount
of soda
of soap, and
this multiplied
by
10
soap.
on
sample
the burette
follows
Second
reading
32-6 6*0
26-5 26-5
X
Pirst reading
0-081
X
0-8216. 8-215.
0-8215
10
The
soap
(Na20).
position of the comconsiders it
preferable to view soap as being composed (which would be either the metal sodium
to the
nature
of basic radicle
or
potassium
according
of the then
have
soap) with
the formula
Sodium
oleate would
NaCjgHjgOg.
FEEE
ALKALI
IN
SOAP.
339
This
matter
bring the of soap would view of the composition in a Une with the currently accepted view of the
or
class of of salts, with which In consonance compounds soap may be grouped. with this view the alkali in soap should be calculated to sodium Na by
composition
constitution
using
to
multiply
the number
of
c.c.'s
of
standard
acid with
we
given above
Thus
in the example
26-6
0-023
X
0-6096.
6-096.
0-6096
10
There
of soap.
In the the
same.
case
of testing soft soaps, the method adopted is factors to be used in calculating are 0*047 The
for potash (KgO) or 0039 for potassium. In this chapter, in all analyses of soap the alkali will be given as sodium (Na) in the case of hard soaps, or as potassium (K) in the case of soft soaps.
Free
Alkali
in Soap.
"
To
of free
The simplest matter. alkali in soap is rather a troublesome of the soap, dissolve in plan is to weigh out 10 grammes
150
c.c.
of water
by boiling, add
few drops
of
an
alcoholic
a of phenol-phthalein, will produce which red coloration if free alkali be present, then titrate with normal sulphuric acid until the red coloration disappears. standard
solution
The
case
alkali is calculated to Na
of hard
OH
(KOH)
make of the
by the factor
of hard standard soap
0*056
in the
good
c.c.
0*75 to 1
acid
to neutralise any
contain.
to
There
are
some
perhaps, objections,
this method
contains
as
a
of
working
considerable
amount
of carbonate
of soda
or
potash,
these
are
bodies
are
; if they
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
present
be adopted.
on
Then,
again,
it is stated by manjr
a
occurs of decomposition certain amount is formed an acid soap together with If this action does really hydroxide. of detecting free alkali in the purpose
by hydrolysis; there
a
occur,
for the
soap,
solution in
is not available. The author, as the result of numerous analyses of soap, does not view this decomposition theory
water
of
soap
solution with
favour, and
occur.
is very
Soaps
much have
inchned
to the
passed
through
described, with the processes above take more than 0*25 to 0*5 c.c. of acid to neutralise theory any free alkali they contained, and the decomposition of soap, if it is worth anything, calls for the production of
which
did
not,
Another
to weigh out
method
of determining
the
10 grammes
and
dissolve with
the
It is
aid of
water
use
of neutral alcohol.
as
best to ordinary
alcohol,
but
methylated
spirit may
subjected
method
of conducting
which
to
night, then
redistilling about 90 to 95 per cent., remains in the stillor retort being thrown
the alcohol
or
Before
a
use
spirit should
and
be neutralised
by
adding
little phenol-phthalein
a
suflBicientcaustic
soda to produce
When
latter has
in the
alcohol
or
the
be filteredthrough
to the air
as
it wiU, the solution should dry filter, taking care to expose the solution
as
much
as
little as
possible.
The
solution should be
a
made
in
funnel
flask, and the filtering should be done through into a flask, the funnel being kept covered by
a
FREE
ALKALI
IN
SOAP.
341
glass plate.
When
gone
small
to the
through
the filter,
be washed
with
washing
being
added
body of the
lein
.
as
alcoholic solution is now added phenol-phthaindicator, when, if there be any free alkali, a red
obtained.
The
as
colour
will be
the
with
standard
The
acid
amount
is destroyed.
titrated solution is now before, until the red colour of free alkali is calculated as
before.
The may
soap
and
any
be
hydroxide
(causticalkali)
form
of carbonate,
as
an
borate
remains
reference
insoluble
will again
alcohol
The the
soap
method feature
of dissolving
is open
One objections.
fat and
which
quantity of the latter constituent being It is, however, in the case found. soaps the of carbonated be employed. In either the water only method which can
leading
or
combined
alkali may
be determined
the titrating with standard phenolacid and be added, and orange of the free alkali methyl phthalein titration be continued the until the characteristic pink
if
coloration
of "pale
be
soap"
obtained.
made
Thus
in|an
author,
analysis of
employing
soap,
the
a
a
sample
water
by
10
:
"
the
solution
results
and
were
taking
obtained
grammes
of
following
342
Free
SOAP
MANUFACTUBB.
as
indicator.
1*5
First reading
00
1-6 1-6
X X
0-04 10
0-06.
0*06
Then Second
added reading
methyl
orange
26*7
1*6
First reading
25-2
26-2
X X
0-031 10
0-7812. 7-81 per cent, of combined 0-6796. 6-79 per cent, of combined
0-7812
soda
(NagO).
Or,
26-2
X X
0-023 10
0-5796
sodium
(Na).
difficultto
case
as
Carbonate
scheme
Silicate, etc,
"
It is very
every
general
which
that
in the
examination
in
the forms
etc. ; the
of carbonate,
soap
chloride,
with
to
analyst
any
be prepared,
in dealing
mentioned,
soaps
which
a
contain
devise
special scheme
based
have
on
the results of a
to
he
may
applied
the
soap.
following
of hints
remarks than
as
should
a
be looked
and
Ten,
small
more
cut
dried
or
scheme
if
the proportions
grammes
of the soap
20,
is used having
portion
been
previously remains
dried and
on
which
it is dried and
weighed,
weight
thus
of matters
insoluble
in alcohol
water
is now
poured
over are
thoroughly
exhausted
of
ALKALI
IN
SOAP.
343
The
j"lter is next
dried and
weighed,
'
of any
insoluble matter
will be obtained.
chalk
consist of added
may
weighing paper and its contents may be placed in a weighed porcelain bunsen burner, then allowed to cool, a crucible, burnt over This last weighing and weighed. will give the amount of
insoluble
further The
added
After
mineral
matter
examination
aqueous
ready
for
solution which has passed through the filter is now made up to a known volume and divided into two To A is added a little methyl portions, A and B. orange, is titrated with normal hydrochloric and it acid until the characteristic pink
give the amount silicate.
The colour is obtained.
as
of alkali present
presence
This
of carbonate
the
by
not
effervescence
effervesce with
occurring;
other
two
substances
acids.
now
The
the titration is
heated
a
chloride ; if any sulphate be present a white precipitate of barium sulphate will be This is filtered off, well washed with hot water, obtained. burner bunsen a dried, burnt in a porcelain crucible over acid added, and
then
barium little
and
weighed.
The
0*609
weight
gives
of barium
the
sulphate
thus
obtained
sulphate,
multiplied Na2S04, in
an
by
present.
Thus
obtained
of soap
analysis
:
"
of soap
for sulphate,
grammes
being used
Weight
Weight
of crucible of crucible
ash +
BaS04
"
Weight Weight
of ash
BaS04
'^^^ -0918
0*066
10
sulphate
in the soap.
SOAP
MANUFACTUEE.
second
into two
portions.
portion
is acidified with
hydrochloric
to dryness,
with
little
hydrochloric
is rendered
insoluble
dried, burnt
The
by
a
silica is washed,
in
crucible and
of borax
presence.
piece of tumeric paper in the solution as for the silicate.;if borax be present the paper
by
red-brown colour. To determine the amount is a most diflScultmatter, and no really satisfactory process be described. can
If any
silicate or borate by
be present
taking
the
as
well
as
carbonate,
of the
other
amount
as
portion
the
such
is made
Forty-four of sodium
parts of carbonic
parts
carbonate,
to
NagCOg
to 62 parts of
sodium These
; or
94 parts of potassium
oxide, K2O.
may
be employed
in making
the necessary
calculations.
Generally speaking,
met
soda in
is the
hard
only
form
and
of
alkali
the
which
only
will be
form
with
soaps,
potash
found
a
in
at
are
both
alkalies
to
present
in
soap
time.
Should
it be
needful
cedure of proascertain if both be present, the following course be adopted : A sample must of soap is neutralised by hydrochloric and the acid, the fatty nlatter separated
solution
boiled down
to
small
bulk ;
wire
is dipped
of
a
yellow
light if sodium
with
pale lilac-tinted
light if potassium
try this experiment
be present. with
pure
observer
and
is advised
to
sodium
potassium
salts,
FAT
IN
SOAP.
345
to
gain
more
experience
of
the
results
likely
to
be
obtained.
The flame
presence
test, and
of sodium
is readily demonstrated
by
the
if present
it will obscure
The
presence
the
aqueous
solution obtained
and methylated
of the
just
described
when,
chloride
yellow
spirit, double
if it be
precipitate
potassium-platinum
Sodium does chloride will be obtained. If it be desired to ascertain the not give such a precipitate. mined amount of both alkalies,then the total alkali present is deterin
the usual
manner
with
the
the potassium
potassium,
on
a
weighed
the amount
filter
thus
obtained For
are
of both
soda may
be calculated.
methods
quantitative
which
described
books
as
in
this
is referred to standard
on
tative quanti-
chemical
and North, Fatty
two
those of Mills
Sexton,
Matter.
"
fatty
of soap former
is present
in
forms,
free and
combined
the
should, in the
In
only
an
in trifling amount.
excess
or
so-called superfatted
soaps,
present
in the
form
of wool
fat
lanolin,
added.
Free
Fat
"
To
ascertain
the
amount
of soap
moisture
and
filterpaper
operation
ethereal
may
be
liquid is
an
into
weighed
glass, the
ether
evaporated
off in
air
346
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
bath and the residual free fat weighed. will consist saponifying
matter to
The
fat
has
so
obtained
of the
portion
of fat
which
resisted the
process, any
may
small
which the
have
been
make
soap, any
any
fatty material
to
"
''
superfat
soap
fatty matters,
such
a
mineral
stock,
have
been added
as
is present
have
is determined
in the 10 grammes
free and
which
been
combined
a
alkali {vide supra). After the titration is of acid is added, and the mass slight excess burner
until the
a
bnnsen
fat separates
out
on
liquor in be followed
commonly
a
clear transparent
layer of
soaps
which
a
will give
set into
liquid is now
now
The
mass
is
heated
until
melted, when
from
it is again allowed
the wash
water,
to cool ;
and
a
weighed.
character
as
When
the
soap
out
is of such
as
less
wax
hquid
are
or
paste, 10 grammes
to the
or
of paraffin
added
fat, melted
along
with
it, and
finally is
the final weight that of the wax weighed with it. From deducted, leaving the weight of fat present in the soap. There which
are are
some
to objections
this method
of working,
in execution if good and rehable results requires care the It is difficult to entirely remove to be obtained. of the fat from
out
whole
the
which
is
the
used in carrying
amount
the operation
to reduce
of fat found.
Then
fat from
liability
FAT
IN
SOAP.
347
from this
two
sources
cause
of
may
tend to neutralise
another.
Another
objection
in
to the method
The
author
process, which,
After titrating with standard acid for the alkali,and melting the fat as described above, a small quantity of petroleum ether is added and the mixture
gives good
results
his hands,
poured
water
into
separating
funnel ;
more
warm,
but
not
hot,
is added, with, if needful, more The ether. petroleum contents of the funnel are now well shaken and then allowed to stand to settle,when two layers will form, the upper one
of ether
with
now
the
fat, the
lower
water.
The
warm
latter is
water
nearly, but
to wash
not
quite, run
fresh
added
ether ether
if required.
The
the
layer is evaporated
into
weighed
glass
beaker,
matter
off, and
the
residual fatty
weighed.
By
any
of the processes
above
well
that present
by
deducting
with the combination be ascertained of the latter can has previously of free fat which
fat consists essentially of do not obtain them in the form
in
been
ascertained.
The
combined
We
fatty and
rosin acids.
they
are
in
which
present
in
the
soap,
where
they
are
be Na as acid radicles, which may sodium is the by E in the compounds NaE represented of which It there^ typical formula, but as fatty acids of the type HE.
combined
with
is slightly
well-made
1 in 282
"
in
excess
of the
and
that
analysis of soap, taking the water and fatty matter as found, the combined the free alkali as NaOH, alkali as Na, will come out sHghtly in excess of 100; this excess will range
348
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
from 01
the fatty matter present. If the soap contains much coconut oil,the results obtained in determining the amount of fatty matter by either of the methods given will be too low, owing to the oil containing fatty acids which are soluble in water, and these
pass
waters,
and
so
are
not
collected and
the following process : 10 recommends grammes of the soap are dissolved in water and decomposed by a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid ; the glass or flask is then heated until the fatty matter containing the soap mass
collectsin a clear layer on the surface of the sbqueous hquid. The vessel and its contents are now cooled and the cake of fatty acids separated out, while the aqueous layer is filtered of fatty acids is three times with 250 cubic centimetres of boiling washed water, cooling and filtering each time. The various filtrates are collected ; methyl orange is added as an indicator,and through
a
wet
filter paper.
The
cake
the liquor titrated with decinormal caustic soda until the the excess pink colour changes to yellow. By this means of mineral acid used in decomposing the soap is got rid of. To the hquid is added phenol-phthalein, and the titration colour is got; the amount of standard soda solution used corresponds to the amount of soluble fat acids present, and these are calculated to capryllic acid, HCgHigOg, by multiplying by the factor
00144.
cake of fatty acids may be dried and weighed, thus giving the amount of insoluble fatty acids. It may be mentioned here, that by collecting the fatty
The
phenol-phthalein as an caustic soda, there is obtained the amount of alkah required to combine with the fatty acids to form soap ; if in previous
SALT
IN
SOAP.
349
excess
tests more
has
been
found
then
such
must
be present
in other forms. In
case
the soap
as
analyst adheres
to the method
of calculating
reckon
sodium
oxide, NagO,
;
then
he must
as
anhydrides
the amount
quality of these he may of fatty acids found by multiplying for every case while not accurate
the
common
"
is sufficientlyso
grades of soap.
amount
The
of sodium
chloride
sample
of soap may
in This
be determined
in the aqueous
liquor which
standard
is obtained acid.
sulphuric
or
be done
either
volu-
metrically
gravimetrically.
with
In the volumetric
process the
liquid is neutralised
caustic soda,
a
which
is free from
solution of pure potassium chromate are added, and the liquid titrated with a normal solution of silver nitrate until a permanent orange or reddish colour is
a
chloride,then
few drops of
obtained. multiplied
The
number
of
c.c.'s
used,
by
chloride
solution is heated
solution
as
chloride
precipitate all the a silver chloride ; the precipitate is collected on washed, dried, burnt in a porcelain crucible, and
of silver nitrate added weight of silver chloride
of sodium
so
The
found, multiplied
be looked for in some constituent may by the cold and makes of toilet soaps, in all soaps made its amount Generally pressure processes, and in soft soap.
This
is taken
the soap
by
are
difference, that
determined,
is all the
other
constituents
of
and any
as
up
the
full amount
is taken
satisfaqtory
method
in soap
350
SOAP
MANUFACTUKE.
method
based
on
its conversion
of potassium
alkaline solution
best.
This test will be referred to again later To detect the presence of glycerine in soap
be
out
a
the following
tests may
applied
the
Decompose
the
soap
with
acid and
separate
fatty matter,
evaporate
som6
the aqueous
liquor
a
down
to
small
bulk, mix
it with
borax, dip
piece
of platinum
of
bunsen
wire in the. mixture, then hold it in the flame burner ; if glycerine be present the flame will
become
tinged
with
deep
green
colour.
By
heating
concentrate
solution
of glycerine
with
bisulphate
of potash,
and characteristic acrolein, distinguished by its powerful Another test is to boil the aqueous odour, is obtained. solution down, render it faintly alkaline with caustic soda, has been solution of borax which The coloured a faint rose-red by adding phenol-phthalein. glycerine solution is added until the red colour disappears. and
add
it to
dilute
On
boiling the
on
liquid the
the
colour
comes
back,
but
it again
It should
disappears be
stated
allowing
that
as some
specially characteristic of
some
glycerine, sugar
kinds of
are
give the
same
reactions ; but
as
such
bodies
not
usually present
be disregarded.
soaps,
Sugar
often to
a
is present
only in transparent
Its presence
:
but in these
large amount.
as
may
be detected by the
FehUng
test
follows
been
The
with
few
drops
of sulphuric
acid;
some
the
solution
is then
with
caustic soda,
Fehling
test solution
the mixture
boiled, when
of
a
the presence
of sugar
If it be
the
desired
to
determine
of sugar
aqueous
a
solution
excess
is boiled
with
the
acid, as
described
above,
slight
of caustic soda
added, and
STARCH
IN
SOAP.
351
test solution is
or
heated
as
a
to
the
boil; FehHng
until the liquor acquires a blue colour, the liquid being maintained at the boil ; the precipitate is next filtered off, well washed with water, dried, burnt in a weighed porcelain crucible, and weighed.
of copper oxide thus found, multiplied by 0*40875, gives the weight of cane sugar in the soap. The weight
long
Starch in soap
test, which
may
a
be detected. by
deep
means
of the iodine
The
produces
be neutrahsed
applying
process
the test.
is to be determined
is identical
with that for estimating the sugar, the copper oxide obtained being multiplied by 0*40816 to obtain the equivalent weight It is obvious that if both starch and sugar be of starch. present, both
must
be
will be found by the Fehling test, and they differentiated by other tests ; but it is extremely both
will be present
at the
same
unlikely
sample
that
time
in
of soap.
When
glycerine are present in a soap, the consists in evaporating the aqueous residue with
two
a
mixture
of
of
volume
of chloroform
the
with
volumes
alcohol,
which
dissolves out
glycerine;
the
solution
is evaporated
in the water
The sugar
and
may
bath and the residual glycerine weighed. in the residue left by the be estimated
; it is dissolved
alcohol
chloroform
sugar
determined
by the
Fehling
the
described
Leeds'
one
scheme
sample
with
News,
only
Chemical
present
writer.
352
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
DR.
ALBERT
R.
LEEDS'
SCHEME
OF
SOAP
ANALYSIS.
Weigh
The Treat
out
5 grammes
dry at 100"* C.
loss of weight
corresponds
to the water.
in
Soxhlett
apparatus
with
petroleum
ether.
Ethereal
extract
off the
contains alcohol.
and
mineral
matter
; treat
it
Alcoholic solution contains the soap and free caustic and alkali. Add a few drops of phenol-phthalein titrate with normal sulphuric acid. The amount
used
corresponds
to NaOH
is calculated
and
004). (factor
add
a
Add
water
boil
and
off the
alcohol,
little methyl
orange
sulphuric
acid.
to combined
alkali, calculated
or
either slight
NagO
excess
or
Na
0-031 (factors
0023). Add
out the fat.
separate
Solution contains
glycerine.
Evaporate
ness to dry;
after neutrahsing
extract
with sodium
carbonate the
with
alcohol, filter,place
filtrate off
in
weighed
Dry
and
weigh
it.
phenol-phthalein soda.
molecular
normal
used
alcoholic
the be
From
weight
Add
of the
calculated. nitrate
well and
ether and
see
silver
(Gladding test,
allow
on) ; shake
to settle.
Precipitate
consists of
the
ole.ate,stearate
SCHEME
OF
SOAP
ANALYSIS.
353
contains resinate of silver. Filter the precipitate, wash the latter with
to filtrate
a
separating funnel, add water, sufl"cient dilute sulphuric acid to decompose the some ether if petroleum resinate and
necessary.
run
Separate
a
the ether
layer and
it into
weighed
glass, evaporate
the residual rosin.
off
weigh
Eesidue
from
Na2S04Na2Si03
starch salts), and
(or corresponding
any
potassium
Treat
a
mineral
and
matters.
it with
weighed
little water
filter through
filter.
Solution.
a,
into four equal portions, by c and d, and test each as follows : For NagCOa, or K2CO3, titrate with a.
"
Divide
"
normal
H2SO4
with
methyl
NaCl
AgNOs
or
KCl
or
standard
calculating
c.
For
Na2S04,
weigh
or
as
BaSO^,
calculating
to Na2S04
K2SO4.
Decompose
d. Na2Si03
or
K2Si03.
with
HCl
and weigh
above, p.
Besidue
matter.
344).
and added
contains
Dry
stai'ch
the
amount
mineral
Determine
the
amount
of starch by
Fehhng
23
354
test.
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
The
mineral
matter
may
be determined
by difference.
Some digesting
employed.
a
difficulty is often
the
To soap
with
process of
beaker
be
overcome
extraction in
Soxhlett
a
extractor
being
in
narrow
weighing
with perforations at the bottom and in the lid. The holes at the bottom are covered with ignated asbestos iSbre, over which a layer of filterpaper and finally a glass disc with fine
perforations
are
placed.
hour
The
bottle thus
The
prepared
is dried
gives
at 106" C. for ah
and weighed.
loss in weight
the amount
of water
in the soap.
the lid is then
The
extractor
bottle without
and
placed in the
neutral
Soxhlett
its contents
extracted
about
six hours.
are
with
weighed, the result giving in the soap. mination filling material The deterthe amount of dextrin, gelatin, etc., in of mineral substances, this is carried out in accordance with the usual methods.
contents
**
*'
dried at 150"
Since
amount
can
the
extraction
is made
or
with
neutral
alcohol, the
extract
alkalies in the
alcohol
or
alkali
acid.
FOR
COCONUT
OIL.
Coconut
and
palmnut
in soaps
when
gredien inoils are now such important that it is desirable to be able to ascertain
These
they
are
present.
one
if, and it is difficult, indeed, not practically impossible, to distinguish between tests, especially in them by chemical
another
the presence
fats.
These
oils when
present
in
soap
tend
it whiter
in appearance,
to increase
a
of alkali present,
tinctly dis-
combining
weight,
is peculiar
REICHERT
TEST.
355
is one feature which to serves characteristic. There distinguish these two oils from all other kinds of soap stock, and that is, they contain acids such as capric and caproic
and
are or
soluble in water
steam,
are
and
which, This
when
distilled
may
volatile.
property
be
are
taken advantage
present and
as
of ascertaining
if any
much,
name
known first
of the chemist
who
described it.
of it. The
property
causes
containing
to be lower
than
it actually
The
is when
Eeichert
manner
examined
test
:
by
the
ordinary methods
of analysis.
as
applied
Five grammes
or
are
soda
in
an
basin
to
ensure
the
complete
contained
off.
to
a
being
completely
driven
The
residual soap
is
dissolved in water
and
transferred
to decompose
or
small
stone
now
tobacco
and
pipe to prevent
two-thirds
bumping.
heated
of the amount
a
the
and
is titrated with
added
as an
deci-
soda, phenol
phthalein
of the
being
of
indicator,
of
being
taken
to
number
the
cubic
which
centimetres
have
alkali used
over.
neutralise
acids
volatised
from
Five
c.c,
grammes palmnut
out,
of coconut
oil require
c.c.
usually
7 to 8
oil from
a
4*8 to 6
The
one,
manner
test, it may
be
pointed
to
is
purely
out to
arbitrary
same
and
to
requires
always
be
carried
results
in the
enable
is
comparative
advised pure
be
obtained,
and
the
analyst
to make
his
then
own
oils and
with
356
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
been
to subjected
various
modifications
at the hand
it is at least questionable
improvement
on
whether
alterations
process
are
an
The
does not
in the
the
oil.
There
is another
obtaining
5 grammes
quantity
the
Take
of semi-
soap, dissolve
in water,
the
neutralise
on
exactly
a
with
normal
acid, pour
liberated acids
water,
filtrate,wash
the washings
titrate with
The
decinormal
phthalein used
may
no
as
an
indicator.
as an
be taken
process
So far,
which
is quite satisfactory
of the
has
volatile acids
of coconut
and
palmnut Testing
oils.
for Ground
monkey
names
Nut
Oil.
"
The
oil expressed
on
from the
kernels under
of the
the
is placed
the market
of ground
in
soap-making. acid,
one
This
oil is characterised
by
containing
arachidic
the formula
HC20H39O2.
indication
of the
presence
of ground
oil.
This
certain may be
of the
10 grammes
acid added
separated A
pose to decomout,
are
are
collected, washed
dissolved in alcohol.
solution
are
of lead acetate
is added, when
are
insoluble
lead soaps
precipitate
ether,
out ; these
digested with
which
palmitate with
salts.
arachidate
ensure
insoluble.
complete
Repeat
the
treatment
the ether, to
extraction
and
of the soluble
Collect the
lead palmitate
arachidate, decompose
them
by
means
of dilute hydrochloric
acid by
boihng, then
MINEBAL
MATTEB
IN
SOAP.
357
c.c.
of
to cool,
when,
arachis oil is present, a crop of crystals of collected on a arachidic acid will be obtained ; these are filter, dry, weighed with alcohol, dried and weighed. washed
if any ground
nut
oil contains, on the average, 5 per cent, of the weight of the crystals acid, by multiplying arachidic be the amount nut oil can of ground obtained by twenty It may be added that arachidic ascertained. approximately As
acid
the has
a
melting
be tested by
very good presence
determining
can
their melting
points.
Castor
With
care,
"
Oil
The
be detected by the high specific gravity (0'9509 at 60" F.) of the fatty acids, and more particularly by their being insoluble in petroleum ether, although, if only a small
of
a
soap may
quantity
tend
of castor
may
to bring about
solubility.
can
The
to
acetyl test
also be used.
It is,however,
determine
accurately
the proportion
of castor
may
be present. Mineral
Matters
two
in
Soaps.
"
The
mineral
additions
to
soap
take
sodium sand,
china
clay,
etc.
detection
easy,
and
no
determination
general Soda
these
scheme
is not
and
Crystals,
Soda
sometimes
it, or
soap
for the
purpose
of hardening
soap
manufacture method
powders.
In the ordinary
be estimated
along
with
the
combined
in the case 10 grammes, of alkali of the soap in the case of dry soaps and ordinary soaps, 2 to 3 grammes, the soap by means of alcohol and filteringfrom the extract
"
358
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
undissolved
alcohol,
standard
sodium
carbonate.
The
and
residue
is washed
with
then
dissolved
c.c.
in water
titrated with
to 0053
normal
acid, 1
of which
corresponds
grammes
Sodimn carbonate, sodium carbonate, Nag CO3. when present, is distinguished by its effervescing with acids, flame. Sodium and giving the characteristic yellow sodium to soap and sulphate or Glauber's added salt is sometimes
of anhydrous dry
cost
on
of hardening
soda
or
cheapening
the
Like
with
them
effervescing with
acids, and
of
may
giving
with
barium When
a
chloride
present
white
precipitate
barium
sulphate.
be ascertained
with
by taking
known
alcohol, dissolving
acid, adding
sulphate
barium BaSO^,
filter, washing
well with
water,
the weight
of barium
sulphate
SO4
can
by 0609,
that of
Glauber's
case
salt,Na^SO^
by multiplying
and
sulphate
as
by 1*382.
In the
of both
sodium
have
to exercise his
judgment
to whether
he reports
compounds
the
as
anhydrous
or
of these two
being present.
Borax,
"
The
presence
of borax
in soap
is by
of the
on
no
means
easy
to
detect,
while
the
determination
quantity
present soap
same
is rather
treating in the
with
way
alcohol, and,
as
orange
the
with the latter detect its presence and acid. To the following procedure should be
filter,washing
in water
with
little alcohol;
then
dissolve
them
and
divide the
solution
into three
SILICATE
OF
SODA
IN
SOAP.
359
parts. methyl
Titrate orange
one
as an
with standard hydrochloric acid, using indicator ; take a second portion of the
solution, acidify with hydrochloric acid and evaporate nearly to dryness, then dip a piece of tumeric paper in the hot solution ; if borax be present it will turn a reddish brown.
As
to complete
dryness,
add
little
edges
tinged
green.
If borax
be
present, to estimate
its amount
the
of the
solution and
apparatus
determine
carbonic
acid it contains
apparatus
by
the
which
is supplied
by
chemical
of carbonic
for that purpose. The amount "dealers found should be calculated to sodium
The
amount
acid, CO2,
Nag
carbonate,
CO3. that
of standard and
acid necessary
from that
to neutralise
"5alculated
this deducted
used
in the
actual
titration with the first portion of the aqueous sents solution repreOne c.c. of standard acid the amount of borax present.
equals
great
ensure
0*221 grammes
care
of borax
Na^BgOylOHgO.
Of
course,
is needed
to
accuracy
of results.
"
Silicate
the
ofSoda.
The
presence and
alkalinity of
soap
standard
combined
alkali than
is actually
or
soap.
The
presence
of silicate of soda
potash
is shown
The
by
following
treating the soap residue left on and acidified with hydrowith alcohol is dissolved in water to dryness and "5hloric acid ; the liquid is next evaporated
manner.
insoluble
heated
rendered
^
strongly
for
some
time ; by
this
means
the silica is
insoluble.
The
residue is digested
with
water
and
little hydrochloric
or
acid, when,
"5ate of soda
potash
mass.
insoluble gritty
fioap and
taking
known
quantity
soap
of the
can
weighing,
in the
be
360
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
be pointed out here that sodium sulphate, borax and soda crystals (sodium carbonate), they are silicate of soda are all insoluble in alcohol ; hence
approximately
ascertained.
It may
left as insoluble
may
on
with that
solvent, and
possibly be all present ; in which event the following be adopted. Dissolve the residue left mode of working may by the alcohol in water and divide this solution into three
portions,
A,
B and
C.
Take
A,
add
methyl
orange
and
normal
hydrochloric
sum
acid to ascertain
the total
will be the
use
of carbonate,
same as
borax
and
silicate
afterwards
the
portion
for determining
the sulphate
with
barium
chloride
Take
described
above.
In B
determine
the carbonic
acid.
to
dryness, and
paper,
while
doing
so
test
by
means a
of turmeric
with
and
water
and
littlehydrochloric
weigh
Sand
the silica.
and
Mineral
Matters.
"
Some
soaps
contain
such
bodies
as
sand, ground
pumice,
kieselguhr, French
chalk, ultramarine,
other mineral
colouring matters.
It
is not possible to give here a scheme for the complete analysis of such bodies ; their isolation from the soap is best effected by first digesting the soap with alcohol, separating out all
insoluble matter
left insoluble
on
and
such
Anything
as
be bodies such
those
must
above named,
be
conducted
a
matters. to
the
rules of chemical
to detect kieselguhr.
analysis,plus
microscopical
named
may
a
examination above
are
such
as
are
not altered
a
be ascertained by burning
crucible, digesting
the
known
of the soap in
residue with
hot water,
insoluble matter,
weighing. Sometimes
drying, burning
this in
weighed Acid
crucible and
in
Soap,
"
Carbolic
it is desired to
as-
CABBOLIC
ACID
IN
SOAP.
361
certain
the
amount
in soap.
To
dissolved in water,
and
of caustic soda is added to make the solution is now alkaline, the mixture shaken up with ether in a funnel. After allowing to stand, the aqueous separating liquor is run out the soap ; off,and salt is added to throw
slight
excess
with salt brine, the washings being added to the filtrate. It will be found best to make litre. Five hundred c.c. up the volume of the filtrateto one
are
taken
and
rendered
water
acid, and
the
bromine
of
dilute sulphuric
appearance
yellow
the Then
as
bromine
is in
excess.
The
must
quantity
is noted. is done
the bromine
:
water
be standardised
soap
are
which
dissolved with 0*5 of carbolic acid. If pure carbolic acid has been used grammes in the preparation of the original sample, then Calvert's No.
5 grammes of good 2 acid may then
follows
be used
be used.
sample
treated
the
original
caustic
ether,
salt,
rendered
and made
soda, thrown
with
bromine
represents
case
acid, finally testing with with sulphuric The quantity of the latter used in this case
of pure
or
0*5 grammes
as
the
may
be, and
may
from
it the quantity
in the original
sample
be calculated.
and
Medicinal be given
Colouring
Matters.
"
Directions cannot
well
here
are
for the
so
detection and
and
determination
such
of these
bodies, they
that
no
numerous
require
as
special tests,
general
instructions, such
could
be given
here
would
of soap
that it becomes
much
of soap, and
362
to determine
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
the amount.
care
This
is by
no
means
easy, and
imless
considerable
be exercised
erroneous
results
are
easily obtained.
The of only satisfactory direct test for rosin in soap is that The
Liebermann-Storch. from
then the soap
fatty and
means
resinous acids
acid.
are
separated
by
of sulphuric
The
acids
a
are
gentle
sulphuric acid of 1*53 specific gravity is then added, when, if any rosin be present, a reddish violet coloration appears. If the This is not permanent, but quickly disappears.
solution
yellow
be
warm
the
violet colour
A
small
or
is not
obtained,
but
coloration
appears.
be detected by it.
which
soap by For
means
Cholesterol
;
quantity of rosin can stance wool fat is*the only subbe removed
from
the
it may
the
quantitative
methods and
determination
give good
of
the
are
amount
of
rosin, two
which
results
available,
viz., Gladding's
Twitchell's. Test-^This
test depends
Gladding'
that
Bosin
upon
the
or
resinate
stearate, palmitate,
insoluble
nearly
in that
medium.
manner
:
This
Five
test may
be carried out
of the
the
in the
to be
following
grammes with
soap
tested
are
weighed
as
and
dissolved
a
aid of heat
in
as
little
alcohol
possible,
soda
small quantity
and
of
an
of caustic
a
is added,
The of any free
the mixture
on
water
bath.
objecthere
fat will be To the
is to
ensure
complete
saponification
not
contains,
if this be
and
an
done
such
as
ultimately
extracted
of soap
weighed
equal
rosin.
alcoholic
then
solution
two
volume
of ether
and
about
grammes
of
powdered shaken.
well added silver nitrate are and the mixture By this means the silver salts of the various fatty
ROSIN
IN
SOAP.
363
are
And
are
resinous acids
thrown
out
as
are
formed
; the
former
insoluble and
while precipitates,
After standing about an passes into solution in the ether. hour, the mixture is filtered direct into a separating funnel,
the To
residue
in the funnel
with
water,
a a
little ether.
little sulphuric
acid and
the
petroleum
rosin acid is liberated and passes into solution in the The aqueous layer is run ether. off, the ethereal layer is into a weighed run off and the glas^, the ether evaporated
As silver oleate is slightly soluble residual rosin weighed. in ether, the results, when oleates are present in the soap, be made A deduction tend to be too high. of 0*0023 may from the total weight of rosin obtained for each 10 c.c. of ether used Various
of Gladding's
test have
been
pub*
the writer considers the above It is not to be the simplest method and as reUable as any. the method originally published by Gladding, but has been
modified
lished from
to time, but
therefrom.
Test.
"
TwitchelVs
when
This
test
depends
upon
the
fact that
no
acid has
action
it, while
into
fattyacids under
the
same
are which About three grammes of the mixed fatty and rosin acids are accurately weighed and dissolved in 50 c.c. of absolute alcohol. The use of absolute alcohol is essential, for if ordinary rectified
converted
ethylic ethers
spirit of wine or methylated spirit be but little acted on, erroneous acids are and
used
the
results
fatty
are
obtained. is immersed
The
vessel
a
(best a flask)containing
the solution
to keep it cool, of ice and water and a current of dry hydrochloric acid gas is passed through. In about forty-five to fiftyminutes the operation is complete,
in
mixture
the mixture
is allowed
to stand
for
one
hour
longer
so
as
to
364
ensure
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
that the
c.c.
250
etherification of the oil acids be completed ; are added, and the mixture boiled for a short
The
mixture
ether
is
run
into
The
separating mixture
are
petroleum then
added. of the
run
is
up, and
the
contents
funnel
allowed layer
layer is
Next
is washed
of half
water.
a
with
gramme
hot water.
there
is added
alcohol
solution 50
c.c.
caustic potash
in 5
c.c.
and
dissolves out the rosin, but leaves any ethylic fatty ethers dissolved in the petroleum The ether. aqueous from the ether, it is then decomposed solution is separated
This
by
adding
little sulphuric
means
acid, and
the
separated
rosin
off the
collected by
of ether, and
latter is weighed.
process has
A volumetric
of Twitchell's
use
been
described, but
it is best to
the gravimetric
method
It may
justexplained.
be pointed out here that to ascertain the character a sample of the fats used in making of soap is rather diflScult.
Attention
should may
be paid to any
have. Then
particular odour
the
the
separated molecular
and
from
fat acids
weight
melting
point,
and
iodine
an
value
can
should
be
ascertained,
as
the results
opinion
be formed
to the
fats present.
The
most
following
are
some
analyses
of various
kinds of soap,
of them
being
the work
of the writer.
as
In these analyses
the combined
alkali is given
sodium
potassium
The
free alkali
as
caustic soda
(NaOH),
caustic potash
(KOH),
the
case
may
be
:
"
Good Water
Free
Curd
Soap
(Tallow).
Per Cent.
23*84 0*65
.
5*57
1-25 acid
68*69
ANALYSES
OP
SOAPS.
365
Primrose
Soap.
Per Cent.
Water
FreealkaU.
80-26
.
0*32 5*28
Combined
Free fat
alkali
fat
0-46
47-32
Combined
Rosin Salts
1616
0-21
Castile Soap,
Water
FreealkaU
26-63
1-60 alkali
.
Combined
Salts
Fatty Free
6-27
2-31
62-87
0-62
Cold
Water
Free
Water
Soap.
24-62
0-44
"
6*88 0-68
Salts
Rosin Fatty
22-36
matter 45-12
6-35
alkali
7-78
0-31
Glycerine,
Fatty
etc
1*32 84-24
matter
Marseilles
Water
FreealkaU
Soap
(Manufacturers').
27-45 1-04
Combined
Salts
Free
alkali
5-38
' ^
.
.
.
1-38 1-01
Combined
63*74
Mottled Water
FreealkaU
Soap
{Manufacturers^).
38-62 1-92
Combined Salts
Free fat
alkali
4-66 4-98
1-64
Combined
fat
48-28
366
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
Pale
Soap.
Per
Cent.
Water
FreealkaU Combined
Fatty
31-23
0-13
alkali
6-30
matter
62-61 0-73
Salts
Silicated Soap.
Water Silicate of soda
Alkali 22-03
3-46 5-40
Fatty
matter
68-50
0-62
Salts
Mottled
Soap.
44-26
2-14
"
Water
Silicate of soda Salts
. .
1-21 0*82
"
. .
Colouring
Alkali,
matter
free
Combined
Fatty
alkali
matter
Mottled
Soap
(Manufacturers^).
285
Water
Free
alkali
0*6
Combined
Fatty
alkali
5-4
matter
65-5
Soft Soap
Water glycerine
alkali
{London Make).
:
.
46*5 7-0
0*5
Combined
Free alkali
Fatty
matter
46-0
Soft
Water
Free
Soap
.
(ScotchMake).
47-3 0-6
glycerine
alkali alkali
Combined
Fatty
6-8 45-3
matter
APPENDICES.
367
APPENDIX
DENSITIES
A.
BAUME'S
THAN
CORRESPONDING
TO
LIGHTER
HYDROMETER
WATER.
FOR
LIQUIDS
APPENDIX
COMPARISON
DELL,
B.
SCALES,
BAUME
THAN
OF
HYDROMETER FOR
AND
WATER.
TW
AD-
LIQUIDS
HEAVIER
368
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
APPENDIX
COMPARISON OF
DIFFERENT
C.
THERMOMETRIC SCALES.
APPENDICES.
369
APPENDIX
TABLE
I).
OF
FATTY
OF
SPECIFIC
GRAVITIES
OILS
AT
15" C.
(60"F.).
Trade
weight
per gall.
9 1b.
9.i"
9i"
9i"
9
"
9
9
"
"
"
"^., 9J"
9 ^
^
"
"
^
In
the summaries
are
of the constanls
given
under
each
temperatures
given.
"24
370
SOAP
MANUFACTURi:.
APPENDIX
.TABLE
E.
OF
OF
THE
SPECIFIC
GRAVITIES
SODA.
SOLUTIONS
OF
CAUSTIC
APPENDICES.
371
372
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
APPENDIX
TABLE
F.
POTASH SOLUTIONS
AT 60" F.
OP
STRENGTH
OP
CAUSTIC
per
0-59
1-25 1-77 2-21 2-84 3-56
4-16 4-76
5-36
5-81
6-31
17-24
APPENDIX
TABLE
G.
REQUIRED
TO
SAPONIFY
OP
AMOUNTS
OF
ALKALI OILS.
APPENDICES.
373
APPENDIX
TABLE
H.
GRAVITY AND
OF
THE
SPECIFIC OF
PERCENTAGE
AT
15"
CONTENTS
COMMON
SALT
SOLUTIONS
C-
374
SOAP
MANUFACTUBE.
APPENDIX
TABLE
I.
LIME
IN
SHOWING
AMOUNT
OF
MILK
OF
LIME.
from (Calculated
Blattuer.)
APPENDIX
TABLE OF
K.
AND STRENGTHS
OF
SPECIFIC
GBAVITIES
AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
OF
GLYCERINE.
Specific gravity
15"^ C.
Per
cent, of glycerine
1-2660
1-2625 1-2600 1-2575 1-2550 1-2525 1-2499 1-2473 1-2447
1-2421 1-2395 1-2341 1-2287 1-2233
75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
1-2179 1-2125
APPENDICES.
375
APPENDIX
HADFIELD'S
PATENT
L.
FRAME
SOAP
AND
SLABBER.
The
soap Mr.
frame
by
Hy.
figure 66.
Fig.
66.
the
slabber.
one
The
and
or
may
be
from
frame
to another.
frame
cooler
is made
from
with
sides, and
in
use,
in that
have
respect
differs sides.
all frames
which
movable
876 The
SOAP
MANUFACTURE.
bottom
a screw
is made
movable
with
one
means
it
can
be moved
up and
In
the frame
chain
and
gearing
the block
be
use
pushed
At this point
in the
This consists of a framework of the slabbing arrangement. This that can be securely fitted to the sides of the frame. framework regulates the extent carries first a gauge which
cutting wires that travelling along cut two slabs off the block of The soap that has been forced above the edge of the frame. block is then forced up to a certain height as measured by
the gauge along;
to which
two
it is cut
are
by drawing
the
the
wires
removed;
block
more
further blocks
whole
use
pushed
are
drawing
operations
cut off.
These
repeated
until the
By
the
of
this
new
frame, the
framing
on
and
of soap
is much
simplified and
than
carried
more
economically
and efficiently
INDEX.
Palmitolic, 64. Pelargonic, 61, Pentadecatoic, 61. Physetaleic, 63. Pinic, 166. 1 Propionic, 61. Pyroterebric, 63. Bapic, 64. I t Ricinisoleic, 64. Ricinoleic, 64. Stearic, 61. I Stearolic, 64. Sylvic, 156. I Tariric, 64. j Tridecatoic, 61. I Valerianic, 61. Acids, Fatty, 60. Acrolein, 55, 58, 318.
Acid,
"
"
Acetic acid, 61. Acid, Acetic, 61. Acrylic, 63. Angelic, 63. 61. Arachidic, Behenic, 61. Brassaidic, 63. Brassic, 63. Butyric, 61. Capric, 61. Caproic, 61. Capryllic, i}}. Cerotic, 61. Cimicic, 63. Cocinic, 61. Crotonic, 63. Damaluric, ()3. Damolic, 63. Doeglaidic, 63. Doeglic, 63. Elseomargaric, 64. Elaidic, 63. Enanthylic, 01. Erucaidic, 63. Erucic, 63. Formic, 61. Gaidic, 63. Geoceric, 61. Hypogseic, 63. Isolinolenic, 64. Jecoric, 64. Laurie, 61. Lignoceric, 61. Linolenic, 64. Linolic, 64. Margaric, 61. Medullic, 61. Melissic, 61. Moringic, 63. Myristic, 61. Myristolic, 64. Oleic, 63, 153. Palmitic, 61.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
174.
of soap, 3. of water on soap, 4. Air bleaching of oils, 102. Alizarine oil, 144. Alkali, 7. in soap, Analysis of, 337. Free, 339. metals, 8. Alkalies and fats, 225. " oa fats. Action of, 7. Alkalimetry, 38. Almond oil, 94. soap, 269, 271, 278. Ammonia soda, 17. Analysis of, 17. process, 16. Analyses of dry soaps, 315. of soaps, 294. Analysis of alkalies, 38.
" "
"
"
Action
"
"
T-
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
378
Analysis
"
INDEX.
of caustic
"
"
potash, 44. soda, 21, 44. lime, 53. of of potash, 43. carbonate, of potassium
Brine, 50.
--
Brown
"
269,
43. Analysis
"
of pressure soap, 190. of soda ash, 43. crystals, 16. 43. carbonate, of sodium Angelic acid, 63. Anglo-American oil pressing, 86. 68. fats, Rendering, Animal fats, Occurrence oils and
"
C.
Cacao butter, 146. Calico-printer's soap, 293. Capric acid, 61. Caproic acid, 61. Capryllic acid, 61. Caraw^ay oil, 160. Carbolic acid in soap, 360.
"
"
"
"
of, 66. Animal soap fats, 121. Anise, 158. Antimonial soap, 300. for oil extracting, Apparatus Arachidic acid, 61. Arachis oil, 94.
Carbonates
342.
106.
Analysis
of
B.
201. machines, 61. acid, Bennet " Gibbs' process, Ben oil, 94. Benzoic soap, 300. 159. Bergamot, Bicarbonate of soda, 10. Bitter almond oil, 159.
Cassia oil, 160. Castile soap, Analysis of, 365. Castor oil, 94, 142. acids, 145. Composition of, 143. Constants of, 145. in soap, 357.
"
"
"
Barring Behenic
263.
soap, 144. Causticising soda, 18, 23. Caustic lye tanks, Capacities, 179. lyes, 178. potash, 9, 35. Analysis of, 36, 44. fats, 38. and
"
" "
"
"
"
"
"
"
lyes, Strength
of,
Black
"
ash, 11. Analysis of, 12. 13. liquor, Bleaching oil by air, 102. oils, 102. oils by bichrome, Blue mottled soap, 240. Boiling on strength, 234.
" " " " "
"
"
"
"
properties, 35. 9, 18. soda, Analyses of, 21, 44. fats, 31. and Dissolving, 26.
"
"
" "
103.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Bone
"
"
"
Borax,
"
tallow, 77. 46. dry soap, 314. in soap, 358. Analysis of, 342. soap, 301. Bouquet soap, 269, 273, 278. Brassaidic acid, 63. Brassic acid, 63.
"
"
"
"
"
Cerotic Cimicic Cinnamon oil, 161. Citronelle, 161. Citron soap, 269, 278. Clarifying oils, 95. Clear boiling of soap, 234. Cloves oil, 162. Cocinic acid, 6L
26.
INDEX.
379
Ooconut
" "
X
/
oil, 94, 128. acids, 132. Elseomargaric acid, 64. Composition of, 130. Elaidic acid, 63. Constants of, 131. I Elderfiower soap, 280. Saponification of, 131. ' Emollient soaps, 300. soap, 129, 133. IEnanthylic acid, 61. Oold-water soap, Analysis of, 365. ' English system of oil pressing, 80. soaps, 300. Erucaidic acid, 63. Oold process of soap-making, Erucic acid, 63. 245. Ess-bouquet soap, 280. Ool cured toilet soaps, 275. Essential oils, 56. for soaps, 275. Oolouring matters Extracting oil by solvents, 105. soaps, 282. Extraction of oils and fats, 67. toilet soaps, 273. Oolza oil, 94. F. Oommon pale soap, 236. for volumetric ;Factors analysis, salt, 10, 49. 40. I 239. soap, ' Farrier's soap, 301. toilet soap, 267. Fat blower, 181. "vOinposition of oils and fats, 55. boilers, 72. j of soap lyes, 317. in soap. Analysis I of, 345. 334. "C:Jonstituents of soap, tanks, 180. melting 162. oil, "Coriander Fats, Action of alkalies on, 7. Corn oil, 146. and alkalies, 225. Constants of, 146. and caustic potash, 38. Cottonseed oil, 134. soda, 31. acids, 138. 54. and oils, 137. composition, Composition, 55. Constants 138. I of, ' Fatty acids, 60. refining, 136. Linolenic series of, 64. soap, 137. Linolic series of, 64. Crotonic acid, 63. Oleic series of, 63. Crown pale soap, 238. Ricinoleic series of, 64. Crushing soap, 213, 276. Stearic series of, 61. Crutching soap, 215. in soap, 345. matter Crystal 10. carbonate, Filled soaps, 241. soda, 10. Filling cold-process soaps, 257. Curd soap, 241. Filtering oils, 96. Filter press for oils, 06. D. Fire soap kettles, 182. Fitted soaps, 235. Damaluric 63. acid, Floating toilet soap, 300. Damoiic acid, 63. Flower Decorticating soap, 280. oil seeds, 92. Fobbing, 229. Disinfectant dry soaps, 314. Foot stamping presses, 207. soaps, 297. Formic 61. acid, Doeglaidic acid, 63. Free alkali in soap, 339. Doeglic acid, 63. Fuller's earth soap, 301. Domestic soaps, 224. grease, 150. Dr. Leeds' scheme of soap analy- , sis, 351. a. Dry soaps, 311. Drying Gaidic acid, 63. oils, 55. 212, 223. (ieoceric acid, 61. soap,
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
-_
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
' ,
"
"
380
Geranium oil, 162. Gladding's rosin test, 362. Glauber's salt in soap, 368. Glyeerides, 59, 65. Glycerine, 7, 57.
" "
INDEX.
Lacmoid,
43.
ILard,
"
119.
Composition of, 318. oil, 123. in fats, 226. Laurel butter, 94. in oils and fats, 316. I oil, 94. in soap, Analysis of, Laurie acid, 61. 349. Laurin, 65, 247. Glycerine soap lyes, 316. Lavender oil, 163. Properties of, 58, 317. Laying out a soap factory, 326. from recovery soap Leblanc soda process, 11. lyes, 319. Leeds' scheme of soap analysis^ Glycerine soap, 272. 35L Solubility of, 57. Lemon soap, 272. solutions. Strength of, Lignoceric acid, 61. 317. Lime, 52. Glycerol, 59, 318. Analysis of, 53. Glyceryl, 58, 318. Linolein, 66. Golden pale soap, 238. [Linolenic acid, 64. Ground-nut oil, 94. : series of fatty acids, 64. in soap, 356. Linolic acid, 64. series of fatty acids, 64. H. Linseed oil, 94, 138.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Hadfield's soap frame, Hand soap press, 205. Hard sorfp, 228.
"
375.
"
"
"
white soap, 258. Hardness of water, 174. Heliotrope soap, 269. History of soap, 1. Honey soap, 270, 272, 279. Hydrated soaps, 262. Hydraulic oil presses, 89. Hydrocarbon oils, 56. Hydrolysis of soap, 4. Hypogseic acid, 63.
"
Liquid Litmus,
acids, 142. Composition of, 141. Constants of, 142. soaps, 141. glycerine soap, 300.
"
"
"
"
42.
M.
Maize oil, 94, 146. Manufacture of soda, 11. Manufacturers' soaps, Analysis of, 365. Margaric acid, 61. Marseilles soap. Analysis of, 365. Medullic acid, 61. Melissic acid, 61. Melting soap fats, 180. Mercurial soap, 297. Methods 227. of soap-making, Methyl orange, 42. Milk of lime, 52. Strength of, 52. Milled toilet soaps, 273. Millefleur soap, 279. Milling soap, 211, 292. Mineral in soap, 357, 360l matters
"
Indicators, 42. Industrial soaps, 289. Iodine soap, 301. Iron soap frame, 192. Isolinolenic acid, 64.
"
Jecoric
acid, 64.
"
Koettstorfer
test, 248.
"
INDEX.
881
163. Oil, Layender, Linseed, 94, 138. Maize, 94, 146. Mustard 94. -seed, Neroli, 163. Niger, 94. Oliye, 94, 132. Orange, 164. Palm, 94, 123. nut, 127. Poppy-seed, 94. Rape, 94, 147. 162. Rose geranium, Sassafras, 164. Sesame, 94. Star anise, 164. 94. Sunflower-seed, Tallow, 117, 121. 94. Walnut, 149. Whale, Winter-green, 164. Oil seed crushing, 80.
"
soap frame, 194. acid, 63. of, 365. soap, Analysis 239. soaps, Musk, 165. Artificial, 167. Baur, 167. oil soap, 280. Tincture of, 167. Mustard-seed oil, 94. 168. Myrbane, Myristic acid, 61. Myristolic acid, 64. Morgan's Moringic Mottled
" "
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
N.
Naphthol soap, 296. Natural waters, 173. Nature of soap, 2. Neroli oil, 163. Niger oil, 94. 168. Nitrobenzene, 55. Non -drying oils, 94. Nut
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
oil^
"
Oils and
" "
dry soap, 314. Oatmeal Occurrence of animal oils, 66. of yegetable oils and fats, 67. 94. Oil, Almond, Anise, 158. 94. Arachis, Ben, 94. Bergamot, 159. 159. Bitter almond, Caraway, 16J. Cassia, i60. Castor, 94, 142. Cinnamon, 161. Citronelle, 161. Cloyes, 162. 94, 128. Coconut, Colza, 94. -^ Coriander, 162. Corn, 146. Cottonseed, 94, 134. filters, 96.
"
presses, 84. fats, 54. Composition, .55. in, 316. Glycerine Clarifying, 95. Vegetable, 94. Oleic acid, 63, 153.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
soap, 259.
"
"
"
Olein, 7, 65, 246. Oleine, 144, 155. Olive oil, 94, 132.
" "
"
"
"
Orange
"
acids, 134. Constants of, 134. flower soap, 279. oil, 164. soap, 273.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Pale
"
soap, 244.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
foots, 101. 162. Geranium, 94. Ground-nut, Lard, 123. Laurel, 94.
Anah^sis of, 366. Palmitic acid, 61. Palmitin, 7, 65, 247. Palmitolic acid, 64. Palm-kernel oil, 127. Palm-nut oil, 127.
" " " "
"
"
"
382
oil, 04, 123. acids, 126. Composition of, 125. Constants of, 126. soap, 126. Paraffin dry soap, 314.
"
INDEX.
Palm
"
"
"
"
oils, 56.
soap, 241. 33. Analysis of, 34. Pelargonic acid, 61. Pentadecatoic acicL 61. Perfumes, 158. \/ Petroleum oils, o6.
"
Pearlash,
"
Refining oils by caustic soda, 99. Reichert test for coconut oil, 354. Remelting soap, 219. toilet soaps, 268. Rendering fats, 68. animal tallow, 68. Revolving soap press, 210. Ricinisoleic acid, 64. Ricinoleic acid, 64. series of fatty acids" 64. Rock salt, 49. Rose geranium oil, 162.
" " "
Salicyl soap, 300. Sal soda, 10. carbonate, Salt, 49. Analysis of, brine, 50. 43. Potassium Properties cake, 11. carbonate. Salting out, 231. 35. of, Salt in soap, Analysis Potassium Solubility of, 369. carbonate. 51. 35. making, of, Pressing solutions. Strength of, 50. oils, 79. vegetable Sampling Pressure soap for analysis, 335. soap boilers, 189. Sand in soap, 360. soaps, 258. household Primrose soaps, 298. soaps, 244. Santal soap, 269, 278. 238. soap, Saponification, 66, 224. Analysis of, 365. Propionic under pressure, acid, 61. 258, 263. Pyroterebric acid, 63. Sassafras oil, 164. Saturated solutions, 172. B. Screw oil press, 86. Ralston *s slabbing machine, Sebacic acid, 55. 197. 94, 147. Rape Sesame oil, oil, 94. Shaving soaps, 279, 298. soaps, 147. Rapic acid, 64. Silicate of potash, 47. Recovered of soda, 47. greases, 149. in 10. Refined alkali, soap,359. I Silicated Analysis 94. Refining of, 366. oils, soap, by acid, 97. soaps, 243.
"
soap, 241. Phenol phthalein, 43. y Phosphate of soda, 47. "/^ Physetoleic acid, 63. Pinic acid, 156. Planning factory, 326. a soap Plodding 277. machines, 94. Poppy-seed oil, Potash, 9. Silicate of, 47. Potashes, 32. Analysis of, 34. Qualitiesof, 33. Potassium, 8, 31.
"
soap, 272, 279. 155. boil, 236. Composition of, 156. Gladding test, 362. in soap, 361. Liebermann Storch 362. Rosin, TwitchelFs test, 363.
"
Rosin,
"
"
"
"
"
test,
"
"
"
9, 32.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
INDEX.
383
212, 223. Soap-drying machine, 280. Elderflower, 300. Emollient, 280. Ess-bouquet, factory. Laying out a, 326. Farrier's, 301. fats and oils, 54. Filled, 241. Floating toilet, 300.
"
"
Hilicated soft soap, 309. Silicates in soap, Analysis of, 342. 296. Silk soap, Skin soaps, 300. for soap, 197. Slabbing machine 196. soap,
"
"
"
"
of, 3. 269, 271, 278. Almond, analyses, 364. analysis, 334. Alkali, 337. in, 342 Borax in soap, Carbonates 342. Soap analysis. Dr. Leeds' scheme,
Soap, Action
"
"
"
"
"
"
/-.
"
"
351.
Soap analysis.
"
"
"
"
Flower, 280. frame, Hadfield's, 375. 194. Morgan's, 193. Whitaker's, 190. frames, Iron, 192. 191. Wood, Fuller's earth, 301.
"
" " "
"
"
"
"
"
"
Salt, 349. for, 335. Sampling Silicate soda, of Starch, 351. Sugar, 350. in, 343. Sulphates in, 336. Water
pale, 238.
/
" "
"
342.
Soap
"
analysis,
" "
269. Heliotrope, History of, 1. 270, 272, 271".^^ Honey; Hydrolysis of, 4.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
300. Antimonial, 297. Arsenical, 200. barring machines, 300. Benzoic, 240. Blue mottled,
"
"
Iodine, 301. kettles, 182. Lemon, 272. Liquid glycerine, 300. lyes. Composition of, 317. in, 316. Glycerine
"
"
"
Recovering
glycerine,
319.
"
"
"
"
"
"
boilers, 182. boiling, 228. Borax, 301. dry, 314. 269, 273, 278. Bouquet, 239. Brown, Windsor, 267, Brown
_
Soap
"
"
"
"
"
269,
"
270, 278.
Soap, Calico-printer's, 293. Carbolic, 296. Castile, 238. Citron, 269, 278. Cold water, 300.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
179. \ machinery. alkalies, 6. makers' pressure, under making Mercurial, 297. Millefieur, 279. Milling, 292. 239. Mottled, 210, moulds, Musk oil, 280. 296. Naphthol, Nature of, 2. dry, 314. Oatmeal,
Oleic acid, 259. 273. Orange, flower, 279. Pale, 258. 244. household, Paraffin, 241. dry, 314. V 241. Petroleum, 215. machine, plodding 311. powders,
"
258.
"
"
"
"
colours,
275, 282.
239.
"
"
Common,
"
"
"
"
"
"
Crown
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
384
Soap,
"
INDEX.
"
"
244.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
221. pumps, Rose, 272, 279. Salieyl, 300. Sand, 298. Santal, 269, 278. Shaving, 279, 298. Silieated, 243.
Soft soap, 301. Analysis of, 366. Soluble oil, 144. Solubility of soap, 5. Solvent action of water, 171. Solvents for oils, 105. Squeezing soap, 277. Stamper oil press, 85. dry soap, 314. Standard
"
"
"
sulphuric
41.
acid
solution,
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
of, 5. machine,
Star anise oil, 164. Starch in soap, 351. Analysis Steam soap pans, 183.
"
"
of, 351.
215.
"
"
stamping
press, 208.
203. machines, stamping dry, 314. Standard Stock, 281. 300. Tannin, Tar, 297. 300. Thymol, Tooth, 298. Transparent, 287. Violet, 271, 279. 199. waggon, White, 25S^^ Castile, 238. hard water, 258. Windsor, 267, 270, 280. Wool, 290. XX crown pale, 239. household, 244. XX domestic, 258. Yellow Soda, 9. ash, 10. Analysis qf, 15.
"
" "
Stearic acid, 61. Stearin, 7, 65, 247. Stearolic'acid, 64. Stock toilet soaps, 281. Strength of glycerine
solutions,
"
317.
Sugar
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
in soap, 350. Analysis of, 350. in soap, Analysis Sulphates of, 341 Sulphur soap, 297. Sunflower-seed oil, 94. Superfatted soaps, 301. Sweet spirit of oils, 57, 317.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Table
"
of caustic
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
lyes, 37. potash soda lyes, 28. glycerine solutions, 57. salt solutions, 50. strength of milk of lime,
203. machine, presses, 203.
"
52.
"
"
"
"
Qualitiesof,
10, 15,
"
14.
"
crystals,
"
"
"
"
"
10. manufacture, Silicate of, 47. Sodium, 8. 1 borate, 46. 9. carbonate, Analysis of, 43. Properties of, Tannin Tar soap, 297. 17. 10, 49. Tariric acid, 64. Sodium chloride, in soap, 349. Testing caustic potash, 44. 47. phosphate, soda, 44.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
acids, 119. Adulterations of, 117. Composition of, 116. Constants of, 119. oil, 117, 122. Pressed, 117. Rendering, 68. 118. soap, soap, 300.
"
"
"
"
"
INDEX.
385
Water,
"
Testing
"
potash, 43. carbonate, 43. potassium soda ash, 43. carbonate, 43. sodium Thymol soap, 300. 167. Tincture of musk, Analysis of, 365. Toilet soap. 211. machinery,
" "
" "
"
"
soap, 4. 170. as a soap material, 170. Composition of, Effect of hardness on soaps, Action
on
174.
Water
"
/ soaps, 266. V 298. Tooth soap, Tower salts, 11. Train oil, 168. Transparent soap, 287. soaps, 285. Tridecatoic acid, 61. Turkey red oil, 144.
" "
Softening, 175. Solvent action of, 171. of, 174. Waters, Hardness Natural, 173.
"
"
"
Whale
"
oil, 148. soaps, 148. 193. Whitaker's soap frame, Castile soap, 238. White hard-water soap, 258. 258. soap, 280. Windsor soap, 267, 270,
"
"
"
"
and
fats.
rence Occur-
Winter-green oil, 164. 32. Wood-ashes, 191. Wooden soap frames, Wool grease, 153.
"
of, 67.
"
for,
Volumetric
42.
analysis
analysis
indicators,
Volumetric
XX solutions, 40. XX
crown
W.
Washing Walnut
25
to the
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