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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria,

, Sept 2002

IGCP 448 Project of IUGC- UNESCO and the UIS Commission on Physical Chemistry and Hydrogeology of Karst

International Workshop on:


Cave Climate and Paleoclimate- Best Record of the Global Change
held in Stara Zagora, Bulgaria

Table of Contents

Program Major Achievements Decisions Abstracts End of Proceedings

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Program of the International Workshop on:


Cave Climate and Paleoclimate- Best Record of the Global Change
24 September 2002 9:00- 12:00arrival, registration 12:00- 13:00 lunch 13:00- 13:30Opening Addresses from Bulgarian Parliament, Mer of Stara Zagora, President of the UIS Commission and the Royal Society of Bulgaria 13:30- 13:40Official ceremony of incorporation of Prof. Derek C. Ford (FRSC) in the Royal Society of Bulgaria General Keynote Lectures (Chairman Julia James): 13:40- 14:40Giovanni Badino (Italy). The physics of cave climate and its relationship with the external environment. 1

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

14:40- 15:00coffee break + photo of all participants 15:00- 16:00Yavor Shopov (Bulgaria). Speleothem Records- the Best Record of the Global Change. The advance of the field produced by the operation of the UIS International Program Speleothem Records of Environmental Changes in the Past 16:00- 16:30Derek Ford (Canada). Explorations in Pb/U dating of speleothems. 16:30- 17:0017:00- 18:0018:00- 19:0019:0020:00General Meeting of the Royal Institute of Bulgaria Annual Meeting of the Royal Society of Bulgaria (for fellows of the Royal Society only) Press Conference Opening of the art exhibition Cave Scientific Art- World of Fantasy Created by Water, Time and Irradiation Cocktail (only for registered participants) 25 September 2002 8:009:00breakfast

Morning section: Paleotectonics (Chairman Paolo Forti) 9:00- 9:40 Thematic Keynote Lecture: Petko Dimitrov, D. P. Dimitrov (Bg): Geological Traces for the Noahs Flood in the Black Sea.- Evidences for a Major Earthquake 7600 BP. 9:40- 10:00 Mehmet Ekmekci and Ltf Nazik (Turkey). Evolution of Golpazar-Huyuk Karst System (Bilecik-Turkey): Indications of Tectonic and Climatic Controls 10:00- 10:20 Serge Delaby (Belgium) The "Grotte de Hotton" karstic network: relationships between tectonics, cartography and karstogenesis. Paleoseismic implications. 10:20- 10:40 Dora Angelova (Bg), Mhamed Alaeddine Belfoul, Sophia Bouzid, Farid Faik (Morocco) Paleoseismic Events and Effects in Karst in Deformed Terrains in Bulgaria and Morocco 10:40- 11:00 Morning section: coffee break

Influence of the Climate and Cave Climate on Human Health and Migrations (Chairman Alexey Stoev) 11:00- 11:40 Thematic Keynote Lecture: Dimitar Il. Dimitrov (Bulgaria). Climate versus History (Climatology and History of the 7-th c. European epidemics revisited) 11:40- 12:00 Maria Gkioni (Greece). The role of the environmental archaeology in the study and the reconstruction of cave paleoclimate 12:00- 12:20 Maria Geraga, George Papatheodorou, Stella Tsaila-Monopoli, George Ferentinos (Greece) Climate: the pacemaker for human culture evolution during the prehistoric age in Aegean Sea, Greece. 12:20- 12:40 Valeria Fol (Bg) Interpretative Possibilities for Rock-cut Topoi of Faith in and around Natural Caves 12:40- 13:30 lunch Ecosystems Impact on Karst Processes, Karst Records and Archeological Records. (Chairman Yavor Shopov) 2

Afternoon section:

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

14:00- 14:40 Thematic Keynote Lecture: J. James (Australia) The Paleoclimatic Significance of Biomineralisation in Caves. 14:40- 15:00 Shopov Y.Y., C. J. Yonge, L.T.Tsankov, S.Georgiev, L.N.Georgiev, D.C. Ford. Quantitative Annual Speleothem Records of Temperature and Precipitation in the past A new tool for Reconstruction of past karst denudation rates. 15:00- 15:20 Levent Tezcan and Mehmet Ekmekci (Turkey). Surface Cover Infiltration Index: A Suggested Method to Assess Infiltration for Intrinsic Vulnerability in Karstic Areas in Absence of Quantitative Data 15:20- 15:40 Maya Avramova (Bg) The Yagodina cave - between Chalcolithic and Bronze Age 15:40- 16:00 coffee break

Afternoon section II: Speleothem records of Past Environmental Changes (Chairman Charles Yonge) 16:00- 16:40 Thematic Keynote Lecture: Diana Stoykova (Bulgaria) Solar Luminosity Influence Over Geomagnetic Field, Past Climates, Glaciations and Time Shifting of Termination-II derived from speleothems. 16:40- 17:00 Yuri Dublyansky (Russia) "Cavity-based secondary mineralization in volcanic tuffs of Yucca Mountain, Nevada: a new type of the polymineral vadose speleotem, or a hydrothermal deposit?" 17:00- 17:20 Bogdan Petroniu Onac, Silviu Constantin (Romania), Joyce Lundberg (Canada), Stein-Erik Lauritzen (Norway). Isotope-climate record in a Holocene stalagmite from Ursilor Cave (Romania) 17:20- 17:40 Alexander Filipov (Bg) Calcite Aragonite Relations in Caves: Temperature Dependence of ++ the Critical Mg /Ca++ Ratio in Parent Solutions Promoting Aragonite Crystallization 17:40- 18:00 Shopov Y., Ludmil Tsankov, A. Damyanova, Yasen Damyanov, Leonid Georgiev, Elena Marinova, Chas Yonge, Derek Ford (2001) Quantitative Annual Speleothem Records of Temperature, Precipitation and Solar Insolation in the past A Key for Characterisation of past climatic systems. 18:00- 19:0019:00- 21:00 21:00dinner Slide show- (relevant slide sets of 15 minutes can be presented by different participants) Video presentation of underwater expeditions searching traces of the Noahs Flood Open air cave party (with fire, barbecue, wine, guitars, songs, etc.) 26 September 2002 8:009:00breakfast Stable Isotope and Trace Element Paleoclimatic Records (Chairman Sophie

Morning section: Verheyden)

9:00- 9:40 Thematic Keynote Lecture: Sophie Verheyden (Belgium) Trace elements in Speleothems 9:40- 10:00 Ahmad Afrasibian (Iran) Importance of study and research of cave phenomena with emphasis on karst engineering. 10:00- 10:20 Ahmad Afrasibian (Iran) videofilm on Alisader cave. 10:20- 10:40 Augusto S. Auler (Brazil), Peter L. Smart (UK) Rates of Condensation Corrosion in Speleothems of Semi-Arid Northeastern Brazil 10:40- 11:00 coffee break 3

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Morning section II: Underground Climatology and Hydrology (Chairman Giovanni Badino) 11:00- 11:40 Thematic Keynote Lecture: Alexey Stoev (Bulgaria) Cave microclimate in Bulgaria: genezis, evolution, cyclic recurrence and territory distribution 11:40- 12:00 T.Orehova (Bg) Comparative Estimate of Resistance to Drought for Selected Karstic Aquifers in Bulgaria 12:00- 12:20 Aleksey Benderev, Vladimir Hristov, Ivan Stefanov (Bulgaria) Hydrogeological background of Toplia karst spring area (Central Fore-Balkan, Bulgaria) 12:20- 12:40 Mustapha Filahi (Morocco) Triaxial Tests With High Confined Pressure Of Calciferous Travertines From Beni-Mellal (Morocco) 12:40- 13:30 lunch

Afternoon section (In memory of prof. Vladimir Dermendjiev): Speleothem Paleoluminescence Records as proxies of Paleogeographic, Paleogeologic and Paleoastronomic Changes. Astrophysical Applications of Speleothem Records (Chairman Ludmil Tsankov) 14:00- 14:40 Thematic Keynote Lecture: Yavor Shopov (Bulgaria). 20 years of Speleothem Paleoluminescence Records of Environmental Changes- The advance of the field produced by the operation of the UIS International Program Luminescence of Cave Minerals 14:40- 15:00 Diana Stoykova, Yavor Shopov, L. Tsankov, M. Sanabria (Bulgaria), L.N. Georgiev (Mexico). Using of Speleothem Luminescence for Quantitative Reconstruction of Variations of the Solar Luminosity and the Effective Temperature of the Sun. 15:00- 15:20 Yavor Shopov, Diana Stoykova, L. Tsankov, M. Sanabria, Diana Garbeva (Bulgaria), L.N. Georgiev (Mexico). Influence of the Solar Luminosity on Glacier Melting, Precipitation and Sea Level Changes. 15:20- 15:40 Shopov Y.Y. Activators of Luminescence in Speleothems as Source of Major Mistakes in Interpretation of Luminescent Paleoclimatic Records. 15:40- 16:00 coffee break Afternoon section II: Karst Geomorphology (Chairman Derek Ford) 16:00- 16:20 Kyriaki Papadopoulou- Vrynioti (Greece). Cone Karst and Dry Karst Valleys in Greece as a Record of the Global Change Dora Angelova (Bg) Main Stages In Karst Morphogenesis in West and Central North

16:40- 17:00 Bulgaria 17:00- 17:20 Vladimir Tolmachev, Olga Maximova (Russia). Comparative Evaluation of Covered Karst Sensitive Terrain to Pollution of Geological Environment 17:20- 17:40 Dora Angelova, Yordan Malyakov (Bg) Conditions for Karst Development. in The Strandja Mountain 17:40- 18:00 Kyriaki Papadopoulou- Vrynioti (Greece). Comparative Investigations on Karstic Regions Kopais in Greece and Maoce in Serbia 18:00- 19:00Posters 19:00- 20:00 dinner 20:00conference banquet (30$)

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

27 September 2002 8:009:00breakfast RECONSTRUCTIONS FROM KARST

MORNING SECTION I: PALEOENVIRONMENTAL SEDIMENTS (CHAIRMAN YAVOR SHOPOV)

9:00- 9:40 Thematic Keynote Lecture: Paolo Forti (Italy). Tectonic and seismic data from speleothems: an overview 9:40- 10:00 P.A. Robledo Ardila, J.J. Durn Valsero (Spain) Paleocollapse Structures and Collapse Breccias as Tool for Reconstruction of Past Karst and Paleoclimate Record During the Upper Miocene of Mallorca Island 10:00- 10:20 Wiszniowska Teresa (Poland) Palaeoclimatic Reconstructions from Karst Sediments 10:20- 10:40 Mustapha Filahi, Dora Angelova (Bg). Mhamed Alaeddine Belfoul (Morocco) Geoecological Assessment of the Transformation Degree of Natural Karst Systems in Bulgaria and Morocco 11:00- 11:40 Open meeting of the participants in the International Programs on Speleothem Records of Environmental Changes in the Past and Luminescence of Cave Minerals of UIS Commission of Physical Chemistry and Hydrogeology of Karst 11:40- 12:30 Open meeting of the UIS Commission of Physical Chemistry and Hydrogeology of Karst and IGCP 448 World Correlation on Karst Ecosystems 12:30- 12:40 12:40- 13:30 Closing ceremony lunch Stara Zagora city- Karanovo settlement tomb-

13:30- 18:00 Half- day free conference excursion: Kazanlak Tomb (a World Heritage Monument of UNESCO)

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Major Achievements
of the 26 th September meeting of the IGCP 448 Project of IUGC- UNESCO and the UIS Commission on Physical Chemistry and Hydrogeology of Karst during the International Workshop on:

Cave Climate and Paleoclimate- Best Record of the Global Change


held in Stara Zagora, Bulgaria Major achievements of the workshop are: 1. Derek Ford (Canada) reported a very successful U/Pb dating of very old (86- 95 Ma) speleothems from Guadalupe Mts. It finally allows precise dating of the uplift of Guadalupe Mountains, producing quite unexpected age of the event. 2. Vladimir Tolmachev (Russia) developed a new marking expert method for assessment of karst terrain sensitivity to pollution. He demonstrated its application for choosing of most appropriate places in karst for storage of garbage (establishment of landfields). 3. Yavor Shopov reported major achievements of speleothem paleoluminescence research in the last 20 years after he discovered in 1982, that most of the speleothem luminescence is caused by organics produced in the soil, rather than by inorganic ions as believed before. In the period of 1985- 1991 he developed 4 different new techniques for measurement of records of various environmental parameters from phosphorescence or fluorescence of speleothems. He reported also a new technique for quantitative reconstruction of the variations of past annual karst denudation rates during geological periods of time. 4. Giovanni Badino (Italy) reported development of proper tools for estimation o the cave climate response f of the global climate changes. 5. Diana Stoykova (Bulgaria) reported first successful quantitative estimation of the variation of the effective temperature of the solar surface, producing the century and millennial cycles of the solar luminosity. This major result was achieved using speleothem luminescence records. 6. Sophie Verheyden (Belgium) achieved very high (annual) resolution of the records of trace elements in stalagmites and demonstrated their possibilities for paleoclimatic reconstructions.

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Decisions
of the 26 th September meeting of the IGCP 448 Project of IUGC- UNESCO and the UIS Commission on Physical Chemistry and Hydrogeology of Karst during the International Workshop on:

Cave Climate and Paleoclimate- Best Record of the Global Change


held in Stara Zagora, Bulgaria

After detailed discussions it has been decided: 1. To establish a code of practice and specification for cave studies and to propose to IGCP 448 and UIS to introduce it in the practice of the cave and karst researchers. We decided to make and introduce 2 different data forms to be filled during exploration of caves or karst regions:- one for cavers and another for professional speleologists or karstologists. They will contain information useful for future researchers and for national and international inventory of caves and karst. 2. To create an inventory of the collected speleothem samples with data on their present location, age, cave, karst region country, what kind of measurements was done on it with references to all papers and reports published on it. The main purpose of the inventory is to reduce unnecessary sampling of speleothems. Also to provide all paleoclimatologists who are not familiar with the cave environment, geochemistry and conservation issues with competent help and information from experienced karst researchers. Such database and information service became necessary with the exponential increasing of the interest of paleoclimatologists to speleothems as the best archive of the paleoclimate. It has been decided to authorize Y. Shopov and his group to prepare the inventory and to upload it at Internet. All researchers having speleothem samples are requested to send the described data regarding them to: YYShopov@Phys.uni-sofia.bg . Both decisions 1 and 2 will lead to better achievement of the goals of IGCP
rd 3. To prepare a joint 3 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON WATER RESOURCES IN KARST & HARD ROCK FORMATIONS WITH EMPHASIS ON KARST EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES in Sept. 2003 in ESFAHAN I.R. OF IRAN. Its organization committee invites us to make an IGCP 448- UIS Commission on Physical Chemistry and Hydrogeology of Karst meeting during this symposium.

4. To propose formation of an IGCP working group on karst as a future ground water tools. 5. It was decided to start a new International research program on Cave Climate of the UIS Commission on Physical Chemistry and Hydrogeology of Karst. Its main purpose is to improve the experimental techniques for measurements of the climatic parameters in caves and to generate proper models of the cave climate. It will contribute also to the Speleothem Records of Environmental Changes program (led by Y. Shopov) by studying the influence of the cave climate on the quality and modulation of the speleothem records. Professor Giovanni Badino (University of Torino, Italy) will be the leader of the program. He will prepare the draft of the program and the commission president will distribute it amongst the commission members and all other cave researchers to involve all interested persons in the program. 6. It was decided to support introduction of the new method of Professor Vl. Tolmachev for assessment of the degree of risk from garbage disposal in karst regions and his result for Russian karst sited at the local government. 7

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Abstracts
of the International Workshop on:

Cave Climate and Paleoclimate- Best Record of the Global Change

Paleoseismic Events and Effects in Karst in Deformed Terrains in Bulgaria and Morocco
Dora Angelova*, Mhamed Alaeddine Belfoul**, Sophia Bouzid**, Farid Faik** *Geological Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, e-mail: doraangelova@hotmail.com ** Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Ibnou Zohr University, Agadir 80000, Morocco, The present work considers the paleoseismic disturbances establishment till now in neotectonically deformed edges of the High-Atlas (Morocco) and Stara Planina (Bulgaria) mountain systems. The investigation of the paleoseismic disturbances of the geological-geomorphologic environment in similar terrains is of substantial importance, since the tectonic processes in them have not reached the stage of attenuation. Moreover, the terrains of these phenomena are subjected to considerable contemporary natural and anthropogenic impacts. According to the evaluated degree of the ecological hazard they are characterized as strongly or catastrophically hazardous terrains . The considered karst terrains in Bulgaria and Morocco have similar geological-tectonic characteristics. The subjected to karstification rocks and rock complexes are of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous age. The style of tectonics in both mountain morphostructural units (the High-Atlas and Stara Planina ones) has brittle-plastic tendency. The brittle structures in the Wintimdouine area (the High-Atlas Mts.) are represented by opened E synclines (regional structures) and by local pleated centimeter crumplings with N vergency and E -W -W high sloping reversed microfaults. Towards the axial part a strike joint network exists, which is compatible with the folding trend. In the same way, conjugated sinistral NNE-SSW and dextral NNW-SSE strike-slip faults are observed. The karstic device shows also stylolitic joints of diagenetic origin but mainly as tectonic stress result that underlines the compression in N-S direction. The tectonic slits are with various directions, the NNE-SSW and NNW-SSE being the dominating ones. The disharmony folds are localized mainly in the strongly crumbled levels that materialize the gravitation gliding process. The Wintimdouine cave (19.7 km) is situated in the studied karst region. It is the most famous and the longest underground karst system in N Africa. Disturbances in the growth of speleothems in the range of several centimeters have been established in it in horizontal plan to the S. The welding edge is formed where new calcite crystallization takes place. Except the horizontal shear movements, vertical shear movements are recorded in the speleothems too. Samples have been collected for the dating the seismic events. An attempt is made to observe the development of speleothems and of some surface disturbances in the relief caused by the disastrous earthquake in Agadir (M = 5.5) on 29.02.1960, which took the life of more than 12 000 people in 10-12 seconds. The considered two regions in the Stara Planina morphostructure include tectonic strategic units belonging to the strongly deformed edge of the Moezian microplate with craton structure since the Paleozoic till now, as well as parts of the contemporary relicts from Austrian, Laramian and Illyrian collision orogens. The Alpine orogen was formed at the expense of the closing Tethys ocean between the constantly converging deformed edges of the lithosphere plates of Eurasia, Africa and Arabia. The Illyrian pleating created the regional fold structures of the Mezdra and Izdremets synclines and local disturbances in their architecture from WNW to NNW. Simultaneously 8

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

with the Illyrian and especially with the Atian thrusting a number of faults (110-120) and laminations along horizontal planes were realized. The gliding between layers were fixed in the sliding folds, the furrows beside the sliding folds and identical stylolites. They are oriented perpendicularly to the axes of the fold structures and were formed at the expense of the earlier originated cracks. Global rearrangement of stresses occurred in the Stara Planina multiphase orogen after the Atian tectonic phase. As a result of this, the4 complex tectonic circumstances became still more complicated due to the regional extension. All this led to the outlevelling and rotation of the main block structures. The contrast in the vertical rising of the terrains of the Izdremets and Mezdra synclines was enhanced during the Wallachian tectonic phase and especially after it. In contemporary morphostructural plan they built blocks of the mountain and fore-mountain units of the Stara Planina horst-block system. The block differentiation in both regions was accompanied by release of the accumulated seismic energy. The natural karst surface and underground systems in both regions are very specific and depend on the regional and local geodynamic development of the investigated territories. For this reason the localized in them paleoseismic effects and events have very specific morphology, genesis and time of origin. In most of the cases these are one-act and repeatedly displayed events. The present work emphasizes on the seismic-tectonic indicators that have disturbed the natural-geological-geomorphologic environment, as well as the contemporary stressed state of the relief and its energy. The established paleoseismic events have been systematized.

Main Stages in Karst Morphogenesis in West and Central North Bulgaria


Dora Angelova Geological Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev St., Bl. 24 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria, e-mail: doraangelova@hotmail.com The present work represents a part of the systematic study of karst morphogenesis in Bulgaria. The investigated territory is a part of the Moezian microplate with craton structure since the Paleozoic till now. The geodynamic development of the Moezian microplate is connected with the opening and closing of the ocean basins of the Tethys and Neotethys and the subsequent collision and post-collision graben formation. Under the influence of planetary, global, regional and local paleogeographic conditions and repeated changes of marine and continental circumstances, the carbonate and rock complexes were formed as well as the different types of natural karst. The degree of karstification depends on the duration of the effects of combined factors on the limestone complexes. Paleo and neokarst have been established in the investigated territory in geohistoric respect. In its turn, karst is divided into plain, plateau-like and mountain, fossilized and opened one. The plain type of paleokarst was formed during theBerriasian, the Lower Hauterivian, the Aptian, the Sarmatian, the Pliocene, the Quaternary and the contemporary stage. In many cases it is covered by younger formations. Only in single cases it is opened karst (in the valleys of contemporary rivers) and is rejuvenated as a result of the neotectonic or contemporary geodynamic processes. The oldest karst established on the territory is Devonian (found now at a depth of 3206 to 4014 m) in NW Bulgaria (the Gomotartsi village, Vidin district). It is storrey-structured karst. The karstified zone exceeds 700 m. Moreover, it is ore bearing karst type. The paleokarst was developed during the Carboniferous and is established at a depth of 2435-2516 m in dolomites. Thermal water with temperature t = 90C is found in it.

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Several paleokarst zones have been established at a depth between-2500 m in the Triassic and Jurassic limestone. The karst is of the plain type and is filled with water, oil and gas. Plateau-like and moutain ore-bearing karst type is observed to the south. As a result of the regression during the Upper Bartonian, a thin karst zone was formed (40-50 m) in the Biossian carbonate rocks, because the regression was of small duration. This paleokarst complex represents a collector of thermal and subthermal water. There were favorable conditions in the investigated territory for enhanced karstification during the Berriasian. The karstified zone has a thickness of 200-300 m and is situated at present at a depth of 1000-2000 m. The intensive karst erosion and denudation was controlled by positive tectonic movements under the conditions of Mediterranean climate. After this stage of pulsating tectonic movements the investigated territory was flooded by marine water and the paleokarst forms were covered everywhere by carbonate sediments. A paleokarst zone was formed during the Lower Hauterivian too, with a thickness of the karstified sediments of up to 300 m typical plain-type karst, formed under similar natural circumstances as during the Berriasian and filled with mineral and thermal water. At the end of the Barremian the karst terrains in Central and NW Bulgaria were completely dried up and a paleokarst zone reaching 500 m was formed due to the favorable tropical climate. During the Paleogene, Neogene and the Quaternary, the karst development was related with the development of the Fore-Carpathian basin, the formation of the Stara Planina Mountain, the Fore Balkan and the Danubian Plain. Various karst types were formed (plain, plateau-like and mountainous). Each regression and transgression was accompanied by changes of the regional and local erosion bases as well as by transformations of the basic karst types into transitional ones.

Conditions For Karst Development In The Strandja Mountain


Dora Angelova, Yordan Malyakov Geological Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria, e-mail: Karst in the Strandja Mountain is widely distributed. It is represented by natural surface karst (karren, gullies, travertine terraces and other karst types) and underground karst (caves) and ore-bearing and anthropogenic karst (artificial galleries related mainly with ancient mining activities). The karst forms were shaped in dolomites, dolomitized limestones and marbles. The rocks and rock complexes are of different age (Devonian Lower Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic) and are in complex relationships between themselves and the non-karstified rocks. In most of the cases the rocks are recrystallized, with massive to not clearly stratified structure and strongly variable thickness from 8 to 600 m depending on their tectonic position. The rocks had been strongly processed tectonically during four phases of structure formation. The karst processes are developed also along the six crack groups in the contact zones of the repeatedly over-thrusted old rocks and rock complexes on the Upper Cretaceous volcanic and volcanogenic-sediment rocks. The contemporary active karst processes take place in the five crack groups and they have faded only in the first group.

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

The karstified areas in the Strandja Mountain amount to about 500 km2 . The precipitation in these areas reaches about 400 million m3 . Only 20 % of the precipitation are infiltrated in the surface karst. The atmospheric water feeds directly or indirectly the underground karst water. The drainage is realized in more than 150 springs with very changeable flowrate (for example Golemia Vriz spring 40 l/s), fluctuating within the range of 3 to 50 times depending on the season (maximal in February and March and minimal in August and September) and the depth of circulation. The karst water is with hydrocarbonate content and has good drinking quality with no pollution. The karst development in this specific geological-tectonic phenomenon, influenced by the Mediterranean climate and vegetation, is also closely connected with the development of the river-ravine network in the Strandja Mountain and the Black Sea basin. The river-ravine erosion network in the investigated territory and the affiliated to it springing underground karst water responded to all tectonic and eustatic fluctuations during the Quaternary. The continuous and cyclic fluctuations combined with the lithostructural control were the reason for the development and diversity of the karst. Copper, iron, gold and especially mineral and rock lining materials have been discovered, extracted and processed in the karst since the Eneolithic till now. This has disturbed the integrity of the karst ecosystems. Some of the natural caves are related with the Bulgarian history from the periods prior to and during the Christian times. The investigation of the karst in the Strandja Mountain is a very important problem from the point of view of preserving one of the most unique natural and architectural-historic reserves in Eastern Europe with relict and endemic protected surface and underground flora and fauna.

Rates Of Condensation Corrosion In Speleothems Of Semi-Arid Northeastern Brazil


*, Augusto S. Auler Peter L. Smart School of Geographical Sciences University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1SS, England

The karst areas of northeastern Brazil hold very extensive cave systems such as Southern Hemispheres longest cave, the 97 km long Toca da Boa Vista. These caves show remarkable features of subaerial dissolution by acidic condensation such as cupolas, weathered cave walls yielding dolomitic sand, scallops, and corroded speleothems. Weathering rinds up to 5 cm thick occur on both dolomite bedrock and speleothem surfaces. Unlike the dolomite rock, speleothems do not disintegrate but change to a milky white opaque porous calcite. Rates of condensation corrosion were derived by determining thickness of weathering rind and U-series age of last unaltered calcite. Rates obtained vary over two orders of magnitude (0,4 0,0008 mm/ka) and appear to be highly site specific. These rates represent minimum rates because speleothem growth ceased later than age obtained, and also corrosion may not be continuous in time. Much higher condensation corrosion rates have been reported from the very different climatic and geomorphic setting of coastal Caribbean caves, suggesting that the process in semi-arid Brazilian caves may be episodic.
*

Present address: CPMTC Departamento de Geografia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, BRAZIL

The Yagodina cave - between Chalcolithic and Bronze Age


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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Maya Avramova Institute of Thracology Bulgarian Academy of Sciences The archeological excavations carried out in recent years in the Yagodina cave have brought to light a major pottery center and have provided an important documentation on economy, the way of life and the evolution of population who lived in the Central Rodopi during the 4th millennium BC. The Yagodina cave was only occupied during the winter. It would seem that this pottery centre of the late Neolithic period and the period of transition preceding the Bronze Age was important. The archeological survey shows the proximity of the raw materials necessary for the potters, the large amount of tools and ceramic productions together with a variety of kilns and decorations, fruit of highly sophisticated technique.

Physics of cave climate and its relationship with the external environment.
Giovanni Badino Dip.to Fisica Generale Universit di Torino, Associazione La Venta, Italy The caves allow the inclusion of internal parts of karstic mountains in the processes of Earth atmosphere. The underground climate is then defined by the external climate "filtered" by the cave structure and mainly by the enormous thermal capacity of mountain that acts as a low-pass filter, that smooths sudden changes but it is crossed by long time-scale changes. A general discussion on Global Climatic Changes response of cave systems is done.

Hydrogeological background of Toplia karst spring area (Central Fore-Balkan, Bulgaria)


1

Aleksey Benderev1 , Vladimir Hristov1 , Ivan Stefanov2 Geological Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria 2 ET Geo-Ivan Stefanov, 1463 Sofia, Bulgaria

The spring Toplia is composed of several separate manifestations, draining significantly karstified Triassic carbonate rocks. Their locations are associated with geological and geomorphological features. The springs are used for water supply of many populated areas. The aim of this study is the resource assessment and quality study of karst groundwater. For the first time the catchment zone of the springs is defined and it does not coincide with the river catchments. The main water recharge is provided by infiltration of precipitation as well by temporary and permanent surface waters. The high rock karstification is a reason for a considerable flow rate fluctuation of the springs. The data for a long monitoring period (several years) are taken under consideration in order to clarify the possibilities for karst waters utilization. On the base of statistical flow rate analysis a regime of exploitation is recommended. The data of water quality are also processed. The waters are not contaminated due to the small anthropological impact on the catchment areas.

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

The water flows of the springs fluctuate in a wide range that causes considerable changes of the transported carbonate substance from the massif. The results obtained for the recent denudation processes are compared to similar data published for other regions of the country.

Disaggregation Modelling of Spring Discharges


Elena Kirilova Bojilova National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria Bulgaria, 1784 Sofia, Tzarigradsko chausse 66, NIMH-BAS, Department of Hydrology, Fax: +(3592) 9 88 44 84, E-mail: Elena.Bojilova@meteo.bg Disaggregation models are basically divided into three main groups: temporal, spatial and temporal-spatial. The focus of this paper is application of temporal disaggregation models for to disaggregate the seasonal flow in some large time intervals to sub-seasonal flows in some shorter time intervals. Two basic models are applied: the Original model of Mejia and Rousselle and the corrected extended Lin model one-stage disaggregation. The flow totals from some karstic springs are used. Data for five springs in different areas of Bulgaria for the aims of the study are executed. The synthetic data generation for the chosen spring stations for a n realisation of thirty years is obtained. ew The multi-variate lag-one auto regressive model ( AR (1) model) is applied for generation of the annual flow sequences. The Lin model single-site is performed for thirty years generation period. The Lin model is improvement compare to the original extended model (M-R model). The new Lin approach succeeds in the preservation of the additivity as well as the moments. Applying the Lin model one-stage disaggregation results in consistent model parameter estimates. As a second step in the research multi-site disaggregation schemes are used.

SOME CONCLUSIONS In design and operation of water resource systems the stochastic modelling plays a very important role. In this study disaggregation models were applied. As a result spring discharge sequences were generated. In the study, the applicability of the temporal disaggregation models was tested for selected karstic springs in Bulgaria. Two models for a single- and multi-site disaggregation scheme were applied. The following conclusions can be drawn: The corrected parameter estimation in the Lin model succeeded in preservation of the additivity and the covariance matrices as expected. The corrected Lin model is an improvement compared to the extended Mejia and Rousselle model.

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

The Lin model preserves the first two statistical moments and the covariance matrices rather well. However, the preservation of the second-order statistical moment (variance and covariance) is poorer than that of the first-order moment (mean), and the third-order (skewness) is even worse. Both models are suitable for disaggregation of the karstic spring flows with snowmelt conditions together with rainfall in the catchment areas. They are applicable for the specific climatic and hydrological conditions of Bulgaria. Furthermore, the best result was obtained from the corrected extended model, one-stage disaggregation for single-site approach.

In the research the models were used in the multi-site approach up to two -stations-at-a-time. The further studies should be carried out to test applicability of the models to more sites. Another interesting possibility for the future research is to apply the disaggregation models to the non-perennial springs.

Holocene rapid climatic oscillations in the sub-Mediterranean continental environment, recorded in a stalagmite from Poleva Cave (Southern Carpathians, Romania)
Emil Racovita Institute of Speleology, str. Frumoasa 11, R-78114 Bucuresti 12, Romania. Dept. of Geology and Paleontology, Karl-Franzens University, Heinrichstr. 26, A-8010 Graz, Austria. Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada. 4 Department of Geology, University of Bergen, Allgaten 41, 5007 Bergen, Norway.
2 1

Silviu Constantin1 , Ana-Voica Bojar2 , Joyce Lundberg3 & Stein-Erik Lauritzen4

Keywords: stochastic modelling, disaggregation models, karstic spring discharge.


In the past years, a large number of papers have been dedicated to the use of speleothems as paleoclimatic indicators by measuring the stable isotopes (usually 18 O and 13 C) variations along their axis, which reflect variations in mean annual surface temperature. The development of the U -series TIMS dating techniques allowed a very accurate time-calibration of such profiles, thus enabling direct correlations with both marine oxygen isotopic cycles and with other records of global climatic change. Since the supply of percolation water (and thus, speleothem deposition) is generally prevented both during very cold or very warm climatic episodes, it appears very likely that the speleothems formed either at northern latitudes (e.g. in the subArctic) or southern latitudes (e.g. the Mediterranean) may only preserve an incomplete record of the climatic variations. For this reason, our studies have focused on speleothems collected from caves located in the sub-mediterranean region of SW Romania, reasonably far from the influence of the NW Europe (Atlantic) circulation and also from the arid conditions of the SE Mediterranean. Stalagmite PP10 has been collected from Poleva Cave, located in the close vicinity of the Danube Gorge (SW Romania). It is a candlestick stalagmite, c. 70 cm-long; its diameter decreases from some 56 cm at the base, to some 22.5 cm after only 18 cm and remains constant along the speleothem suggesting a rapid growth and possibly evaporative (low relative humidity) conditions (Dreybrodt, 1988). A preliminary U-series alpha-spectrometric date of the base 2.5 cm yielded an age of 61.711 ka; the relatively high error of the dating is due to the low Uranium content (~0.05 ppm) of the sample. Seven high-resolution TIMS-dates have been subsequently performed on sub-samples taken along the speleothem; they yielded ages in correct stratigraphical order, ranging from ~48 ka at ~7 cm from the base to ~3 ka at c. 5 cm below the top, with typical analytical errors of 12% (2) for ages younger than 15 ka. The morphologic and structural analysis of the growth laminae together with the interpretation of TIMS and alpha dates suggest that the speleothem has experienced a brief episode of growth cessation just before ~48 ka, and a longer depositional hiatus located in time somewhere between ~25 ka and ~12 ka and corresponding to the last glacial maximum.

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Along the speleothem axis, 154 stable isotopes samples were collected, at 0.5 cm intervals, and analyzed for 18 O and C, with typical 1 of 0.1 . The time-resolution of the sampling corresponds to ~ 2 ka/sample for the lower part of the stalagmite (slow-growing) and to ~15040 years/sample for the upper (candlestick-like) part whose growth was considerably faster. This high resolution has enabled the identification of several clear-marked, rapid, climatic oscillations during the last 12,000 years or so.
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The isotopic profile of the lower part of the stalagmite reveals several climatic oscillations during Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 4 and 3, which are well-documented from other continental and marine records, such as the deglacial event at ~54 ka, an important glacial event between c. 47 and 41 ka, and the marked warming between ~ 32 and 28 ka (Denekamp). This profile also confirms the conclusions of Constantin & Lauritzen (1999) that the climate during MIS 4 was not cold enough such as to prevent speleothem growth, while on the contrary, no calcite deposition has been so far documented during the last glacial maximum, even at those lower latitudes. The upper part of the stalagmite has delivered a detailed oxygen isotopic profile over the last 12 ka, recording several important rapid oscillations that may be correlated globally. The Younger Dryas (YD) event has been clearly recorded at ~10.5 ka, as well as a very well marked cooling at ~8.2 ka, which was about half the amplitude of the YD event (Alley et al., 1997). A general trend of climate warming (including rapid variation episodes with amplitudes as large as 1,5) then follows, culminating with two spikes at ~5.2 and ~3.2 ka. Overall, the isotopic profile recorded by stalagmite PP10 during the last 10,000 years is consistent with the one recorded by stalagmite PP9 form the same cave and reported by Constantin et al. (2001). The warm 3.3 ka -event seems to have a regional extent since it is clearly recorded, with roughly the same amplitude, in both stalagmites from Poleva cave and in PU2 stalagmite from western Carpathians (Onac et al., 2002) a region that lies under the Atlantic climatic influence.

References
Alley, R., B, Mayewski, P., A, Sowers, T., Stuiver, M., Taylor, K., C & Clark, P., U (1997) Holocene climatic instability: A prominent, widespread event 8200 yr ago. Geology, 25, 6, pp. 483486. Constantin, S. & Lauritzen, S.-E. (1999) Speleothem datings in SW Romania. Part 1: Evidence for a continuous speleothem growth in Pestera Closani during Oxygen Isotope stages 5-3 and its paleoclimatic significance. Theor. Appl. Karstology, 1112, pp. 3546. Constantin, S., Onac, B. P., Fleitman, D., & Tamas, T. (2001) Past vegetation changes in karst areas as revealed by a comparative isotopic study of two Holocene speleothems from Romania. IGCP 448 Newsletter 2001, Karst Dynamics Lab., Guilin, China, pp. 6773. Dreybrodt, W. (1988) Processes in karst systems. Physics, chemistry and geology. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 288 p. Onac, B. P., Constantin, S., Lundberg, J., & Lauritzen, S. -E. (2002) Isotope-climate record in a Holocene stalagmite from Ursilor Cave (Romania). J. Quaternary Science, 17, pp. 319327.

Explorative karstological research on the island Soqotra (Yemen).


P. De Geest1 , S. Verheyden2,3, E. Keppens 3 and the members of the Soqotra Karst Project4 . 1 Ottergemsesteenweg 145, 9000 Ghent, Belgium, peterdegeest@hotmail.com 2 Department of Geology, Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium 3 Department of Geology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium 4 http://www.speleo.be/socotra The Yemeni island Soqotra is approximately 3.600km large, situated in the Indian Ocean at 1230N 5350E. The island lies about 240km East of Somalia and about 380 km South of Yemen. 15

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Soqotra is situated in the arid tropical zone, but has a maritime climate with a moderate temperature regime and a high humidity. The annual temperature ranges between 23.5C to 35C in the lower parts of the island (Mies & Beyhl, 1996). At the higher plateaus and in the mountains the temperature can drop to 13.5C in January at night (Popov, 1957). There are two annual monsoon rainy seasons. The south-west monsoon from August to October (up to December) brings occasional heavy rains, while the north-east monsoon from April to May delivers a smaller amount of precipitation. The annual rainfall varies between 130 to 170mm/a (Wranik, 1996). In the mountains the potential for dew-fall and mist precipitation gives another important source for freshwater, estimated at 135mm/a (Mies & Beyhl, 1996). The flora and fauna have a high degree of endemism, due to their long geographical isolation. This unique biogeography is the subject of international UNDP-supported scientific interest in the biodiversity of the island. Soqotra is composed of a basement complex of igneous and metamorphic rocks of Pre-Cambrian age, overlain by sedimentary rocks. These latter Cretaceous, Palaeocene to Eocene and Oligocene to Miocene formations consist mainly of limestone and sandstone (Beydoun & Bichan, 1970). Vast limestone plateaus, averaging from 300 to 700m masl, are dissected by a number of deep valleys and extend directly into the sea or have deep escarpments at most of the coastal plain. Especially the Palaeocene to Eocene limestone formation, covering more than half the islands surface, shows a variety of karstic features indicating an enormous cave potential. During two consequent winters (December 2000 January 2001 and February 2002) one of us (P. De Geest) headed a team that spent in a total period of three weeks prospecting several limestone areas throughout the island. We found 15 caves, of which 12 were explored. We completely or partially mapped 4 caves and 1 cenote: Hoq cave is situated at the north-east side of the island, near the village Terbac. It is a fossil to semi-active cave of 3.1km. The main gallery is about 2.4km long, sub-horizontal and with an average width and height of respectively 60m and 30m. The cave has temperature ranging between 24C and 27C and a humidity up to 96%. There is an abundance of active and fossil speleothems, some up to 32m high. There are still some minor galleries that need further exploration. Giniba cave is situated at the south-central part of the island on the Deksam plateau near Wadi Berk. It is a sub-horizontal gallery of 3.2km, alternated with vast rooms (200m x 150m x100m). The temperature inside these rooms is approximately 30C with a humidity of 98%. Some parts of the main gallery must flood annually during the rainy seasons and form gigantic sumps. 1.4km inside the cave we found an active waterfall, which drained freshwater deeper inside the limestone formation. There are very large, 1m up to 40m high river deposits with an alternation of pebbles, sand and mud. There are few speleothems inside this cave. The exploration is not finished.

Pit cave is also situated at the south-central part of the island on the Deksam plateau near Wadi Berk north of Giniba cave. It is a cave system of 1.8km, which consists of large galleries underneath a dry valley, alternated with entrance pits with depths between 60m up to 100m. There are some speleothems and a big calcite river dam, but also lots of rounded well sorted pebbles transported by underground rivers, which are probably activated annually. The total vertical range of the cave system reaches 200m. 16

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Bat cave is situated near Wadi Ashui at Anhuh village. It is a small, 26m long cave, existing of two chambers. In one of them we found a small colony of longtailed bats (Rhinopoma hardwikey). Bluedive is a cenote with salty water situated near the seashore at the village Ghubbah. It is an almost circular karstic feature with a diameter of 45m. We dived it to a depth of 32m. There is a peculiar thermocline at a depth of 25m, which needs further research. This phenomenon can give us more information about ancient sealevel differences. The other explored caves are situated on the karstic plateau of Momi (Kasekas, Dahaisi, House cave and two unnamed entrances to which one has to climb), at the Deksam plateau (Biocave and Little 2), at the cliffs of the southern Nogeed plain (Dejub cave) and near Anhuh at the Wadi Ashui (Bee cave, Goat cave, Pottery cave). We assume that the caves visited are just a small minority (estimated only 1%) of the total karst potential of the island. We are convinced that further, more profound research on the Soqotran cave-systems is interesting for several reasons: Hydrology: During each year floods are alternated with water scarcity. Mapping the caves can bring more inside information about active subterranean freshwater drainage and the islands hydrogeological systems in general. Palaeoclimate: The Indian Ocean Monsoon shows some variability in time, place and strength during the Quaternary. Stable isotopic and geochemical studies of speleothem records and of the cave environments may lead to a better understanding of the palaeoclimatic evolution in this interesting area. Some caves harboured remarkable, hitherto undiscovered archaeological finds as well as endemic organisms. They can deliver more information about the cultural history and the biological evolution on the island.

References: .Beydoun Z.R. & Bichan H.R. 1970. The geology of Socotra Island, Gulf of Aden. Q. Jl geol. Soc. Lond. vol. 125: 413-446. .Mies B.A. & Beyhl F.E. 1996. The vegetation ecology of Soqotra. In Proceeding of the First International Symposium on Soqotra Island: Present & Future. Soqotra Technical Series, Vol 1: 35-81. United Nations Publications, New York. .Popov G. 1957. The vegetation of Socotra. J. linn. Soc. London 55: 706-720. .Wranik W. 1996. Faunistic Notes on Soqotra island. In Proceeding of the First International Symposium on Soqotra Island: Present & Future. Soqotra Technical Series, Vol. 1: 135-198. United Nations Publications, New York.

The "Grotte de Hotton" karstic network: relationships between tectonics, cartography and karstogenesis. Paleoseismic implications.
Serge DELABY Service de Geologie Fondamentale et Applique (GFA) 17

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Faculte Polytechnique de Mons, Rue de Houdain, 9, B - 7000 Mons The Hotton cave is one of the most famous karstic networks of Belgium that has been developed in the Givetian limestones in the Ardennes. The cave was investigated with karstic, structural and morphogenetic studies in order to integrate all these aspects in the genesis and the history of the cave. The Hotton region is structured in reversed series of the Halleux Anticline formed during the Hercynian folding, followed by strike-slip and reverse faulting, with tension gashes and stylolithes tardi-Hercynian in age. The cave reveals also recent tectonics through indirect features. The Hotton karstic network is structured along NE-SW fractures due to extensional tectonics in NW-SE extension. More recently, broken speleothems called "sismothems" suggest a seismic origin, possibly related to a strong earthquake very close to the Hotton cave.

Climate versus History (Climatology and History of the 7-th c. European epidemics revisited)
Dimitar Dimitrov, FLS Target: the complexity of the cross-issues, concerning the physical and the social aspects of human response to climatic changes, and their impact on History. Theses: Modern science has conceptualized the character and chronology of the climatic changes, defining their role as a trigger-key for the outburst of epidemics. While the links between the prolonged periods of cold and rain and the two massive epidemics in Europe (7th c. and 14th c.) have been well established, the gap between the data offered by the climatologists and toxicologists on one side and the interpretation of historians on the other, still remains a mystery.
th This issue is particularly significant when we discuss the 7 c epidemics the so called Justinian Black dead, because it coincided with the aftermath of the Great migration of people, which had a profound effect on the demographic and political status-quo of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe.

The conventional historical view, which maintains that the balance of the population structure changed in favor of the agricultural new-comer, at the expense of the nomadic arrival, has been challenged here with the use of sound evidences from the non-historians side the toxicology. Conclusion: The author postulates that the exposure to a neutral science derives a new vision for this formative period of the Balkan socio-cultural developments, demonstrating a more realistic picture of its character.

Geological Evidences for the Noahs Flood in the Black Sea.Evidences for a Major Earthquake 7600 BP.

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Petko Dimitrov, Dimitar P. Dimitrov Institute of Oceanology of BAS, Varna city, Bulgaria Authors present a number of geologic, climatic, oceanographic and archeological evidences that the Noahs Flood happened in the Black Sea. Analysis of the data obtained in the last 20 years suggests an exceptionally large natural catastrophe in the Black Sea 7600 yrs. . 8 9 thousand yrs. BP (after 14 dating) Black Sea was a sweet water lake with coasts 90 120 m below the recent day sea level. A catastrophic extremely rapid flooding of the Black Sea by the Mediterranean sea waters happened during the last interglacial warming. It produced deposits of geocatastrophic type- sapropels. They consist of up to 2 meters thick deposit of dead organic matter from the sweet- water organisms killed by the invasion of ocean waters with 380 /00 salinity. Its age is 7600 . . At that time the global sea level was 30 - 40 m bellow the modern one, while the Black sea was 120 m. Flooding of the Black sea happened in result of breaking of the Bosphors dividing wall. Probably this happened in result of activization of seismo- techtonic processes in the region. A number of archeological evidences suggesting, that this catastrophe is exactly the Noahs Flood are found around the former sea coast, far below the sea surface.

Evolution of Golpazar-Huyuk Karst System (Bilecik-Turkey): Indications of Tectonic and Climatic Controls
Mehmet Ekmekci* and Ltf Nazik** *International Research Center For Karst Water Resources Hacettepe University, Beytepe Ankara Turkey ** Cave Research Group, Geological Survey Division General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration Ankara Turkey The Golpazari-Huyuk karst system is located in the Central Sakarya Basin whose geomorphologic evolution is mainly controlled by the Post-Miocene epirogenic continental rise. Drastic change in the drainage topology and dissection of the carbonate platform were the major consequences of this tectonic movement. Rapid incision of the Sakarya river changed the position of the erosion base which consequently distorted the direction of surface and subsurface flow. The Golpazari and Huyuk plains are two geometrically distinct, flat bottomed geomorphic features separated by carbonate rock mass. The Golpazari plain is elongated in shape and has a surface area of about 30 km2 . Whereas, the Huyuk plain having an area of about 15 km2 has a rather irregular shape. The difference in elevation between these 10 km distant plains is 300 m. Morphological, geological and hydrological behavior of the plains suggests that both plains have functioned as karstic closed basins connected to each other through subsurface flow paths. Drainage have changed from subsurface to surface after the emplacement of the Sakarya river into its modern course, which, today crosses the lower Huyuk plain at the western edge. The lower Huyuk plain is surrounded by high carbonate rock mass of Jurassic age and covered by fine alluvial deposits while the upper Golpazari plain is bordered by various rocks of different lithological and age characteristics. In this study, the authors suggest a conceptual model to reconstruct the hydrological-geomorphological processes that have been effective in the evolution of this karst terrain. The methodology is based on the records preserved in the morphological and sedimentological archives as well as the hydrogeological setting in the study 19

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

area. According to the suggested model, the present landscape which exhibits a late stage of karstification has evolved in three main phases. The first phase represents karstification of carbonate rocks of Jurassic age at the Huyuk area and the limestone of Paleocene age at the Golpazari area. This region must have been significantly elevated from the karstification (erosion) base. The geomorphologic and drainage setting reveal that the karstification is controlled mainly by major drainage elements in Late Miocene-Early Pliocene. Subsurface hydrologic connection was established between the Golpazari polje and the Huyuk karst depression that have been developed during this phase. The Huyuk depression which was flooded by the discharge of the Golpazari polje, was drained by ponors (open gorge today) located at the northwest edge of the depression. The second phase is characterized by the uplift of the region and the subsequent rapid drainage during the pluvial period. This initiated and accelerated the fluviokarstic processes in the region which caused a rapid mechanical erosion accompanied by chemical dissolution. As a consequence of erosion of the limestone rock masses, the underlying impervious layers became shallower. This process continued until the ponors that drained the polje were completely clogged and the polje turned out to be a lake in late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene. The third phase represents re-arrangement of drainage pattern and related geomorphologic processes mainly controlled by tectonic movements during Early Pleistocene. Consequently, surface drainage started in the Golpazari lake. Meanwhile Sakarya river incised its way through the fractured carbonate rocks, capturing also the Huyuk depression complex. It was concluded that this specific area comprise unique archives that records of the evolution of the Central Sakarya Basin which requires more detailed and quantitative analyses of particularly the paleo and modern drainage pattern, sediment and pollens as indicators of paleoclimate and paleohydrology and surface and subsurface karst morphology including cave deposits within the framework of research program scheduled toward this purpose.

Triaxial Tests With High Confined Pressure of Calciferous Travertines from Beni-Mellal (Morocco)
Mustapha Filahi Faculty of Science and Techniques, Beni Mellal 23000 Morocco, e-mail: filahi@yahoo.fr The present work deals with the strength characteristics of calciferous travertines that form the geological substrate in the region of Beni-Mellal, Morocco. The triaxial tests have been developed in Morocco because of their extreme importance for practical realizations and studies of the above mentioned materials under conditions of high pressures. The three-dimensional tests with the calciferous travertines were aimed at determining the characteristics of the studied rocks and the envelope of the Mohr's circles in particular, for destruction under compressive loading. The tests provided the possibility of establishing a characteristic stress for the calciferous travertine or the so-called transition yield stress, above which the destruction criterion becomes a concave curve, thus obtaining the typical behaviour for the high average pressures applied on the sample. The knowledge about this non-linear envelope curve for the rocks and concrete is necessary for applying a realistic criterion for the dimensioning and calculation concerning rocks and concrete. In this way it is possible to control the results from the performed calculations in the range of linear elasticity or under conditions of boundary equilibrium of the massif, whose 20

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

destruction is defined by the cohesion C and the friction angle Q, as defined by the classical linear method of Mohr-Coulomb.

Geoecological Assessment of The Transformation Degree Of Natural Karst Systems In Bulgaria And Morocco
Mustapha Filahi*, Dora Angelova**. Mhamed Alaeddine Belfoul*** *Faculty of Science and Techniques, Beni Mellal 23000 Morocco, e-mail: filahi@yahoo.fr **Geological Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev St., Bl. 1, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria, e-mail: doraangelova@hotmail.com ***Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Ibnou Zohr University, Agadir 80000, Morocco, e-mail: aladinbel@yahoo.fr The contemporary level of development of the productive forces and the urbanisation in Bulgaria and Morocco impose the necessity of including all natural and anthropogenic resources. The realisation of large-scale activities in the territorial infrastructure of the urban environment is connected with significant changes in the historically complex and multilateral process of interaction between man and nature. The character of utilising the natural environment predetermines the strength, depth and extent of the anthropogenic loading. It is especially sensitive in the urbanised, industrialised and economically used territories of the type of the settlement agglomerations. The karst surface and underground terrains are especially susceptible to anthropogenic effects with irreversible consequences. The present work makes an attempt for performing an integral assessment of the geoecological transformations on the basis of interdisciplinary investigations (geological, geomorphological, tectonic, geophysical, geotechnical and others) as well as for elucidating theoretical and methodological problems in the assessment of the degree of transformation of the functional relations between the surface and underground ecosystems. The selected models are the urbanised territory of Beni Mellal and the region of the Wintimdouine cave system in Morocco and the terrains around the Koshava gypsum mine and the Yailata historic cave complex in Bulgaria. The old urban part of Beni Mellal is situated on top of underground karst systems. A part of these natural systems is used for needs of civil engineering. During the recent years terrains in the region of the urban part have been deformed due to collapse, subsidence and sinking. This has brought the necessity of using a number of methods for establishing the processes that have led to these deformations. The geophysical profiling carried out according to several methods contributed to the discovery of new natural underground karst caverns that have been unknown till now. Some of them are hollow but there are also caverns filled with heterogeneous fine sediments, calcite crusts and travertines. All physico-mechanical and physicochemical properties of the karst formations and karst water (aggressiveness, pollution, etc.) have been evaluated as natural and changed assets. After the recording of these phenomena at the surface and under the ground and the evaluation of the relief energy and tectonics, zoning can be made for the terrains of Beni Mellal (with existing or envisaged construction) according to the risk degree and to undertake appropriate engineering-construction measures for liquidation of the natural and anthropogenic hazards. The endokarstic area, where is the location of the biggest karst systems in Morocco, is situated about 65 km to the north of the Agadir City. The investigation of the geodynamics in the karstic device of the Wintimdouine cave (19.7 km long) is very important, since the tectonically unstable terrain is controlled by the contemporary nd reactivation of the Agadir fault. There was a disastrous earthquake on February 2 1960 (M = 5.5), when 12000 21

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

people died in 10-12 seconds. Similar investigations prevail in this region and the methods applied are aimed at finding new evidence for evaluating the seismic activity and hazard mainly on the basis of data from geologicaltectonic, geomorphological and seismic-tectonic criteria. Investigations of speleothems were carried out during the last year. Shifted stalagmites were established that were sheared due to horizontal and vertical thrusts. Sampling 14 was also made for the dating of these anomalies by means of the U/Th and C methods. This will contribute to the more exact assessment and zoning of the terrains around the Agadir fault. The region of the gypsum mines and their surroundings in Koshava (Bulgaria) is characterised by strongly disturbed natural equilibrium. The tectonic deformations at the end of the Badenian had led to the formation of fold structures in the Sarmatian limestones. The favourable paleogeographic conditions contributed to the formation of karst pits and caves in the anticlines and to the deposition of gypsum layers (up to 31 m thick) in the synclines under lagoon circumstances. The gypsum is found at a depth of 160 to 400 m in the contemporary geological section. As a result of the mining activities there were serious collapse and subsidence events (diameter more than 50 m and depth of 10-12 m) in 1991 and 1992. Many houses, the road, the water-supply system and the graveyard were destroyed. Under the surface there were groundwater level fluctuations, flooded and collapsed mine galleries. The investigated area is characterised as calm in seismic-tectonic respect but in case of eventual seismic activity from a local source there would be significant to catastrophic collapse and subsidence. The relief of the Yailata locality (Bulgaria) is of the seismic-gravitational type and falls within a region of high seismicity, which is activated both by a local source and by earthquakes as these in Vrancea and the Crimea. The karst forms (marine and continental) are the predominant morphological types. They are strongly disturbed by paleo-, historic and contemporary repeated (about three times) earthquakes. There are rotated blocks with horizontal and vertical opened cracks. Tectonic caves, tectonic lagoon lakes, etc., were formed between the tectonic blocks. The region is characterised by catastrophic degree of ecological hazard. Historic earthquakes with large-scale floods, reactivated gravitation phenomena and processes, storm effects, erosion, abrasion, suffusion leaching of carbonates, salt water intrusion as well as exploitation pollution from oil boreholes and anthropogenically loaded territories were recorded in the area. The main methods applied for the studied terrains in Bulgaria are these of the regional geology and geomorphology and geoecology. Evaluation maps have been developed for the assessment of the geoecological hazard.

Calcite Aragonite Relations in Caves: Temperature Dependence of the Critical Mg++/Ca++ Ratio in Parent Solutions Promoting Aragonite Crystallization
Alexander Filipov Department of Mineralogy, Petrology and Economic Geology, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski
1000 Sofia, Bulgaria E-mail: filipov@gea.uni-sofia.bg

Recently, most authors relate the formation of aragonite instead of calcite under conditions of low temperatures and pressures to an increased Mg++ concentration in parent solutions. However, there are little reliable quantitative data on the critical Mg++/Ca++ ratio in natural solutions, favored aragonite deposition. The problem could be solved if data for magnesium content into calcite simultaneously deposited with aragonite and on the distribution coefficient of magnesium between calcite and parent solution (DMg) are available. Our investigations in many Bulgarian caves (temperature 10 12 o C), and in the Fuentes and Lechuza caves, Pinar del Rio province, Cuba (temperature 25 oC) have shown that in Bulgarian caves calcite simultaneously grown with aragonite have an average composition (Ca0.97Mg0.03)CO3 and DMg = 0.084 between calcite and 22

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

coexisting parent solution. With these data it is found that aragonite in Bulgarian caves is precipitated from solutions with an Mg++/Ca++ ratio near to 0.41. Respectively in the Cuban caves investigated the composition of calcite, coexisting with aragonite is (Ca0.93Mg0.07)CO3 , DMg = 0.06, and the critical Mg++/Ca++ ratio in solutions, promoting aragonite deposition is found to be near to 1.2. These findings show that an increasing of the temperature increase both the critical Mg++/Ca++ ratio in parent solutions, favored aragonite deposition and the magnesium content into calcite simultaneously deposited with aragonite, and decrease the distribution coefficient of magnesium between calcite and parent solution.

INTERPRETATIVE POSSIBILITIES FOR ROCK-CUT TOPOI OF FAITH IN AND AROUND NATURAL CAVES

Valeria Fol Institute for Thracology Bulgarian Academy of Sciences The rock-cut mega-complexes Harman Kaya, Svirachi, Markovi stupenki (Kumanovo, Macedonia) are differenciated around natural caves. The most impressive Harman Kaya, a site registered around 60 years ago, had developed around a small n atural cave on a non-high plateau. In front of the cave there is the highest concentration of late eneolithic ceramics in the mega-complex. Trapezoidal shaped niches are hewn in the vertical rock next to the entrance. In the foot of the plateau there is one more Karst cave with traces of treatment. As V. Mikov had noticed, according to the ceramics, the place had been used unceasingly from the end of the eneolithic period until the 1st . century A. D. The archaeo-astronomical research of the two platforms hewn in the rocks, one platform of which is round, had served most probably for a measurement of the year cycle and determination of the equinoxes and solstices. The plateau crowned with rocks, in which the cave is, dominates over the environment and is naturally enforced. The sacred space had been additionally characterized the rock peak with the cave had been separated. In this space people had entered through an entrance formed between rocks and closed with a door, the threshold and groove of which are apparent in the rocks. In the outer sacred place are situated the platforms hewn in the rocks, the foundations of chambers, stairs, sacrificial pits, altars, basins (may be purificational ones). There are also obvious the beds for wooden constructions hewn in the horizontal rocks (chambers, shelters ?). The rain water was lead out of the chamber through furrows incised in the horizontal rocks. In this outer sacred space there are towered above rocks with hewn in them trapezoidal niches and sacrificial altars.

Explorations in U/Pb dating of calcite speleothems


Derek Ford, FRSC, Emeritus Professor of Geography and Geology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada. In principle, calcite or aragonite speleothems may be dated by U-Pb isochron concordia if (i) initial 204Pb:206Pb: 207 Pb is uniform and low, and (b) if U concentration varied significantly during the calcite deposition. This offers the extremely exciting prospect of dating speleothems from ~200,000y BP to the oldest on the planet, potentially a 23

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

major contribution to Quaternary and older chronology, to geomorphic evolution, and to studies of paleokarst (buried) surfaces and cavities and fillings such as Mississippi Valley Type lead/zinc deposits (MVT) in them. The earliest dates for carbonate rocks were of Archean stromatolites by Moorbath (Oxford) in 1987. Farquhar (University of Toronto) dated a limestone in 1989 and investigated paleokarst spar samples from the Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico supplied from a collection at McMaster University. They were not sucessful. In the mid90s Richards et al (1998; Geochim et Cosmochim Acta, 62(23-4)) obtained success with a young British speleothem, matching its age with an earlier McMaster alpha spectrometry date on the sample. 1996-2000 the author experimented with specimens from a wide range of settings (i) frost-shattered stalagmites from caves antedating the late Tertiary erosion surface around Salzburg in the Alps; (ii) lake wall deposits (clouds) from the lowest point in Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico, (iii) very high U (25-100 ppm) flowstones from arctic Canada and (iv) a spring travertine body 1800 m in length and 40 m thick, now raised 200 m above the Ebro Valley, Spain, by Tertiary fault activity. All failed due to lack of range in initial U concentration, even the large travertine. However, a Guadalupe spar filling an ancient cave and found to display big O and C isotope shifts during its growth succeeded, yielding ages between 86+/-12 and 95+/-7.3 Ma from a paleokarst hitherto assigned to the Oligocene. It is concluded that the majority of carbonate speleothems may not be datable by the method. A large range in U content (at least one order of magnitude?) seems essential.

Climate: the pacemaker for human culture evolution during the prehistoric age in Aegean Sea, Greece.
Maria Geraga, George Papatheodorou, Stella Tsaila-Monopoli, George Ferentinos. Correspondence should be addressed to Maria Geraga e-mail: gferen@upatras.gr During the last three to four decades archaeologists, in order to investigate more precisely the evolution of human civilization through time, have studied in detail the environmental conditions which prevailed in rockshelter and cave sites and have delineated interactions which developed between humans and the environment. In this concept sediment records from prehistoric rockshelter and cave sites from the eastern Mediterranean area have been studied in great detail. Here, high resolution palaeoclimatic data derived from marine sediments from the SW Aegean Sea, Greece, is presented and is correlated with the geoarchaeological studies from the adjacent Franchthi Cave. The results of this comparison demonstrate that the climate was a significant mechanism controlling the sedimentary record and the evolution of human culture in the Franchthi Cave since the Paleolithic at least in this area.

The role of the environmental archaeologist in the study and the reconstruction of cave paleoclimate.
Maria Gkioni Department of Prehistoric Archaeology, University of Athens. e-mail: gkioni@edoeap.gr As archaeology belongs to human sciences, it puts its interest in the reconstruction of mans past life, in which, one of the most important points, is the reconstruction of the paleoenvironment. With reference to D. Dincauze who claims that as a factor in paleoenvironmental reconstruction, climate is the crucial fundamental , one can easily understand how important is the knowledge of the paleoclimates. It is certain that the climate 24

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

oscillations played a definite role in humans evolution (both in natural and cultural evolution). That is what has created archaeological interest for the paleoclimate reconstruction. Especially for the archaeologist who works on prehistoric research and cannot have any written information about the past, the relationship between nature and culture could be very fertile. This was the reason why, encouraged also by the fact that archaeology came in contact with the natural sciences, a particular branch in the archaeological studies, the environmental archaeology, was finally created, 30 years ago. At that time, the scientific interest for the conservation of the international cultural heritage helped this berth. The environmental archeologist started looking for the traces which can help him answer the questions about how man perceived the environment and especially the climate and its changes; how was he adapted to the climate stress and how he reacted in ts impacts; and finally how he was affected by the i climate changes. Posing these questions the archaeologist started collaborating with scientists of other disciplines for the reconstruction of the paleoclimate. Geology, biology or other disciplines, which involve in the paleoclimate reconstruction, became a part of his study. Learning about how the other scientists work, how they pose their questions and how they give their answers, the archaeologist add in his study a large number of new paths from which he can reach his goal. Meanwhile, he can equally help the other disciplines in their studies first recognizing human presence in the sediments and explaining the use of the different findings of an excavation, then, after posing his questions and giving his answers, suggesting his models about humans role in the paleoclimatic changes. As far as cave paleoclimate is concerned, the environmental archaeologist has to play an important role, because of the fact that human presence is apparent in the past in most of the known caves, so he cannot be absent from a pluridiscipliner study of cave climate. Even if he cannot always answer questions such as the kind and the duration of the human presence in the caves, or the post-depositional modification of the sediments, he can certainly identified the human traces inside them. Otherwise, the archaeologist has to identify all these aspects, as a result of the human actions, which have affected the microclimate of the cave and forced it into change. The identification is easy in the case that man has formed the interior of the caves to satisfy his necessities, but it is difficult when the only helpful element is human behavior. And the only chance to recognize it among the cave sediments occurs after a well-prepared excavation. We must not be very optimistic that we are going to answer finally all our questions. This, what is only certain, is that the environmental archaeologists can, at least, contribute to the collection of these elements, which could finally lead to the answers. Moreover, with a simultaneous and equal collaboration with the colleagues of the other disciplines involved in the same research, the possibility for correct answers is growing. Consequently, this collaboration is vital. One more positive point for this collaboration, which we must always have in mind, is that by understanding the past we can easier forecast the future.

Palaeoclimatic significance of biomineralisation


Julia James and Annalisa Contos Heavy Metal Centre, School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney Recent developments in technology and techniques have furthered the understanding of the role of microorganisms in forming minerals in caves. Biogenic minerals have been reported in iron, manganese, sulfur and calcium carbonate systems. In this paper a framework necessary to elucidate the paleoclimatic data from biomineralisation within cave sediments will be discussed. Examples will be drawn from studies on two systems, one iron based in Odyssey Cave Bungonia, New South Wales, Australia and the other calcium carbonate in the Nullarbor Caves, South and Western Australia. A four stage model was developed for this investigation:

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Stage 1 Assessment of biomineralisation

Stage 2 Determine what if any biological influence is evident

Stage 3 Model development

Stage 4 Investigate the sediments for paleoenvironmental information

Following this model allows systematic study of the cave system for biomineralisation and methodical examination of the sediments for paleoclimatic information they may contain. Stage 1 - Assessment of biomineralisation In the first stage of investigation the system is characterised in terms of:1. 2. 3. 4. Water chemistry Microorganisms Mineral characterisation Surface climate conditions with regard to the mineralisation process

Characterisation of the water chemistry is essential to establish the conditions under which mineralisation in occurring. In stage 2 this information is modelled to determine the extent of biological influence. The community of microorganisms associated with the mineralisation process must be characterised as this can provide information on how, if at all, they are influencing the mineralisation. For example in Odyssey Cave, Leptothrix spp. and Gallionella sp., known iron-mineralising bacteria were identified, making assessment of the role of microorganisms in the mineralisation process easy. In the Nullarbor caves no known calcium carbonate mineralising bacteria were identified and so investigation into how these bacteria may influence the mineralisation process through the lowering of nucleation energy and the shifting of chemical equilibrium had to be investigated. The morphology and crystal habit, if relevant, need to be examined. This information in conjunction with that discussed above provides information on the role the microorganisms may be playing in mineralisation. For example in calcium carbonate systems the conditions under which aragonite and calcite precipitated are well characterised. If either mineral precipitates outside these conditions then biological influence should be investigated. The surface climate conditions need to be recorded to allow a model to be developed in stage 3 linking surface climate to the mineralisation process. This data is essential to extrapolating palaeoclimatic data from the sediments. Stage 2 Assessment of biomineralisation The second stage of the investigation is the assessment of the evidence collected in stage 1 to determine the extent of the biological influence on the mineralisation process. Biomineralisation occurs through a variety of mechanisms, from careful control of the crystal nucleation and growth for specific biological functions to altering the local environmental conditions. The first part of the spectrum is often easy to identify as a biomineral, for example, characteristic mineralised structures such as the sheath of Leptothrix and twisted stalk of Gallionella identified in Odyssey Cave. Where the microorganisms may have altered local supersaturation conditions or lowered the nucleation energy, a detailed examination in necessary to establish the microorganisms are not merely bystanders in a purely inorganic mineralisation process. Thus the information gathered in stage 1 needs to be assessed and modelled. Saturation indices for the relevant species need to be determined. If the waters are insufficiently saturated for nucleation and precipitation to occur then biological influences are implicated. As discussed above if the mineral has an unusual morphology or habit then a biological influence is likely. 26

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

For studies in the Nullarbor Caves, it was established that the waters were only slightly supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate (0 < SIC < 0.5), below the level which spontaneous precipitation was likely to occur due the kinetic limitations. This suggests the microorganisms play a role in nucleation. The crystal habit was unusual, with the crystals being spindled shaped. This suggests a role for the microorganisms in modifying crystal habit. Further modelling of the biomineralisation processes as part of stage 3 was required to extend these observations. Stage 3 Model Development Stage 3 involves the development of two models. The first is the development of a model of the biomineralisation processes if it has not previously been established. In some cases such as the precipitation of iron minerals by bacteria such as Leptothrix and Gallionella where the biomineralisation has been well establish this model does not need to be investigated. However for example in the calcite mineralisation in the Nullarbor Caves, it was necessary to establish through a series of synthetic calcite precipitation experiments the role the microbial community played in the lowering of the nucleation energy barrier. It was also necessary to investigate the influence of chemical groups present in the exopolymeric substances produced by the bacteria on the morphology and habit of the calcite. Once the mode of biomineralisation has been established, a model linking this process to the external environment can be developed. For the investigations in Odyssey cave, it was determined the presence of the bacteria was linked to surface drought periods. For the Nullarbor Caves the bacteria are sub-aquatic. Thus biomarkers are linked to periods of warmer temperatures resulting in periods of high sea level. Stage 4 Palaeoclimatic investigations Only after the microorganisms have been implicated in the biomineralisation process and model linking their mineralisation to the climatic conditions is it possible to investigate the sediments for paleoenvironmental information. For Odyssey Cave the cave sediments were investigated for a flood drought history of the region using carbon-14 dating. For the Nullabor system U/Th dating and oxygen isotope investigations of massive calcite in the cave floor can give information on palaeotemperatures and palaeo sea levels. Conclusions A clear and through methodology is needed to establish the role of microorganisms in the formation minerals in caves and the paleoclimatic significance of the sediments associated with these processes. The four stage framework developed for the two cave systems discussed here needs only slight modification to be used for other examples of biomineralisation in caves.

Hydrochemical and isotopic characteristics in the Baishuitai travertine scenic area of China and their implications for paleoenvironment study
Zaihua Liu* and Meiliang Zhang Institute of Karst Geology, CAGS; Karst Dynamics Laboratory, MLR, Guilin 541004 China Shenyi You The Graduate School, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074 China Qiang Li 27

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Department of Biology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004 China Method of combining hydrochemical data auto-logging, in-situ titrating with measuring of stable carbon and oxygen isotopes was used to reveal the hydrochemical and isotopic characteristics in the Baishuitai travertine scenic area, China. It was found that the travertine-forming springs have a very high content of calcium (ca 200mg/l) and bicarbonate ions (ca 700mg/l) , accordingly very high CO2 partial pressure (ca 14,400Pa), which is not likely produced by only the biological activity in soil. Further analysis on the stable carbon isotopic composition of the springs ( 13C -1.2) shows that the high pressure of CO2 is mainly related to deep-seated CO2 source. That means the Baishuitai travertine is thermogene in origin. This finding is different from the commonly accepted saying that its a product under warm and humid climate. From this, there is a preliminary discussion on variation in travertine-forming water temperature, according to the difference in stable oxygen isotope of the travertine formed in different epochs at Baishuitai. It was found that the change in water temperature is as high as 11o C, i.e., from 21o C at start of the Baishuitai travertine deposition (<350,000 yr), to 10o C at present, which may reflect the effect of strong uplift of the area, and/or the decreasing effect of geothermal source on water temperature. And also, the problems involved in paleoenvironment study with thermogene travertine were discussed. These problems include the interruption of dead carbon in radiocarbon dating, and the enrichment in 13 C of travertine by deep-seated CO 2 and degassing of CO2 from water, which has to be considered in paleoecology reconstruction when using 13 C data of the carbonate deposit.

Speleothem chronology of Gassel Cave, Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria (preliminary results)
Karl-Heinz Offenbecher, Christoph Sptl
Institut fr Geologie und Palontologie, Universitt Innsbruck, Austria
Supported by grant START Y122-GEO of the Austrian Science Fund

Gassel cave is located in the central part of the Northern Calcareous Alps close to its northern margin. Cut in Triassic dolomite the caves extends over a vertical difference of 105 m with its entrance located at 1225 m a.s.l. The interior air temperature is close to +5.4C which corresponds to the average annual air temperature at this altitude. Annual precipitation is high due along the northern fringe of the Alps and a long-term average of 2400 mm was measured at the nearby meteorological station Feuerkogel (1587 m). Gassel cave is among the most highly decorated dripstone caves in the entire Northern Calcareous Alps, which is unexpected given the rather high altitudinal setting, the dolomitic host rock and the thin soil cover. Inspection of the speleothem inventory shows that probably more than two thirds of the speleothems are currently inactive and potentially fossil. A simple stratigraphy of cave sediments can be recognized in most chambers. The oldest deposit are red clays which resembles terra rossa known from many high-altitude caves in the Northern Calcareous Alps and traditionally attributed to the result of subtropical weathering during Tertiary times. These loamy deposits, which rarely reach up more than a meter in thickness, are overlain by calcitic flowstones and stalagmites. U-series dates of stalagmites tops yielded Th-U equilibrium ages and hence corroborate the rather high age of the underlying clay. This generation of speleothems was subsequently affected by erosion due to turbulent waters which locally eroded the clay causing collapse and tilting of stalagmites. White and partially active flowstones and stalagmites up to about one meter in height form the last generation in these chambers. Two active looking stalagmites were removed and are currently being investigated to obtain a paleoenvironmental record for the Holocene in this part of the Eastern Alps. Petrographically, these samples are composed of inclusion-poor, coarsely crystalline columnar calcite. One of the samples reveals a discontinuity 28

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

suggesting that the drip source may have changed slightly. Other than that, thin sections show no evidence of postdepositional alteration. We are currently establishing age models for these samples based on U-series measurements using multicollector ICP-MS methods. Preliminary results suggest that both stalagmites comprise most of the Holocene, but growth appears to have ceased some 1000 years before present.

Isotope -climate record in a Holocene stalagmite from Ursilor Cave (Romania)


Bogdan Petroniu Onac1,1 , Silviu Constantin2 , Joyce Lundberg3 And Stein-Erik Lauritzen4
Quaternary Research Group, Department of Mineralogy, University of Cluj, Kogalniceanu 1, and Emil Racovita Institute of Speleology, Clinicilor 5, Cluj, Romania 2 Emil Racovita Institute of Speleology, Frumoasa 11, 78114 Bucharest 12, Romania 3 Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada 4 Department of Geology, University of Bergen, Allgaten 41, 5007 Bergen, Norway
1 1

Correspondence to: B. P. Onac, Dept. of Mineralogy, University of Cluj, Kogalniceanu 1, 3400 Cluj, Romania; Tel. & Fax: +40.64.195954; email: bonac@bioge.ubbcluj.ro

The PU-2 stalagmite from Ursilor Cave provides the first dated Romanian isotope record for the Holocene. The overall growth rate of the speleothem was 3.5 cm/ka, corresponding to a temporal resolution of 142 years between each isotope analysis. The Hendy tests indicate that isotopic equilibrium conditions occurred during time of the PU-2 deposition, and hence that it is suitable for paleoclimatic studies. The relationship between 18 O and temperature was found to be positive. This can be interpreted either as rain-out with distance from the westnorth-west ocean source of evaporation or shift in air mass source with changing North Atlantic Oscillation indices. Applying five U TIMS dates to a 17.5 cm isotope profile ( 18 O and 13C) along the stalagmite growth -Th axis, enabled us to tentatively interpret the paleoclimate signal over the past 7.1 ka. Spikes of depleted isotopic 18 O values are centred near ~7, ~5.2 and ~4 ka respectively, reflecting cool conditions. The record shows two warm intervals between ~3.8 and ~3.2 ka (the maximum warmth) and from ~2 to ~1.4 ka, when the 18O values were less negative than present. The Holocene Climate Optimum spanning the time interval from ~6.8 to ~4.4 ka is not well expressed in the PU-2 stalagmite. Individual spikes of lighter 13C are interpreted as indicative of periods of heavy rainfall, at ~7, ~5.5, and ~3.5 ka. The overall trend to lighter 13C in the PU-2 stalagmite may reflect a gradual decrease in water-rock interaction. The results demonstrate that the effect of North Atlantic oceanic changes extended to the investigated area. Nevertheless, some differences in temporal correlation and intensity of stable isotopic response to these climatic events have been found, but the exact nature of these differences and the underlying mechanism is yet to be determined.

Comparative Estimate of Resistance to Drought for Selected Karstic Aquifers in Bulgaria


T.Orehova NIMH-BAS - National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology, Sofia, Bulgaria

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Water resources management requires adequate knowledge of groundwater system including the influence of climate change. The impact of prolonged precipitation shortage on groundwater resources was important during the drought of 1982-1994 in Bulgaria. Evidently, groundwater in different degree is vulnerable to drought. Hydrogeological monitoring gives valuable information about groundwater systems. The purpose of this article is to determine relative resistance of selected aquifers in Bulgaria to a prolonged decrease of recharge using the Drought Resistance Indicator for Karstic Aquifers DRIKA. The drought resistance indicator has been defined for some karstic aquifers based on the method proposed in report of BRGM. The indicator that defines the relative resistance of karstic aquifer systems to drought is determined by fraction with numerator the absolute minimal registered discharge of the spring, and denominator the average value of minimal discharges for the given period. The karstic aquifers are divided into four classes of increasing drought resistance:
DRIKA 0 ,3
0, 3 < DRIKA 0 ,45 0, 45 < DRIKA 0,6

DRIKA > 0 ,6

- weak; - moderate; - good; - high.

The data from National Hydrogeological Network located in the National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology were processed. For the aim of this study, time-series of discharge for karstic springs were used. Stations showing significant impact of human activity on groundwater were eliminated. Vulnerability assessment of selected karstic aquifers was made for the 1960-2001 period, as well as for the two 21-year periods. The stations studied showed different resistance to drought for such periods. The results show that most of the chosen karstic aquifers in the Danube zone of Bulgaria are weakly resistant. Only the greatest spring Glava Panega has moderate to good resistance. It has however specific formation - waters from neighbour watershed are transferred. All massifs are built from karstified limestones and are well drained. Karstic aquifers in the Black sea zone have a good to high resistance - they are formed in marbles and limestone of T2+J3 and limestone of K2 . Karstic aquifers in the Strouma river basin are of moderate to good resistance. They show little seasonal variation through the year. Karstic aquifers in Pirin and Rhodopes regions show moderate to high resistance. They drain thick massifs of Proterozoic marbles. Probably, the karstic aquifers in the Danube zone are more conductive and with less storage capacity compared to the aquifers in Pirin and Rhodopes regions, and therefore they are more vulnerable to drought. The better resistance of springs in the Struma river basin related with massifs built from limestones and dolomites is due to higher porosity and better storage capacity, as well as worse conductivity. The degree of the resistance to drought depends on geological and structural peculiarities of the karstic massif, from its area, etc. The value of the indicator depends on the observational period as well. Obviously, detailed study is necessary in this direction taking into account complicated hydrogeological conditions and intensive human impact in many areas. The conclusion is that most of studied aquifers in Bulgaria have moderate and weak resistance to the drought. They are vulnerable to droughts and need good management for effective use of groundwater resources.

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Cone Karst and Dry Karst Valleys in Greece as a Record of the Global Change
Kyriaki Papadopoulou Vrynioti University of Athens, dep. of Geology, Platanon 16b 14578 Ekali, Greece In the inland and at the islands of Greece, from the northern point to the southern and from east to west, there are places where someone can recognize well-coserved cone karst.This paleokarst was developed during the Upper Miocene Low Piocene when the climatic conditions were totally different compared with the present. The presence of this cone karst is an undoubted proof of the relief form in Greece during the specific geologic period. It differs entirely from the present relief and can be correlated with the todays relief of SE Asia. The change of relief form in Greece since Upper Miocene is indicative of a global change. An undoubted proof of the change in Greek relief is also the presence of a dry karst valley system that became from an extensive drainage system. That system was also developed during the Miocene Pliocene on the paleosurfaces that we recognize today.

Comparative Investigations on Karstic Regions Kopais in Greece and Maoce in Serbia


Kyriaki Papadopoulou Vrynioti University of Athens, dep. of Geology, Platanon 16b 14578 Ekali, Greece The paper deals with the study of two karstic areas. The first one is the karstic basin Kopais in Central Greece the other is the karstic basin Maoce in Montenegro of Serbia. The final purpose of this paper is to correlate the rules that the genesis of those regions.

Paleocollapse Estructures and Collapse Breccias As Tool For Reconstruction Of Past Karst And Paleoclimate Record During The Upper Miocene Of Mallorca Island
(*) P.A. Robledo Ardila *J.J. Durn Valsero (*) Instituto Geolgico y Minero de Espaa. Ros Rosas 23, 28003, Madrid Paleocollapse structures and collapse breccias are a major features for analysis the paleokarst and paleoclima record. An example is described from the upper Miocene platform limestone of the east coast of Mallorca Island. The carbonate platform consisted of shelf-margin tracts of coral reef with fore-reef slopes and back-reef lagoons. Near surface dissolution processes occurred in coral patches and both, depositional pattern and karst process was controlled for high frequency of sea-level fluctuation. Dissolution occurred in the mixing zone between salt and fresh water during the low stand of sea-level. Collapse and breccias associated take place during the last rise and high stand of sea-level when the beds overlaid the previously epigenic system caves. Relationship with high frequency of sea-level fluctuation and facies architecture permit to enhance a general paleoclimatic framework. Structures resulted can be classified according the size of cavity and litiphication degree. Morphometric and structural classification of paleocollapse is based in geometric and structural criteria according the deformed strata angle degree and deformed strata collapse dip. Breccias are interpreted as having developed gradely either in matrix interbreccia and clast-breccia. Classification of breccias and clastic deposits in paleocollapse structures exhibiting relationship between chaotic breccia, mosaic breccia, crackle breccia and cave-sediment infill. Facies 31

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

architecture, paleocollapse and breccias are strongly relationship. Depositional pattern as well as classifications result in a grade of chronological occurrence of paleocollapse structures.

A flowstone record of the penultimate interglacial from a high-altitude cave site (Eastern Alps, Austria)
Christoph Sptl
Institut fr Geologie und Palontologie, Universitt Innsbruck, Austria

Augusto Mangini
Institut fr Umweltphysik, Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Heidelberg, Germany
Supported by grant START Y122-GEO of the Austrian Science Fund

Speleothems can provide a precise chronology of climate change on land and are indispensable archives for previous warm periods during the Quaternary when other continental archives are handicapped by dating problems. We have studied a flowstone sample from Spannagel Cave in the Central Alps of Austria. This site is exceptional, because it hosts both active and fossil speleothems despite its high altitude of 2500 m a.s.l. and an internal air temperature of only +1 to +2C. Being located close to a modern glacier, the cave system is highly sensitive to climate change, inasmuch as the area above the cave gets glaciated a nd/or covered by permafrost and speleothem deposition ceases once the mean annual air temperature drops. During the Last Glacial Maximum the cave system was well within the glacier accumulation area and covered by ice. A detailed TIMS study of flowstone SPA 52 - one of the best Th/U-dated speleothem records from the Alps thanks to a very high U content of up to 100 ppm - reveals a warm climatic episode at the end of marine isotope stage (MIS) 7, a hiatus during the penultimate glaciation and renewed calcite deposition during the Last Interglacial. The first growth period, which is the focus of this contribution, is dated between 207 and 180 kyr ago. This episode is represented by two petrographically distinct units of flowstone separated by an unconformity. According to multiple Th/U dates the duration of this unconformity was less than a few thousand years. This first growth phase in Spannagel Cave coincides with a period of growth of stalagmites from Oman dated between 210 and 180 kyr, ascribed to a climate optimum in MIS 7.1 (Burns et al., Geology, 29, 2001), suggesting that this warm period occurred synchronously in central Europe and the Arabian Peninsula. This is consistent with new Th/U dates from a submerged speleothem in Italy which constrains the MIS 7.1 highstand to 202-190 kyr BP (Bard et al., EPSL, in press). Our alpine data and the results from the Oman cave deposits, however, are difficult to reconcile with the benthic SPECMAP stack, which shows the MIS 7/6 transition already at 190 kyr (Martinson et al., Quat. Res., 27, 1987). The stable oxygen isotopes in sample SPA 52 show large variations along the growth direction (-9 to -14.4 VPDB), which are significantly lower than values of modern calcite in this cave (mostly 6.5 to 9.5) and also lower than calcite deposited during the Last Interglacial (-9.7 to 8.6). This suggests that the climate during isotope stage 7.1 was probably less warm in the Central Alps as compared to the two subsequent interglacials. The most likely interpretation of these low values is infiltration of isotopically depleted meltwater from nearby glaciers. Provided that the landscape has not changed substantially since that time, this implies more extensive glaciers than presently (modern glacier meltwater is bypassed and does not enter the cave). This is particularly true for a short time interval between c. 190 and 185 kyr ago (just prior to the hiatus) when the isotopically lightest calcite was formed. 32

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Stable carbon isotopes show high values, indicative of low p artition of soil-derived carbon ( -6.7 to +4.2), which is consistent with the high-altitude setting of this site. Throughout the sample carbon isotope values generally covary with oxygen isotope values, which suggests kinetically controlled isotope fractionation prior to calcite precipitation. There is a notable exception to this trend c. 195 kyr ago: carbon isotopes peak clearly before the sharp peak in oxygen isotopes, the latter of which coincides with the subsequent drop in the carbon isotope values. As the sample does not reveal any signs of postdepositional alteration, this isotopic behavior implies that both isotopes were not directly coupled as predicted by the kinetic fractionation theory but apparently responded to the same forcing mechanism in a delayed fashion.

Speleothem Records the Best Record of the Global Change. The Advance in the field produced by the operation of the UIS International Program Speleothem Records of Environmental Changes in the Past
Y. Y. Shopov Faculty of Physics, University of Sofia, James Baucher 5, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria. E-mail: YYShopov@Phys.Uni-Sofia.BG Potential, resolution and limitations of high resolution speleothem records of Paleotemperature, Paleosoils, Paleoseismics, Past Precipitation, Rock displacement, Solar Insolation, Geomagnetic field, Plants Populations, Chemical Pollutions, Air Composition, Sea Level advances, Advances of Hydrothermal Waters, Cosmic Rays Flux variations, Cosmogenic Isotopes production and Supernova Eruptions in the Past are discussed. It is demonstrated that speleothems allow extremely high resolution (higher than in any other paleoclimatic terrestrial archives) and long duration of records. Some speleothems can be used as natural climatic stations for obtaining of proxy records of Quaternary climates with annual resolution. Once formed speleothems preserve this records and they can be read by different techniques (Table 1). Speleothems are formed at almost constant temperature and humidity and remain unaltered with time. They allow reading their records with remarkably high resolution. So speleothems appear to be one of the best paleoenvironmental archives. Table 1. Speleothem Records of Environmental Changes in the Past Type of the Process Method I 1 Changes beyond the Solar System Past Supernova eruptions Cosmogenic isotope product-ion + LLMZA Changes within the Solar System 33 primary cosmic ray flux variation in the past beyond the Solar System, supernova eruptions 20a 0-10000 Obtainable information resolution (time step) Time range [a]

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

1 2

Cosmic Rays Flux Variati-ons; Cosmogenic Isotopes production Variations Solar Insolation; Laser Luminescent Microzonal Analysis (LLMZA) Global Earth Processes Paleomagnetism; Magnetometry of speleothems Geomagnetic dipole intensi-ty; speleothem luminescence

cosmic rays flux and solar activity in the past; >1a Quantitative reconstructions of Solar activity variations in the past, speleothem growth interruptions, volcanic eruptions 7d (6h)

0-40000 unlimited

III 1 2

paleomagnetism, rock orientation changes in the past >50a quantitative reconstructions of the Geomagnetic dipole intensity, Solar wind flux at the Earths magnetosphere in the Past 30a

unlimited unlimited

IV 1 2

Regional Processes Paleoclimate and Paleotemperature; stable isotopes Past Precipitation; annual growth rate observed by LLMZA Past Paleotemperature; LLMZA Paleotemperature in speleothem ice; Stable isotopes Paleotectonics and Paleoseismics; Orientation of speleothem growth Local Processes Pollen analysis Soil type changes; Luminescent spectral analysis Chemical microanalysis; Laser emission spectral analysis Dating of sea levels; U/Th dating plants population and paleoclimatic changes; 10a soil and plants population variations 1a chemical pollutions 1a? sea level variations 100a 34 unlimited unlimited unlimited 0-500000 Paleotemperature, possible plant population and climatic cycles in the past 1a quantitative reconstructions of past annual rainfall, past floods, cycles of draughts and floods 1a quantitative reconstructions of air paleotemperature during speleothem growth, temperature cycles, glaciations etc.; 7d (6h) air paleotemperature, air CO2 , air isotope composition 25a paleoseismics, rock displacements and bending; <100a ? unlimited unlimited

3 4 5

unlimited unlimited unlimited

V 1 2 3 4

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Luminescent records of hydrothermal activity; Time resolved photography of phos phorescence

advances of hydrothermal waters, estima tions of their temperature, uplift of the bedrock; 1a

unlimited

20 Years of Speleothem Paleoluminescence Records of Environmental Changes. - The Advance in the field produced by the operation of the UIS International Program Luminescence of Cave Minerals
Y. Y. Shopov Faculty of Physics, University of Sofia, James Baucher 5, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria. E-mail: YYShopov@Phys.Uni-Sofia.BG Calcite speleothems usually display luminescence which is produced by calcium salts of humic and fulvic acids derived from soils above the cave (Shopov, 1989a,b; White, Brennan, 1989). These acids are released (i) by the roots of living plants, and (ii) by the decomposition of dead matter. Root release is modulated by visible (650710 nm) solar insolation (SI) via photosynthesis, while rates of decomposition depend exponentially upon soil temperatures that are determined primarily by solar infrared radiation (Shopov et al., 1994) in case that the cave is covered only by grass or upon air temperatures in case that the cave is covered by forest or bush. In the first case, microzonality of luminescence of speleothems can be used as an indirect Solar Activity (SA) index (Shopov et al., 1990a), but in he second as an paleotemperature proxy. So in dependence on the cave site we may speak about t "solar sensitive" or "temperature sensitive" luminescent speleothem records like in treering records, but in our case record may depend only on temperature either on solar irradiation:- In the case of Cold Water cave, Iowa, US we obtained (Shopov et al.,1996-a) high correlation coefficient of 0.9 between the luminescence record and Solar Luminosity Sunspot index measured since 1700 AD, and reconstructed sunspot numbers since 1000 AD with precision of 10 sunspot numbers (which is within the experimental error of their measurements);- in the case of Rats Nest cave, Alberta, Canada we measured correlation of 0.67 between luminescence intensity and air temperatures record for the last 100 years and reconstructed annual air temperatures for last 1500 years at the cave site with precision of 0.35 C (Shopov et al.,1996-a). Intensity of luminescence was not dependent on actual precipitation and sunspot numbers (zero correlation). Several special techniques for speleothem luminescence research has been developed recently (Table 2). They allows considerable enlargement of kinds and quality of the obtainable information. Luminescence time series has been used to solve number of problems of Solar physics (Dermendjiev et al., 1989, 1990, 1992). NASA used a record of luminescence of a flowstone from Duhlata cave, Bulgaria to obtain a standard record of variations of Solar Irradiance ("Solar constant") in W/cm for the last 10000 years (D. Hoyt, personal communication) by calibration of the luminescence record of Shopov et al. (1990b) with satellite measurements. Before using of a speleothem for any luminescence paleoenvironmental records is necessary to determine that all luminescence of the sample is due to organics. Otherwise a subsequent research may produce major confusions. To prove that all speleothem luminescence is due to organics is a very complicated task (Shopov, 1997). 35

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Time series of a Solar Activity (SA) index "Microzonality of Luminescence of Speleothems" are obtained by Laser Luminescence Microzonal analysis (LLMZA) of cave flowstones described by Shopov (1987). Many restrictions for samples for LLMZA apply (Shopov, 1987). LLMZA allow measurement of luminescence time series with duration of hundreds of thousands years, but time step for short time series can be as small as 6 hours (Shopov et al., 1994) allowing resolution of 3 days (Shopov, et al., 1988). Cosmic rays produce cosmogenic isotopes (14 C, 10Be , etc.) in the upper atmosphere by nuclear reactions. As it is known, the 14 C record represents the Cosmic Ray Flux (CRF) and modulation of the CRF by the solar wind (representing solar activity). We have obtained a striking high correlation (with a correlation coefficient of 0.8) between the calibration residue delta 14 C record and a luminescent speleothem record (Shopov et al.,1994). It is as high as the best correlation ever obtained between a direct Solar index (inverted annual Wolf number) and the CRF (Beer, 1991, r= 0.8). Obviously luminescence records can be used as a CRF index. Table 1. Special Speleothem Luminescence Research Techniques Technique Impulse Photography of Luminescence (IPL) 1.Photography of phosphorescence (IPP) 2.Photography of fluorescence & phosphorescence (IPFP) Laser Luminescent MicroZonal Analysis (LLMZA) Obtainable information Diagnostics of minerals, registration of colour & zonality of fluorescence & phosphorescence and its spectra, UV photography, extraction of single mineral samples, chemical changes of the mineralforming solution, Climate and Solar Activity variations during the Quaternary. Shopov Microzonality of luminescence, changes of (1987) the mineralforming conditions, Climate & Solar Activity variations during Quaternary (with resolution up to 0.4 days). Speleothem dating (with accuracy 1 year). Interruptions of the speleothem growth. Annual Rainfall in the past. Estimation of past Cosmic Rays (CR) and Galactic CR Colour Slide Spectro- Shopov, Wideband spectra of phosphorescence, photometry (CSS) Georgiev fluorescence and diffuse reflectance of (1987) minerals, spectra of quick processes Autocalibration Dating Shopov, High Precision Speleothem Dating of (ACD) DermenSpeleothems of any age, Climatic and Solar djiev & Activity cycles, variations of the Speleothem Buyuklie Growth Rate. v (1990a) Time Resolved Photo- Shopov, Determination of the lifetime of the raphy of PhosphoTsankov luminescent center. Estimation of the rescence (TRPP) (1996e) temperature of the deposition, bedrock uplift, mixing of surface and hydrothermal (epithermal) waters + all information obtainable by IPP Authors Shopov, Tsankov (1986); Shopov, Grynberg (1985)

II

III

IV

The luminescence SA index is good for reconstructions of past CRF. For this purpose the luminescent record should be inverted (Shopov et al., 1993a). This way we obtained a reconstruction of the solar modulation of the CRF during the last 50000 years with a resolution of 28 yrs (Shopov et al., 1995). 36

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Galactic CRF have some short- term variations due to supernova explosions. These variations of the GCRF can be determined only by comparison of a record of production of cosmogenic isotopes (CI) with an independent on CRF solar activity record. The luminescence microzonality is the only independent SA index with such length of record. It was used to reconstruct GCRF variations for the last 6500 years with 20 yr resolution by subtracting of an inverted luminescent SA record from the residual 14 C record (Shopov et al., 1996-c). Obtained record represents self variations of the GCRF (due to supernova eruptions) beyond Solar system (where solar modulation do not exist). Variations of intensity of the Geomagnetic field dipole also correlates with speleothem luminescence (Shopov et al. 1996-d), because the geomagnetic field is modulated by the magnetic field of the solar wind (which is one appearance of the Solar activity). This is due to formation of induced electromagnetic field in the Earth's magnetosphere in result of rotation of the Earth (which have own magnetic field) in the variable magnetic field of the Solar wind. This process is similar to rotation of a dynamo machine (electric generator). Speleothem growth rate may vary up to 14 times within a single sample, resulting in non- linear time scale (Shopov, et al.1992, 1994). These variations represent rainfall variations in case that there are no growth interruptions (hiatuses) in the studied part of the speleothem. Speleothem luminescencevisualize nnual microbanding, not visible in normal light. If this banding is visible in normal light or the luminescent curve have sharp profiles or jumps like in Baker et al. (1993) it suggests that speleothem growth stop for a certain period during the year and such time series are not useful for obtaining of rainfall proxy records. Maxima of intensity of luminescence reflect air temperature in August, but minima in February in a speleothem from Rats Nest cave, Alberta, Canada (Shopov et al., 1996-b). Uplift of bedrocks with the cave can be detected and precisely dated with additional absolute dating method if speleothem luminescence is due to epithermal mineral forming waters in the older part of speleothem, but mixing of this waters with surface waters containing organics appear in younger parts of the speleothem (Shopov et al., 1996e).

Quantitative Annual Speleothem Records of Temperature, Precipitation and Solar Insolation in the past A Key for Characterisation of past climatic systems.
Yavor Shopov1, Ludmil Tsankov1 , Albena Damyanova1 , Yasen Damyanov1 , Leonid Georgiev1 , Elena Marinova1 , Chas Yonge 2 , Derek Ford3
1

Faculty of Physics, University of Sofia, James Baucher 5, Sofia 1126, Bulgaria. 2 Dept. of Physics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 3 Geography Dept., McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 1K4, Canada

We studied luminescence of speleothems from Cold Water cave, Iowa, US and Rats Nest cave, Alberta, Canada. A reconstruction of the past annual precipitation rates for the last 280 years for Kananaskis country, Alberta, Canada has been obtained from speleothem annual growth rates. In dependence on the soil surface exposition we measure either solar sensitive or temperature sensitive paleoluminescence speleothem records:

37

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

In case of Cold Water cave, Iowa, US we obtained high correlation coefficient of 0.9 between the luminescence record and Solar Luminosity Sunspot index and reconstructed sunspot numbers since 1000 AD with a precision within the experimental error of their measurements; in case of Rats Nest cave, Alberta, Canada we measured correlation coefficient of 0.67 between luminescence intensity and air temperature record for the last 100 years and reconstructed annual air temperatures for last 280 years at the cave site with estimated error of 0.35 0 C, while the error of the direct measurements is 0.1 0 C.

Speleothem growth rate variations represent mainly rainfall variations (SHOPOV et al.1992, 1994). Speleothem luminescence visualises annual microbanding (SHOPOV, 1987, SHOPOV et al. 1991). We used it to derive proxy records of annual precipitation at the cave site by measuring the distance between all adjacent annual maxima of the intensity of luminescence. The resultant growth rates correlate with the actual annual precipitation (summed from August to August). We studied the top of a 35 mm long stalagmite from Rats Nest cave (RNC), Alberta, Canada to measure quantitative records of annual temperature and precipitation. For this purpose we obtained a stacked 66000 data points paleotemperature record from Rats Nest cave, Kananaskis karst region, Alberta, Canada. It covers last 1450 yrs with average resolution of about 8 days. Paleoclimatic records has been derived from speleothem luminescence, calibrated by actual climatic records from near climatic station in anff, Alberta. The sample was dated by two14-C dates, TIMS U/Th dating, autocalibration and annual bands counting dating. All produced consistent age, best estimated as 1450 +/- 80 years. The 14-C data were corrected for dead carbon, by its measurement in modern speleothem calcite. A reconstruction of the past annual temperature for the last 280 years has been obtained from average annual speleothem luminescence intensity calculated from the 66000 px record, calibrated by actual temperature record from near climatic station in Banff, Alberta, Canada. We obtained reasonably good correlation (correlation coefficient of 0,68) between the annual temperature for the last 105 years (recorded at the closest weather station - Banff, located in the same valley, 50 km northern of the cave) and the average annual speleothem luminescence intensity. We used obtained regression coefficients to reconstruct annual temperature for the last 280 years at the cave site (Fig.1). The estimated statistical error is 0.35 o C. Intensity of luminescence was not dependent on actual precipitations and sunspot numbers (zero correlation).
Annual Temperature
Annual temperature [deg.C]

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0 100 200 300


Age [years BP]

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Fig.1 (Up) Annual temperature in the last 280 years for Kananaskis country, Alberta, Canada derived from annual intensity of luminescence of a stalagmite from Rats Nest cave, Alberta, Canada

Annual Precipitation
700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 0 100 200 300
age [years BP] annual precipitation [mm]

Fig.2 (Down) Annual precipitation (from August to August) in t he last 280 years for Kananaskis country, Alberta, Canada derived from annual growth rate of a stalagmite from Rats Nest cave, Alberta, Canada Speleothem growth rate variations represent mainly rainfall variations. A reconstruction of the past annual precipitation rates for the last 280 years has been obtained from speleothem annual growth rates, derived from the distance between annual speleothem luminescence bands, calibrated by actual precipitation record from near climatic station in Banff, Alberta, Canada. We obtained reasonably good correlation (correlation coefficient of 0,57) between the annual precipitations (from Banff, Alberta) and the annual growth rate of the speleothem. We used obtained regression coefficients to reconstruct annual precipitations for the last 280 years at the cave site (Fig.2). The estimated statistical error is 80 mm/ year. Annual speleothem growth rate was independent on the intensity of luminescence, on annual temperature and on solar luminosity for the same time span (zero correlation). Speleothem luminescence visualizes annual microbanding we used to derive proxy records precipitations for the cave site. Annual luminescence microbanding was used very successfully for absolute dating of speleothems by Autocalibration dating. This dating method appear to be more TAMS 14C and AMS U/Th dating for relative dating of short time intervals and only dating speleothems with little uranium, younger than 2000 years. of annual relative and precise than method for

CONCLUSION It is demonstrated, that speleothems can be used as natural climatic stations with annual resolution for purposes of climatology and agrometeorology for a time span far exceeding all historic records. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

This research was supported by a CNR-NATO outrich fellowship of Y.Shopov, grant NZ 811/ 98 of Bulgarian Science Foundation to Y. Shopov and a NSERC strategic research grant to D.C. Ford. REFERENCES . Shopov, Y.Y.(1987): Laser Luminescent MicroZonal Analysis- A New Method for Investigation of the Alterations of the Climate and Solar Activity during Quaternary- Exped. Annual of Sofia Univ v 3/4,pp. 104-108. . Shopov, Y.Y., Georgiev L.N., Tsankov L.T., Dermendjiev V. & Buyukliev G., 1991. Methods for Research of Luminescence of Cave Minerals and Speleothem Records of the Paleoclimate and Solar Activity in the Past.IGCP299 Newsletter, 3: 52-58. . Shopov, Y.Y., Ford D.C., Morrison J., Schwarcz H.P., Georgiev L.N., Sanabriya M. E., Dermendjiev V. & Buyukliev G., 1992. High resolution records of Quaternary Solar Activity, Climate and Variations. GSA Abstr., 24 (7), 268. . Shopov, Y.Y., Ford D.C. & Schwarcz H.P., 1994. Luminescent Microbanding in speleothems: High resolution chronology and paleoclimate. Geology, v.22: 407 -410, May 1994.

Quantitative Annual Speleothem Records of Temperature and Precipitation in the past A new tool for Reconstruction of past karst denudation rates.
Yavor.Y.Shopov, Ludmil.T.Tsankov, Leonid.N.Georgiev, Elena Marinova, Derek.C. Ford2, Chas.J.Yonge 3,
Faculty of Physics, University of Sofia, James Baucher 5, Sofia 1126, Bulgaria. E-mail: YYShopov@Phys.Uni-Sofia.BG 2Geography Dept., McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 1K4, Canada 3Dept. of Physics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Calcite speleothem luminescence depends exponentially upon soil temperatures that are determined primarily by solar infrared radiation in the case when that cave is covered only by grass or upon air temperatures in case that cave is covered by forest or bush. In the first case, microzonality of luminescence of speleothems can be used as an indirect Solar Insolation (SI) index, but in the second - as an paleotemperature proxy. So, in dependence on the cave site we may speak about "solar sensitive" and "temperature sensitive" paleoluminescence speleothem records like in tree ring records, but in our case record may depend either only on temperature or on solar irradiation (SHOPOV et. all, 1996 a,b). In case of Rats Nest cave, Alberta, Canada we reconstructed annual air temperatures for last 1450 years at the cave site with estimated error of 0.35 0 C, while the error of the direct measurements is 0.1 0 C. For this purpose we obtained a stacked 66000 data points paleotemperature record from Rats Nest cave, Kananaskis karst region, Alberta, Canada. It covers last 1450 yrs with resolution of about 8 days for most of the time span. Paleoclimatic records has been derived from speleothem luminescence, calibrated by actual climatic records from near climatic station in Banff, Alberta. The sample was dated by two14-C dates, U/Th dating, autocalibration and annual bands counting dating. All produced consistent age, best estimated as 1450 +/- 80 years.

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Fig.1Reconstruction of variations of carbonate denudation rate in Kananaskis karst region, Alberta, Canada in the last 280 years in dependence on the precipitation

Fig.2. Reconstruction of annual variations of carbonate denudation rate in Kananaskis karst region, Alberta, Canada in the last 1250 years in dependence on the temperature. 41

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

We demonstrated the potential of the quantitative theory of solubility of karst rocks (SHOPOV et. al, 1989,1991a) in dependence of the temperature and other thermodynamic parameters to make reconstructions of past carbonate denudation rates. Obtained data are important for estimations of the significance of the contribution of karst denudation to global CO2 amount and cycle. We used the quantitative theory of solubility of karst rocks of SHOPOV et. al, (1989,1991a) in dependence of the temperature and other thermodynamic parameters to make reconstructions of past carbonate denudation rates. This theory produced equations of the dependence of the carbonate denudation rates in dependence on the temperature or on the precipitation. We used an estimate of the averaged denudation rate in the region based on integrated data of the carbonate hardness or the water from springs, rivers, cave pools and dripping water and average precipitation rate (of 470 mm/yr) from meteorological data. Obtained denudation rate is 14 mm/kyr or 38 t/km2 per year. We used this as starting point and substituting our proxy records of the annual temperature and the annual precipitation reconstructed variations of the and for the last 1250 years in dependence on the temperature (fig.2). Both reconstructions are made for equilibrium conditions and do not take into account variations of the evapotranspiration, but they produce quite reasonable estimate of the variations of carbonate denudation, which is within observed variation of 8- 20 mm/ kyr (86% variation). Temperature dependence of carbonate denudation due to temperature dependence of solubility of the carbonate dioxide produce only 9.3 % variation in the denudation rate in result of the reconstructed variation of 4.7 deg. C. Precipitation dependence of carbonate denudation produce 79 % variation in the denudation rate in result of the reconstructed variation of 300 mm/yr from the driest to the wettest year. Acknowledgements This research was supported by grant NZ 811/ 98 of Bulgarian Science Foundation to Y. Shopov and a NSERC strategic research grant to D.C. Ford. References: .Shopov Y.Y., Georgiev S.L., Georgiev L.N.(1989)Climatic Reasons for Karstification of Pirin Mts.- Exped. Ann. of Sofia Univ., 3/4:42-53. .Shopov, Y., Georgiev L.N. (1991) Quantitative theory of the solubility of carbonate rocks in dependence ofthe physico- chemical and climatic conditions.- Exped. Ann. Univ. Of Sofia, v.5-A: 9-16. .Shopov Y.Y., et al (1996a) Speleothems as Natural Climatic Stations with Annual to Daily Resolution- in book "Climatic Change- the Karst Record", Ed. by S.E. Lauritzen. KWI , Bergen, p. 150-151. .Shopov Y.Y.,et al (1996) Speleothem Luminescence proxy Records of Annual Rainfall in the Past. Evidences for "The Deluge" in Speleothems." in book "Climatic Change- the Karst Record", Ed. by S.E. Lauritzen. KWI , Bergen, p. 155-156.

Influence of the Solar Luminosity on Glacier Melting, Precipitation and Sea Level Changes.

42

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Yavor Shopov, Diana Stoykova, L. Tsankov, M. Sanabria, Diana Garbeva, L.N. Georgiev Faculty of Physics, University of Sofia, James Bouchier 5, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria E-Mail:YYShopov@Phys.Uni-Sofia.BG Glaciations were attributed to variations of the Earths orbit (Milankovitch cycles). But the best ever dated paleoclimatic record (from a speleothem from Devils Hole, Nevada) demonstrated that the end of the last glacial period (termination II) happened 10 000 years before the one suggested by the orbital variations (Winograd et al, 1988, 1992), i.e. the result appeared before the reason. This fact suggests that there is something wrong in the theory. Glaciations and deglaciations drive changes of the sea level. They are extremely important for human life in coastal regions, because rise of the sea level with few meters will cause flooding of very large regions of land and will reduce significantly arable land of several countries. We need to know the detailed mechanisms of the deglaciations in order to develop proper sustainable management policy and actions to secure sustainable development of these regions. These actions are important not only for sustainable management of the caves (which provide the data for coming disasters), but for survival of large regions of land and its population. Calcite speleothems luminescence of organics depends exponentially upon soil temperatures that are determined primarily by the solar radiation. So the microzonality of luminescence of speleothems may be used as an indirect Solar Insolation (radiation) proxy index. We obtained luminescence solar insolation proxy records in speleothems (from Jewel Cave, South Dakota, US and Duhlata cave, Bulgaria). These records exhibit very rapid increasing of the solar insolation at 139 kyrs BP responsible for the termination II (the end of t e last glaciation) h and demonstrate that solar luminosity variations contribute to Earths heating almost as much as the orbital variations of the Earths orbit (Milankovitch cycles). The most powerful cycle of the solar luminosity (11500 yrs) is responsible for almost 1/2 of the variations in solar insolation experimental records. Solar luminosity and orbital variations both cause variations of the solar insolation affecting the climate by the same mechanism. Changes in the speed of Earths rotation during glacial- interglacial transitions produce fracturing of the Earths crust and major earthquakes along the fractures. The intensity of this process is as higher as faster is the change of the sea level and as higher is its amplitude. Much higher dimensions of this process may be caused by eruptive increasing of solar luminosity, which may be caused only by collision of large asteroids with the Sun (Shopov et al, 1996, 1997). Such collision may cause Bible Deluge type of event. Humanity even now is not prepared to face such catastrophic disaster, but cave research combined with astronomical observations can help to predict it and to suggest actions to reduce the damage cause by it. Such rapid melting of the ice sheets and rising of the sea level should cause unusually rapid change of the rotation speed of the Earth and would produce major earthquakes. Probably one of them broke the narrow band of land separating Black Sea from the Mediterranean Sea and caused the flooding of the Black Sea basin. Humanity even now is not prepared to face such catastrophic disaster, but cave research combined with astronomical observations can help to predict it and to suggest actions to reduce the damage cause by it. Conclusions Solar luminosity variations contribute to Earths heating almost as much as the variations of the Earths orbit (Milankovitch cycles). Their most prominent cycle (with period of 11500 yrs) must be also taken into account for a proper explanation of the timing of the deglaciations. Speleothem records (being the best-dated paleoclimatic records) may serve as a reliable tool for studying the mechanisms of formation and precise timing of glacial periods. 43

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Glaciations and deglaciations drive changes of the sea level. They are extremely important for human life in coastal regions, because rise of the sea level with few meters will cause flooding of very large regions of land and will reduce significantly arable land of several countries. We need to know the detailed mechanisms of the deglaciations in order to develop proper sustainable management policy and actions to secure sustainable development of these regions. These actions are important not only for sustainable management of the caves (which provide the data for coming disasters), but for survival of large regions of land and its population. Cave research is necessary to predict coming major global climatic disasters and to suggest proper policy and actions to reduce the damage caused by it.

Acknowledgements This research was funded by Bulgarian Science Foundation by research grant 811/98 to Y. Shopov .

References Shopov Y.Y., L.Tsankov, L.N.Georgiev, A.Damyanova, Y. Damyanov, E. Marinova, D.C. Ford, C.J.Yonge, W. MacDonald, H.P.R.Krouse (1996) Speleothem Luminescence proxy Records of Annual Rainfall in the Past. Evidences for "The Deluge" in Speleothems." in book "Climatic Change- the Karst Record", Ed. by S.E. Lauritzen. KWI , Bergen, p. 155-156. Shopov Y.Y., L.Tsankov, L.N.Georgiev, A.Damyanova, Y. Damyanov, E. Marinova, D.C. Ford, C.J.Yonge, W. MacDonald, H.P.R.Krouse (1997) Evidences for "The Deluge" in Speleothems." Proc. of 12th UIS Congress, La Chaux-de- Fonds, Switzerland, 10- 17 August 1997, v.1, pp.107- 110. Shopov Y.Y., D. A. Stoykova, D.Ford, L.N.Georgiev, L.Tsankov (1998) Abstracts of AGU Chapman Conference on Mechanisms of Millennial- Scale Global Climate Change, June 14- 18, 1998, Snowbird, Utah, p.25 Winograd I. J. Szabo B. J., Coplen T. B., Riggs A. C. (1988)- Science, v.242, pp.1275-1280. Winograd J. Coplen T.b., Landwehr J.M., Riggs A.C., Ludwig K.R., Szabo B.J., Kolesar P.T., Revesz K.M. (1992)- Science, v.258, pp.255-260.

Activators of Luminescence in Speleothems as Source of Major Mistakes in Interpretation of Luminescent Paleoclimatic Records.
Y. Y. Shopov Faculty of Physics, University of Sofia, James Baucher 5, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria. E-mail: YYShopov@Phys.Uni-Sofia.BG Almost 50 cave minerals have the capacity for exhibiting luminescence, but only 17 had actually observed to be luminescent in speleothems so far. Most known luminescent centers in calcite are inorganic ions of Mn,Tb, Er, Dy, U, Eu, Sm and Ce. Statements that Sr causes luminescence of carbonates and Cu- causes luminescence of calcite and aragonite are in error. Also interpretations of the visible luminescence of calcite as Pb- activated (Slacik, 1976) are not correct, because Pb in calcite is emitting only UV light.

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Minerals deposited by low-temperature hydrothermal solutions have short-life fluorescence due to cations and long phosphorescence due to molecular ions. For example the orange-red luminescence of Mn(2+) in calcite sensitized by Pb(2+) can be observed only in hydrothermal calcite, because Mn (2+) has no strong bands of excitation and can luminesce only at availability of Pb(2+) which absorbs UV light and transmit excitation energy to Mn(2+) which luminesce. But Pb(2+) have very big ion radius and can substitute Ca(2+) only at high temperatures. Therefore, if calcite has only orange-red, short-time phosphorescence, it is sure to have formed in high-temperature, hydrothermal solutions(>300 C). But if it has long-time phosphorescence in addition to red- orange one, then it is a low-temperature hydrothermal calcite (Shopov, 1989a,b). Minimal temperatures for the appearance of this orange- red luminescence was estimated by Dublyansky (in prep.) by fluid inclusion analysis in hydrothermal cave calcites to be about 40 C, but our direct measurements of luminescence of calcites in hot springs shows that even at 46 C such luminescence did not appear, and it probably does not appear at < 60 C. Luminescence of hydrothermal calcite formed at lower temperatures looks similar to usual speleothem luminescence. Luminescence of minerals formed at normal cave temperatures is due mainly to molecular ions and sorbated organic molecules. Luminescence of uranil- ion is also very common in such speleothems. Before using a speleothem for any paleoenvironmental work it is necessary to determine that all luminescence of the sample is due to organics. Minerals contain many admixtures. Usually several centres activate luminescence of the sample and the measured spectrum is a sum of the spectra of two or more of them. Monochromatic excitation light is necessary to determine spectra of luminescence of each ion. Determination of luminescence activators in speleothems is very difficult task which has been solved only by 3 large labs of Sofia University (Bulgaria), PennState University (US) and McMaster University (Shopov et al, 1988; White, Brennan, 1989). Lasers and Raman spectrometers used for measurements of luminescent spectra allow also determination of the luminescent mineral in the speleothem, because the narrow Raman lines appearing in luminescence spectra at high resolution scanning are characteristic for different minerals. Table 1. Origin of Photoluminescence of Cave Minerals Lum. center excitation Color Phosphor. Origin Reference _____________________________________________________________________ Calcite: 1.Organics, Hg-lamp , blue long infiltr. Gilson et al.(1953) 2.Organics, N2-Laser, blue long infiltration Shopov(1983) 3.Organics, SWUV, blue-green long infilt. White,Brennan(1989) 4.Organics, N2-L.,Xe, blue-green long infiltration Shopov(1989b) 5.Organics, N2-Laser, yellow-green long infiltration Shopov(1989b) 6.Organics, LWUV(Hg), yellow long infiltration Shopov(1989b) 7.Organics, Ar-L.,Xe, yellow long infilt. Shopov & al.(1989) 8.Organics, SWUV,LWUV yellow-orange long infilt. White,Brennan(1989) 9.CO2 N2-Laser blue infilt. Ugumory,Ikeya,(1980) 10.UO2 SWUV green infilt. White,Brennan(1989) 12.UO2 N2-L., Hg green (photo 9) infiltration Shopov(1989b) 13.UO2 (magursilite?) green-yellowinfiltration Shopov(1989b) 14.Organics, Hg,Xe bluish <15s hydrot. Dublyansky(in p.) 15.Mn Ar-L, N -L,Xe orange-red 0.1s h-t.,Mitsaki,1973;White,1974 16.Hydrocarbons, flash violet long epithermal,Shopov & Buck,p.c 45

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

17.Organics, 18.Organics, 19.Organics, 20.Organics, 21.Organics, 22.Organics, 23.UO2 24 ?

Hg-lamp, SWUV,LWUV Hg-lamp, N2-Laser, N2 Laser, Hg-lamp, SWUV Hg (LWUV)

Aragonite: blue long infiltration Shopov(1989b) blue-green long infilt. White,Brennan(1989) blue-green long infiltration Shopov(1989b) blue-green long infiltration Shopov(1989b) green long infiltration Shopov(1989b) yellow long infiltration Shopov(1989b) green infilt. White,Brennan(1989) orange ? White,Brennan(1989)

* Comments to table 1: 13- Spectra of this luminescence is attributed by Tarashtan et al.(1978) to luminescence of clusters of mineral Magursilite sorbated in calcite. 15 - also in Shopov et al.,1988, White and Brennan 1989; Usually researchers attribute all luminescence in calcite speleothems to organics without any reason to do so (Baker et al, 1993). Detailed spectral measurements of the luminescence are absolutely necessary to determine luminescent compounds in any speleothem. In many samples all or a significant part of the luminescence is produced by inorganic ions. Sometimes they even have annual banding due to variations of acidity of the karst waters, causing variations of the solubility of some inorganic luminophores (Shopov, 1997). Uranium compounds have such migration behavior. We found some speleothems demonstrating fine fluorescence banding produced by uranium impurities in the speleothem under short-wave UV light. Fine fluorescence banding under longwave UV light is produced by rare earth elements in the same sample. Phosphorescence of this sample suggests that there are no any luminescent organics in the speleothem. Conclusions Before using of any speleothem for paleoenvironmental luminescence measurements it is necessary to determine that all luminescence of the sample is due to organics. Otherwise interpretation of the data can be completely wrong and there are no way to prove or disapprove it without further measurements of the sample to establish the organic nature of all its luminescence. Acknowledgements This research was funded by Bulgarian Science Foundation by research grant 811/98 to Y. Shopov . References Baker,A.,Smart, P.L., Edwards, R.L., and Richards, D.A, 1993, Annual Growth banding in a cave stalagmite: Nature, v.304, p. 518-520. Shopov Y.Y.,Grynberg M.A.,1985.A New Method for Direct Photography of Luminescence.-Exped.Ann.Sofia Univ.,v.1,p.139-45 Shopov Y.Y.,Tsankov L.T.(1985)A Photographic Apparatus for Luminescent Analysis (B. Patent 40439 from 30 Aug. 1985) Bulletin of IIR,v.12,Dec.1986,7 pp. 46

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Shopov Y.Y.,1989a, Bases and Structure of the International Programme "Luminescence of Cave Minerals" of the Commission of Physical Chemistry and Hydrogeology of Karst of UIS.-Exped. Annual of Sofia University, v.3/4,pp.111- 127. Shopov Y.Y.,1989-b, Spectra of Luminescence of Cave Minerals, -Expedition Annual of Sofia University,v. 3/4,pp.80-85. Shopov Y.Y., L.Tsankov, M. Buck, D.C.Ford (1996-d) Time Resolved Photography of Phosphorescence- A New Technique for Study of Thermal History and Uplift of Thermal Caves.- Extended abstracts of Int. Conference on " limatic Change- the Karst Record", 1- 4 August 1996, Bergen, Norway. Karst Waters Institute C Special Publication 2., p. 154. Shopov Y.Y. (1997) Luminescence of Cave Minerals- in book: "Cave Minerals of the world" second edition, ed by C.Hill, P. Forti, NSS, Huntswille, Alabama, USA, pp.244-248 Slacik, J.: Vestn. Ustredn. Ustavu Geol. 1976,v.51, p. 107-112. White W.B, Brennan E.S.(1989) Luminescence of speleothems due to fulvic acid and other activators.Proceedings of 10th International Congress of Speleology, 13-20 August 1989, Budapest, v.1, pp.212- 214.

Cave microclimate in Bulgaria: genezis, evolution, cyclic recurrence and territory distribution
Alexey Stoev Yuri Gagarin Peoples Astronomical Observatory, Stara Zagora 6000, Bulgaria, email: aogagarin@mbox.digsys.bg The speleocloimate is a many years course of the microclimatic elements in the karst system. It is significantly different from the microclimate of a given countryside. The basic factors which influence the microclimate are: The cave or cave system morphology, altitude of the cave entrance and the karst area; the stage of crackness of the karst rock; entrance orientation according to the solar beams, local air flows and shelter relief factors; ice and snow bodies existence in the cave; presence of intensely dripping or flowing water in the cave.

The aim of the investigation is to study the aerodynamical parameters of Bulgarian cave systems connected with the microclimate. A meteorological datebase giving a comparatively topical statistically generalized information about the caves, representing the basic karst regions is used. An evaluation, on the basis of data model is made of the : a) space-time nature of the data; b) multiciphered complication and variety of meaning of the connections between the observed meteorological and microclimatic fields and phenomena in caves and their contiguous landscapes. Many years epizodic and semistationary microclimatic observations(temperature of the air, rock and water, relative humidity, barometric presure and air flow velocity) are used.

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The evolution of the observed meteoelements and their space structure are presented as tables. The database is in conservative state in the Main card index of the Bulgarian caves in the Bulgarian Federation of Speleology or in private archives. Ten days, monthly and yearly generalizations are made from the data. The zone of constant temperatures for the studied caves is determined. Values of the microclimatic elements are averaged and the basic regularities of the speleoclimate are obtained. As a result of calculations is clarified that the stability of average temperature values increases during the average process. Climatic maps and diagrams are drawn for the aim of studying the space structure of the microclimatic fields in the caves and their interaction with the outer earth atmosphere ground layer. Climatic maps present the graphical distribution of different microclimatic elements ( average values, repeatedness of the different gradations, vertical gradients,etc.). The criterium of entrance situation uniformity is discussed in the process of meteorologicaldata interpretation. The validity of the H(m)/t C correlation is investigated on a small and great scale karst areas. Climatic graphs of the correlations coldest - hottest temperatures and annular rainfalls quantity - nonfreezing period duration are drawn. Comparing the climatic graphs we find these parts of the karst areas which have common climatic elements.

References: Geography of Bulgaria (1997) Physical geography, Marin Drinov Academic edition, Sofia, pp 112-118. Stoev, Alexey, (1999), Microclimatic division of the caves in Bulgaria into districts, National Scientific Conference on Problems of Karst and Speleology, Sofia, pp 82-86.

Influence of Solar Luminosity over Geomagnetic Field, Past Climate, Glaciations and Time Shifting of Termination-II Derived from Speleothems
Y. Shopov1,4, D. Stoykova 1 , L. Tsankov1, M. Sanabria1 , D. Georgieva1 , D. Ford2 , J. Lundberg3 , L. Georgiev1 1 Faculty of Physics, University of Sofia, James Bouchier 5, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria, YYShopov@phys.uni-sofia.bg 2 Geography Dept., McMaster Univ., Hamilton,Ontario, L8S 1K4, Canada 3 Geography Dept., Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, CANADA K1S 5B6 Calcite speleothems (stalagmites etc.) usually display luminescence which is produced by calcium salts of humic and fulvic acids derived from soils above the cave. These acids are released by the decomposition of humic matter. Rates of decomposition depend exponentially upon soil surface temperatures that are determined primarily by solar infrared radiation. So the microzonality of luminescence of speleothems can be used as an indirect Solar Activity (SA) index (Shopov, 1987). Increasing of the ice volume and related sea level change during glaciations produces changes in the inertial moment of the Earth and resulting changes in the speed of Earths rotation (Tenchov et al., 1993). Orbital variations cause also some deformation of the solid Earth and redistribution of the Ocean masses (Morner, 1983). In result theoretical curves can be used only for qualitative reference. For quantitative correlation it is necessary to 48

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

use experimental records of the solar insolation, because they contain also variations of the solar luminosity and number of others not covered by the Orbital theory. We measured a luminescent solar insolation proxy record in a speleothem (JC11) from Jewel Cave, South Dakota, USA (SHOPOV et al.,1998, STOYKOVA et al., 1998). This record covers 89300- 138600 yrs B.P. with high resolution (34 years) and precision of measurements better than 1%. It reveals determination of millennial and century cycles in the record. We extracted orbital variations from the JC11 record by a band -pass Tukey filter set for frequencies of 41, 23 and 19 kyrs. So the remaining signal contains only SL self-variations. The most powerful cycle in this record with period of 11.5 kyrs appears to be a bit more powerful than the precession cycle and a bit less than the total orbital component of the SI variations. This TIMS U/Th dated JC11 record exhibits a very rapid increasing in solar insolation at 139 kyrs 5.5 kyrs BP (95% confidence level) responsible for the termination II. This increasing precedes that one suggested by the Orbital theory with about 10 kyrs and is due to the most powerful cycle of the solar luminosity with period of 11.5 kyrs superposed on the orbital variations curve. This cycle was found previously to be the most intensive one in the 14 C calibration record and was interpreted to be of geomagnetic origin. Our studies suggest that this is a solar cycle modulating the geomagnetic field. The Devils Hole 18 O record suggests that termination II had happened at 1403 kyrs B.P. It follows precisely the shape of our experimental solar insolation record. This result is confirmed by an other U/Th dated luminescent solar insolation proxy record in a speleothem from a Duhlata cave, Bulgaria 10000 km. far form the JC11 site. These records suggest that the solar luminosity contribution to the solar insolation curves has been severely underestimated. Solar luminosity (SL) and orbital variations both cause variations of solar insolation affecting the climate by the same mechanism. In spite their influence over the geomagnetic field involve fundamentally different mechanisms, determined by the properties of the solar wind. The Orbital theory pressumes that the solar luminosity is constant during geological periods of time. Recent studies demonstrated that this presumption is not precise. Direct satellite measurements of the solar constant demonstrated that it varies with time as much as 0.4% during the observation time span (Hickey et al., 1980), but there are experimental data suggesting that it varied much greater during geological periods (Sonett, 1984, Stuiver & Braziunas, 1989). Sonett (1984) analysing the 14-C solar proxy record found that the cycle with a period of about 900 yrs has intensity 5 7 times higher than that of the century cycle. Stuiver & Braziunas (1989) calculated MEM spectra of the same record and demonstrated, that longer solar cycles are more than one order of magnitude stronger, than the solar cycles covered by direct measurements. In order to compare quantitatively intensities of all cycles presented in our data we designed a special algorithm and relevant computer program, which plots the periodogramme in coordinates (Cycle Intensity/Period). Calculated periodogrammes of the JC11 luminescent record demonstrated, that the solar cycle of about 900 years has intensity only 3 -4% of the 11500-yr cycle and the solar cycle about 420 years has intensity less than 2.5 % of the 11500-yr cycle. So the 11500-yr cycle should have intensity of several orders of magnitude higher, than the observed century and sub- century cycles. We obtained many other cycles, more intensive of them with duration of 6000, 4400, 3950, 3300, 2770, 2500, 2300, 1900, 1460, 1200 and 900 years with amplitude ranging respectively from 3 to 0.7 % of the Solar Constant. Conclusions Solar luminosity variations contribute to Earths heating almost as much as the orbital variations of the Earths orbit (Milankovitch cycles). Their most prominent cycle (with period of 11,500 yrs) must be also taken into 49

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

account for a proper explanation of the timing of the last deglaciation. This solar luminosity cycle modulates the geomagnetic field and production of cosmogenic isotopes. Speleothem records (being the best dated paleoclimatic records) may serve as a reliable tool for studying the mechanisms of formation and precise timing of glaciations. References .Hickey J. et al. (1980): EOS, 61,355. .Moerner N.-A (1983): In: Mega- Morphology (R. Gardner and H. Scooging, eds.), 73, Oxford Univ. Press. .Shopov Y.Y.(1987): Laser Luminescent MicroZonal Analysis- A New Method for Investigation of the Alterations of the Climate and Solar Activity during Quaternary- Exped. Annual of Sofia Univ.,v 3/4,pp. 104-108. .Shopov Y.Y., D. A. Stoykova, D.C. Ford, L.N. Georgiev, L. Tsankov, (1998): Powerful Millennial- scale Solar Luluminosity Cycles in an Experimental Solar Insolation Record and their Significance to the TerminationII. - Abstracts of AGU Chapman Conference on Mechanisms of Millennial- Scale Global Climate Change, June 1418, 1998, Snowbird, Utah, p.25 .Sonett C.P. (1984): Very Long Solar Period and the Radiocarbon Record In Review of Geophysics and Space Physics, v. 22, N. 3, p.p. 239-254. .D. A. Stoykova, Shopov Y.Y., D.C. Ford, L.N. Georgiev, L. Tsankov. (1998): Powerful Millennial- scale Solar Luluminosity Cycles and their Influence over Past Climates and Geomagnetic Field- Abst. AGU Conf. Mech. of Millennial- Scale Global Climate Change, p.26. .Stuiver M., Braziunas T. (1980): Atmospheric 14 C and Century- Scale Solar Oscilations. Nature, v.338, pp.405- 407. .Tenchov G. G., Tenchov Y. G. (1993): An Estimation of Geological Factors Affecting the Long Time Earth Spin Rotation- Compt. Rend. lAcad. Bu lg. Sci., v.46, N.12, pp.37- 40. .Winograd I. J., Riggs A., Ludvig K.R., Szabo B. J., Kolesar P.T., Revesz B.M. (1992): Science, v.258, pp.255-260.

Using of Speleothem Luminescence for Quantitative Reconstruction of Variations of the Solar Luminosity and the Effective Temperature of the Sun.
Diana Stoykova, Yavor Shopov, L. Tsankov, M. Sanabria, L.N. Georgiev Faculty of Physics, University of Sofia, James Bouchier 5, Sofia 1164, Bulgaria, YYShopov@phys.uni-sofia.bg Calcite speleothems luminescence depends exponentially upon soil temperatures that are determined primarily by solar visible and infrared radiation. So microzonality of luminescence of speleothems was used as an indirect Solar Insolation (SI) proxy index. For Cold Water cave, Iowa, US we obtained high correlation coefficient of 0.9 between a luminescence record and the experimentally observed Solar Luminosity Sunspot index. We measured a luminescent speleothem record from Jewel Cave, South Dakota, US (Shopov et al.,1998, Stoykova et al., 1998). It is still the first available experimental solar insolation proxy record with sufficiently long duration to reproduce the orbital variations. This record covers 89300- 138600 yrs B.P. with high resolution. It reveals determination of millennial and century cycles in the record. This solar insolation proxy record contains not only orbital variations, but also solar luminosity self variations, producing many cycles with duration from several centuries to 11500 years.. We found also cycles with duration of 6000, 4400, 3300, 2500, 2300, 1900 and 1460, years (in order of decreasing intensity) with amplitude 50

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

ranging respectively from 3 to 0.7 % of the Solar Constant.. Known decadal and even century solar cycles have negligible intensity (100 times less intensive) relatively to this cycles. We extracted orbital variations from the JC11 record by a band -pass Tukey filter set for frequencies of 41, 23 and 19 kyrs. So the remaining signal contains only SL self-variations. The most powerful cycle o the solar luminosity is with period of 11.5. This cycle was found previously to be f the most intensive one in the 14C calibration record (Damon & Sonett, 1991) and was interpreted to be of geomagnetic origin. Our studies suggest that this is a solar cycle modulating the geomagnetic field. Direct satellite measurements of the solar constant demonstrated that it varies with time as much as 0.4% during the observation time span (Hickey et al., 1980), but there are experimental data suggesting that it varied much greater during geological periods (Sonett, 1984, Stuiver & Braziunas, 1989). Sonett (1984) analysing the 14C solar proxy record found that the cycle with a period of about 900 yrs has intensity 5 7 times higher than that of the century cycle. Stuiver & Braziunas (1989) calculated MEM spectra of the same record and demonstrated, that longer solar cycles are more than one order of magnitude stronger, than the solar cycles covered by direct measurements. In order to compare quantitatively intensities of all cycles presented in our data we designed a special algorithm and relevant computer program, which plots the periodogramme in coordinates (Cycle Intensity/Period).
Cycle [Yrs] VSC [W/m2] PSC [%] T [deg.K] T var. [deg.K]

11500 7800 6160 4400 3950 3400 2770 2500 2300 2090 1958 1770 1670 1460 1280 1195 1145 1034 935 835 814 775 750 670 660 610 570

100.6 27.5 41.5 24.4 25.1 24.1 12.6 16.3 12.5 7.28 11.26 8.5 9.1 10.0 4.8 4.5 4.5 4.26 3.02 3.6 2.6 2.3 2.6 2.06 2.47 1.78 2.06

7.33 2.00 3.02 1.78 1.83 1.76 0.92 1.19 0.91 0.53 0.82 0.62 0.66 0.73 0.35 0.33 0.33 0.31 0.22 0.26 0.19 0.17 0.19 0.15 0.18 0.13 0.15 51

5894.1 5814.3 5829.2 5810.9 5811.8 5810.7 5798.3 5802.3 5798.3 5792.6 5796.9 5794.0 5794.6 5795.6 5790.2 5789.7 5789.7 5789.5 5788.1 5788.8 5787.7 5787.5 5787.7 5787.1 5787.7 5786.8 5787.7

109.1 29.3 44.2 25.9 26.8 25.7 13.3 17.3 13.3 7.6 11.9 9.0 9.6 10.6 5.2 4.7 4.7 4.5 3.1 3.8 2.7 2.5 2.7 2.1 2.7 1.8 2.7

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

550 538 480 455 448 416 405 342 317 291 287 254 186 162.5 161 156.5 155.9 118.2

1.78 2.06 1.37 1.57 0.91 1.37 0.96 0.81 0.91 0.83 0.76 1.06 0.79 0.83 0.83 0.76 0.79 0.68

0.13 0.15 0.1 0.11 0.07 0.1 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06

5786.8 5787.7 5785.9 5786.6 5786 5786.3 5786 5785.9 5786 5785.9 5785.8 5786.1 5785.8 5785.9 5785.9 5785.8 5785.8 5785.7

1.8 2.7 0.9 1.6 1 1.3 1 0.9 1 0.9 0.8 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7

Table 1 Cycles of the Solar Luminosity (in Years), relevant variations of the Solar Constant expressed in W/m2 (VSC) and in % from the Solar Constant (PSC), and relevant maximal changes- T of the Solar Surface Temperature from the average value of 5785 K and deviations from this value.

Calculated periodogrammes of the JC11 luminescent record demonstrated, that the solar cycle of about 900 years has intensity only 3 -4% of the 11500-yr cycle and the solar cycle about 420 years has intensity less than 2.5 % of the 11500-yr cycle. So the 11500-yr cycle should have intensity of several orders of magnitude higher, than the observed century and sub- century cycles. We obtained many other cycles, more intensive of them with duration of 6000, 4400, 3300, 2500, 2300, 1900 and 1460, years (in order of decreasing intensity) with amplitude ranging respectively from 3 to 0.7 % of the Solar Constant (tab. 1). Calculation of the variation of the solar constant was made using the variation of the solar radiation calculated by Berger & Loutre, (1992). Using real space periodogramme we compared the intensity of the orbital cycles presented in our record with the intensity of the solar luminosity cycles. Then we calibrated them with the absolute intensity (W/m2 ) of the orbital cycles. Using the equation of Stephan- Boltsman for brightness of a heated absolute black body we calculated the relevant solar surface temperature variations which are producing such variation of the solar constant (tab. 1). Conclusions of cosmogenic isotopes. It is as intensive as orbital variations, so modulates the Earth's climate. A number of shorter intensive SL cycles have intensity far stronger that the known century solar luminosity cycle. References Berger A., Loutre M.F. (1992): Quat. Sci. Res.,v.10, pp.297-317.Philosophical Magazine, 28, pp. 121-137 Damon P., Sonett C., (1991): Solar and Terrestrial Components of the Atmospheric 14-C Variation Spectrum In The Sun in Time, p.p. 360-388. 52

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Hickey J. et al. (1980): EOS, 61,355. Shopov Y.Y.,Ford D.C., Schwarcz H.P.(1994): Luminescent Microbanding in speleothems: High resolution chronology and paleoclimate.- Geology, v.22, p.407 -410, May 1994. Shopov Y.Y., L.Tsankov, L.N.Georgiev, A.Damyanova, Y. Damyanov, E. Marinova, D.C. Ford, C.J.Yonge, W. Macdonald, H.P.R.Krouse (1996): Speleothem Luminescence proxy Records of Annual Rainfall in the Past. Evidences for "The Deluge" in Speleothems." in book "Climatic Change- the Karst Record", Ed. by S.E. Lauritzen. KWI , Bergen, p. 155-156. Shopov Y.Y., D. A. Stoykova, D.C. Ford, L.N. Georgiev, L. Tsankov, (1998): Powerful Millennial- scale Solar Luluminosity Cycles in an Experimental Solar Insolation Record and their Significance to the TerminationII. - Abstracts of AGU Chapman Conference on Mechanisms of Millennial- Scale Global Climate Change, June 1418, 1998, Snowbird, Utah, p.25 Sonett C.P. (1984): Very Long Solar Period and the Radiocarbon Record In Review of Geophysics and Space Physics, v. 22, N. 3, p.p. 239-254. Stoykova D.A., Y.Y.Shopov, D.Ford, L.N.Georgiev, L.Tsankov. (1998): Powerful Millennial- scale Solar Luluminosity Cycles and their Influence over Past Climates and Geomagnetic Field- Abstracts of AGU Chapman Conference on Mechanisms of Millennial- Scale Global Climate Change, June 14- 18, 1998, Snowbird, Utah, p.26. Stuiver M., Braziunas T. (1980): Atmospheric 14 C and Century- Scale Solar Oscilations. Nature, v.338, pp.405- 407.

Surface Cover Infiltration Index: A Suggested Method to Assess Infiltration For Intrinsic Vulnerability in Karstic Areas in Absence of Quantitative Data
Levent Tezcan and Mehmet Ekmekci International Research Center for Karst Water Resources Hacettepe University, Beytepe Ankara Turkey Karst is a hydrogeological environment of a particular importance due to its value as a center of attraction not only for its water resources potential but also for its scenic and economic potential there by increasing the intensity of human impact The uniqueness of karst in this regard, stems from its high sensitivity and vulnerability to imposed pressures and its distinctive response to these pressures. Therefore, a clear definition and formulation of the concept of intrinsic vulnerability is essential for the design of vulnerability and/or management of the karstic system as a resource. In this regard, the recharge rate, the amount of water passing through the unsaturated zone into the aquifer, is among the the principal attributes of the intrinsic vulnerability. Where data and measurements are available for even large areas, recharge can be evaluated quantitatively on the basis of field measurements and water balance equation. However, particularly for countries suffering from lack of essential data for a quantitative evaluation of the net recharge rate, the recharge can be estimated using some derived parameters such as the so called Surface Cover Infiltration Index proposed herein this paper. The Surface Cover Infiltration Index (SCI) is a relative index and is dependent on some selected lithological, structural, hydrological and morphological factors. Actual infiltration depends upon several meteorological, hydrogeological and topografical parameters, such as the effective rainfall, slope and cover of the terrain, fracture intensity, karstic features, and surficial lithology. However, in this descriptive approach, which does not intend to assess the actual infiltration in a quantitative manner, the term infiltration is used only to define the relative ability of the surface cover to permit water to seep through to the subsurface. A weighting and rating method is used for the assessment of the surface cover infiltration (SCI) of the areas of interest. Although the actual infiltration through a geologic unit depends on many factors, the surface cover 53

Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

infiltration index defined with the method developed here, is derived from four parameters which are considered to play a major role in giving a unit the ability of permitting water to seep into the subsurface under natural conditions. These are surface lithology, lineaments, karstic features and drainage density. In the SCI index system the area under examination is discretized into a grid of finite square elements (FSE). The size of the FSEs is dependent on the scale of the map used in the study. However, the morphological and hydrogeological-structural complexity of an area equivalent to the size of the basic grid should be selected in order to maintain a reasonable balance between the need for a high resolution and the level of detail at which data is available. A series of geological, structural, hydrogeological and morphological characteristics are rated and weighted to determine a single index by which the assessment of the surface cover infiltration is performed. The raw or preprocessed data are obtained from geological, topographical and hydrogeological maps and aerial photographs. The monothematic maps (topographic, geologic, hydrogeologic/morphologic and structural maps) should be discretized first into grids using the same grid size for each of these maps. Following a detailed description of the SCI index, a case study carried out to demonstrate the use of this method is also presented in this paper whose objective is to discuss and thus elaborate the suggested methodology.

Comparative Evaluation of Covered Karst Sensitive Terrain to Pollution of Geological Environment


Vladimir Tolmachev, Olga Maximova State Venture Antikarst and Shore Protection, Dzerzhinsk, Russia, 606023, Mayakovsky Str., 33; e-mail: karst@kis.ru The problem of evaluation of karst terrain sensitivity to pollution of geological environment exists while constructing and operating landfills, chemical plants and roads. We offer the way of evaluation with the use of marking expert method by the example of town Dzerzhinsk. Carbonate sulfate covered karst is developed in this region and it is complicated by suffosion processes. We ranged all landfills in this region according to their potential danger for groundwater.

Karst water, speleothem trace element variations and palaeoclimatic reconstruction, Obir Cave, SE Austria: preliminary results
Anna F. Tooth
Institut fr Geologie und Palontologie, Universitt Innsbruck, Austria

Ian J. Fairchild School of Earth Sciences and Geography, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, England Christoph Sptl
Institut fr Geologie und Palontologie, Universitt Innsbruck, Austria
This work is funded by Lise Meitner Scholarship M618 and grant START Y122-GEO, both awarded by the Austrian Science Fund.

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Abstracts of the International Workshop Cave Climate and Paleoclimate Best Record of the Global Change, Stara Zagora/Bulgaria, Sept 2002

Monitoring is currently being performed in the Karawanken Mountains, southeast Austrian Alps, at Obir Cave. The site is situated in Triassic Wetterstein Limestone and overlain by shallow soils and primitive to wellestablished forest. The research project aims to: (i) determine the main karst zone processes controlling seasonal fluctuations in karst water ionic concentrations, (ii) investigate the nature of annual variations in trace elements precipitated within speleothem calcite, using the high resolution ion microprobe technique, and (iii) use trace elemental cycles in speleothems to reconstruct changes in surface environmental conditions during the Holocene. The geochemistry of rain, soil and karst waters are being monitored each month over a one and a half year period. Four speleothems in total will eventually be analysed via ion microprobe. Two, from karst water data logger station sites, have already been removed for ion microprobe study. A further two stalagmites, also corresponding to monitored karst water sites, will be removed at the end of the 18 month period, enabling a direct comparison of calcite geochemistry with that of the karst waters from which it has precipitated. Preliminary results from ion microprobe traverses tracking downwards from the growth surfaces of two Holocene stalagmites from Obir Cave indicate the occurrence of pronounced chemical variations in concentrations of the trace elements Mg, Sr, Na, Si, H and P, with the latter exhibiting the most distinctive annual variations. These cycles of trace element variation appear to correspond with, presumably annual, laminae. In addition, a traverse across a petrographic hiatus in one stalagmite sample, which denotes a probable change in surface conditions, recorded clear changes in relative elemental concentrations. These findings re-iterate the valuable potential of karst system trace element studies as a tool in the reconstruction of regional records of past climate.

Trace elements in speleothems


Verheyden Sophie Vrije Universiteit Brussel WE- GEOL Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium. sverheyd@vub.ac.be Since a long time, researchers are trying to understand the hidden message behind trace elemental composition of speleothems. First studies were mainly concerned with the link between the trace elemental composition and the color of speleothems or the occurrence of meta-stable aragonite speleothems. Recent research is mainly focusing on the palaeoclimatic significance of speleothem composition in order to reconstruct at a very high resolution (monthly) the evolution of the effective precipitation and/ or vegetation activity. A four-year in-situ study of cave waters revealed that the Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios of cave waters and consequently of precipitated calcite tend to increase during drier periods when residence times in the epikarst are longer. We measured the Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios along the longitudinal axis of three Belgian Holocene stalagmites A comparison of the time-series from the three stalagmites reveal some analogy, such as a wet-dry anomaly around 8.2 ky BP, which may correspond to the 8.2ky BP dry and cold event registered in Greenland ice-cores. The changes to wet conditions around 4 ky BP and to dry conditions around 2.5 ky BP may reflect climatic conditions during the Subboreal deterioration and the Roman warm period. Some other parts, on the contrary, are not concordant, indicating that other factors, among which possibly very local factors, are superimposed on the main climatic forcing.

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