1

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Fire and Explosion
Types of fire:-
Jetfire- intense blow-torch type flame
Pool Fire - burning pool of liquid
Tank Fire
Flash Fire delayed ignition of a cloud of flammable
vapour
BLEVE - Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour
Explosion
Flare stack - design

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
FUEL
AIR
or
OXIDANT
SOURCE
OF IGNITION
FIRE
TRIANGLE
2

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Main hazards associated with fire are:-
1 extent of flame area - potential fatal effects
- diameter of flame, flame envelope size
- often calculated at 80-90% of flammable gas
cloud dispersion calculation
- some semi-empirical calculation methods
2 thermal radiation effects
- used for layout and spacing of plant
- damage control
- safety and escape levels for people
3 smoke effects - part of gas dispersion
modelling

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Flame Surface Emissive Power
- thermal radiation effects from flame
- dependent on smoke masking effects
-typically 130-270 KW / m
2
from jet flames
- assume 270 KW / m
2
from fireballs
- 50-100 KW / m
2
from LPG pool fire
- 30-50 KW / m
2
from smoky hydrocarbon pool fire
Then calculate thermal radiation from the Flame Surface
- atmospheric attenuation dependent on humidity
- 2 methods - Point Source, and View Factor
Then apply thermal radiation criteria
3

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Thermal Radiation levels used for Fire Modelling
38 KW / m
2
- tank walls distorted
12.5 KW / m
2
- wood, paper, paint ignite
5 KW / m
2
- limit for people to escape
1.6 - 3 KW / m
2
- soften cables for sustained flaring
0.7 KW / m
2
- hot summer sunshine
Point Source Radiation Calculation
All radiation assumed to come
from a central point

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Point-Source Thermal Radiation Calculation
.K 4.
F.Q
D

Which is simplified to
K
F.W.Cv
0.28. D
D = distance from flame
centre to receiving point
F - fraction of heat radiated
typically 0.3 for hydrocarbons
0.15 for hydrogen
Q = total heat generated
K = thermal radiation level
W = gas of liquid burning rate
Cv = calorific value of fuel
2
. . 4
1
D
ViewFactor

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Point-Source Thermal Radiation Calculation
.K 4.
F.Q
D

D = distance from flame

centre to receiving point
F - fraction of heat radiated
typically 0.3 for hydrocarbons
0.15 for hydrogen
Q = total heat generated
K = thermal radiation level
2
. . 4
1
D
ViewFactor

Point Source View Factor

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Typical Applications - Flare Stacks
FLARESTACK THERMAL RADIATION USING API 521 METHOD

NOT TO SCALE

INPUT DATA 113.3
Gas Flaring Rate, kg/sec
72
Height to top of stack, m
107
Max distance of interest m
250
30 degrees
Heat of Combustion kJ/g
44
Proportion heat radiated
0.3
Angle of flame to horizontal
30
CALCULATED RESULTS 107 metres
Total heat from flame MW 950.4
Length of flame metres 113.3
Direct distance from flame centre = 137.5 135.3 137.8 144.6 155.2 168.8 184.9 202.7 222.0 242.3
Thermal Radiation kW/m2 = 4.0 4.1 4.0 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.2 1.8 1.5 1.3

Distance from base of stack m = 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
Atmospheric Attenuation 70% 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.61
Thermal Radiation kW/m2 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8
5

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Pool fire calculation - takes the area of
flame into account - View Factor Method
CIRCULAR POOL FIRE RADIATION - VIEW FACTOR METHOD
15-Mar-04

INPUT DATA
Pool diameter 10
Fuel burning rate kg/m2/sec 0.07 20
Heat of Combustion kJ/g 44
Proportion heat radiated 0.12
CALCULATED RESULTS D
Fuel consumed kg/sec 5.49779
Total heat from flame MW 29.0283
Length of flame metres 20 10
Area of radiating flame m2 706.858
Average radiation intensity 41.0667
RADIATION - KW/M2 9.1 6.9 4.2 3.7 2.8 2.1
DISTANCE FROM EDGE OF FLAME D metres 5 10 18 20 25 30
VIEW FACTOR 0.221 0.167 0.102 0.09 0.068 0.052
B= 0.949 0.676 0.374 0.326 0.237 0.178
A= 0.438 0.376 0.264 0.24 0.189 0.15
Y 2 1 0.556 0.5 0.4 0.333
X= 4 2 1.111 1 0.8 0.667
FLAME

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
15 metres
6 metres
8 metres
12 metres
Y = 29 metres
Tank Fire Calculation
Flame
Tank
Flame Centre
6

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
F
p
= point source view factor
y = direct distance from flame centre point to target
Assume flame height = 2 x pool fire diameter
Flame combustion energy kW A H m Q
p c b r
348040 113 44000 07 . 0 . .

Qr = flame energy kW
mb = mass burning rate of toluene = 0.07 kg/m
2
.sec

Hc = heat of combustion of toluene = 44,000 kJ/kg
Af = area of burning pool, m
2

5
2
10 5 . 9
10568
1
841 . 4
1
. . 4
1

y
Fp
Thermal flux at target
2 5
/ 93 . 4 348040 10 5 . 9 15 . 0 . . m kW Q F E
r p r

Er = thermal flux at target kW/m
2

= proportion of heat radiated (assume 0.15)

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Storage Tank fire
STORAGE TANK FIRE THERMAL RADIATION - POINT SOURCE METHOD

Toluene
INPUT DATA
Pool diameter 12
Fuel burning rate kg/m2/sec 0.07
Heat of Combustion kJ/g 44 24.00
Proportion heat radiated 0.15
Relative humdityof atmosphere % 0
Height to tank top 8
CALCULATED RESULTS 8
Fuel consumed kg/sec 7.92
Total heat from flame MW 52.25 D
Height of flame metres 24.00
Area of radiating flame m2 1017.88 12
Method from CCPS
Average radiation intensity 51.33
RADIATION - KW/M2 8.0 6.3 4.9 3.9 3.1 2.5
DISTANCE FROM BASE OF TANK D metres 5 10 15 20 25 30
VIEW FACTOR (point source) 0.00015 0.00012 9.5E-05 7.4E-05 5.8E-05 4.7E-05
FLAME
7

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Explosions
What is an explosion?
a sudden release of energy
causes a very rapid rise in pressure
shock wave travels outwards radially
followed by negative or underpressure
shockwave decreases as energy is
absorbed in the atmosphere

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Most of the damage is
done by the shock wave
Pressure - bar
Time
1.013 - 1 atm
Key parameters:-
OVERPRESSURE
DURATION OF PULSE
8

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
TYPES OF EXPLOSION
Condensed Phase
- solid explosive - NOT COVERED
Confined Explosion
- rapid overpressure inside a vessel,
pipe, machine or building causes the
containment to burst
Vapour Cloud Explosion
- large cloud of flammable vapour in air
ignites and flame accelerates through
semi-confined structure or obstructions

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
CONFINED EXPLOSION
- containment burst - could be chemical
runaway,deflagration, detonation of
physical overpressure
DEFLAGRATION
- gas / air mixture within flammable limits ignites
- hydrocarbon / air generates about 8 times overpressure
- flame speed sub-sonic
- ethylene / air has Flammable Limits 2.7% to 36%
DETONATION
- highly reactive gas / air mixtures - oxygen + fuel
- can give 20-40 times impact overpressure
- supersonic shock wave - flame acceleration in pipes
- ethylene / air has Explosive Limits 6% to 9%
9

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
CONFINED EXPLOSION
Modelled by calculating Explosion Energy
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
1 -
P.V
. E
P
Pa
= proportion of energy converted into blast
wave, usually use 0.5, but depends on ductility
of metal and missiles
P = bursting pressure of container
V = volume of bursting container
= ratio of specific heats (air = 1.4)
Pa = ambient pressure

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
CONFINED EXPLOSION
Energy then allows overpressure at
any distance to be read off the
Blast Chart
Scaled distance = Distance / (Energy)
0.33
Over-
pressure
10

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Calculation of confined explosion
overpressure - PV energy
OVERPRESSURE FROM VESSEL BURST Libya Catchpot


I NPUT DATA
Volume of Vessel M3 25
Bursting Pressure Barg 350
Gas Specific Heat Ratio 1.4
Percentage of Energy as Blast 50 25 M3
Brinkley's equation 350 barg
RESULTS
Total Energy Joules 1.78E+09
Energy as blast 8.91E+08
TNT Equivalent Kg of TNT 193.6
DISTANCE 52 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 200 500
Baker Die-off curve psi 1.67 1.38 1.14 0.97 0.84 0.75 0.59 0.48 0.36 0.14

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Explosion Blast Effects
2 mbar 0.03 psi very loud noise 140 dB
7 mbar 0.1 psi start to break weak windows
20 mbar 0.3 psi safe distance - up to 10%windows break
41 mbar 0.6 psi separation distance from housing
some damage to cladding and facings
significant glass damage to windows
69 mbar 1 psi separation distance from roads
minimum distance to
un-strengthened buildings
heavy glass damage, injuriespossible
210 mbar 3 psi moderate damage to buildings
houses likely to collapse, steel distorted
serious injuries from glass and bricks
350 mbar 5 psi serious damage to plant and equipment
oil tanks rupture, domino effects
700 mbar 10 psi very severe damage
11

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Beware pipeline explosions!
They can be very severe!

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
VAPOUR CLOUD EXPLOSION
- was modelled using TNT - Equivalence
E = energy in vapour cloud explosion
= energy converted into blast wave
usually between 0.03 and 0.1 based on previous
explosions
Hc = heat of combustion of flammable gas
M = mass of gas in flammable cloud
BUT
Which conversion factor to use?
How big is the flammable cloud? - depends
on wind velocity, and release rate
Is there an upper limit to cloud size?
12

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
TNT Explosion Method
explosion damage effects depended on
- amount in flammable cloud
- therefore release rate, wind / weather
- location of source of ignition
- "efficiency factor" compared to TNT for reactivity

flammable cloud
wind direction

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
VAPOUR CLOUD EXPLOSION
following Piper Alpha disaster (1987), extensive
research carried out into VCEs
truly unconfined vapour cloud explosions not
though possible - get a flash fire or fireball instead
need partial confinement or obstructions to cause
a turbulent flame
flame accelerates around objects to approach
sonic and cause blast effects
13

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
FUEL
AIR
SOURCE
OF IGNITION
EXPLOSION
STAR
SEMI-
CONFINEMENT
TURBULENT
FLAME
ACCELERATION

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
STEADY FUEL BURNING
TYPICAL LAMINAR FLAME
VELOCITY 40 CM/SEC
FUEL
AIR
SOURCE
OF IGNITION
14

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
FUEL
AIR
SOURCE
OF IGNITION
CONFINEMENT
OBSTRUCTIONS
TURBULENT
FLAME
ACCELERATION
&
PRESSURE
PILING
40 CM/SEC 12 M/SEC 250 M/SEC

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
15

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Semi-Confined - vapour cloud
Now use a method based on the degree of semi-confinement
TNO Multi-energy Explosion Method
explosion damage effects depend on
- volume of structure
- degree of semi-confinement
- number of obstruction layers
- flame velocity of material
flammable cloud
fills
structure

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
TNO Multi-Energy Method
Key parameters which affect explosion strength
volume of gas / air mixture in structure - size of structure
- larger the volume, larger the explosion
simply calculate Volume X 3.5 kJ/m
3
( gas cloud assumed to be stoichiometric )
number of obstruction layers in the structure
- the more obstructed the structure, the greater the
explosion blast
- either measure the Volume Blockage Ratio or
assume highest blast strength
laminar burning velocity of flammable gas
- higher initial velocity, greater the explosion
16

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Use blast chart to find
overpressure at distance
Use highest Blast
Strength 6-10 for most
pessimistic assumption
Determine actual
structure obstruction
and laminar burning
velocity to use lower
strength blast line
Energy used to
determine overpressure
at specified distance

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
ADVANTAGES OF THE TNO METHOD
based on experimental work and strong
theoretical basis
allows size and extent of explosions to be calculated
plant structures can be analysed for degree of
confinement to predict blast strength
new designs can be laid out to minimise
explosion strength - structure separated
does not depend on judgements by the analyst
CFD computer models have been produced to
predict explosion strengths
17

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Shell, Pernis, Rotterdam, Holland
20 January 1968
0423 am
Serious explosion followed by fire
2 killed, 9 persons in hospital
76 slightly injured
Vigorous boiling in slops tank 402 following
oil/water emulsion breakdown and rollover
caused large hydrocarbon vapour cloud to form
Light wind, source of ignition unknown

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
TANK 402 SLOPS TANK
1575 M3 volume - tank was full
WATER IN OIL EMULSION
heated to 100 C
Light hydrocarbon
initial boiling point 60 C
LP Steam Coil 130 C
EMULSION heated to 100 C, started to heat light hydrocarbon, as soon as it started
boiling, "rollover" occurred causing massive boiling of up to 30% of the light
hydrocarbon resulting in 50-100 tonnes of hydrocarbon mist and vapour ejected to
atmosphere through vents and overflow
18

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
Recent studies to re-examine and upgrade
control rooms which are close to major
hazard plants
Hickson & Welch
Castleford
21 Sept 1992
5 killed
Also other
occupied
buildings

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

N
e
w
c
a
s
t
l
e

u
p
o
n

T
y
n
e
CIA Guidance on Occupied Buildings
occupied buildings which could be affected by
Major Hazard plants must have a Risk Assessment
define an occupied building - e.g. 2 hours in
any 24 hours
consider fire, explosion and toxic gas effects which
could affect the building
building design must be able to withstand worst-
case effects OR risk based ( for existing buildings)
control rooms need to be especially considered
extensive programme in UK to upgrade buildings