THE RELATIONHSHIP AMONG STRESS, BURNOUT, AND LOCUS OF CONTROL OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School of Tennessee State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Psychology Graduate Research Series No. __________ Shana J. Reece August 2010

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THE RELATIONHSHIP AMONG STRESS, BURNOUT, AND LOCUS OF CONTROL OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS

A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School of Tennessee State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Psychology

Shana J. Reece August 2010

To the Graduate School: We are submitting a dissertation by Shana Reece entitled The Relationship Among Stress, Burnout, and Locus of Control of School Psychologists. We recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree, Doctor of Philosophy in School Psychology. Steve Trotter___________________ Chairman Misti Counts___________________ Committee Member Joan Popkin______ ___________ Committee Member Erik Schmeller_________________ Committee Member

Accepted for the Graduate School:

Alex Sekwart_______________________ Dean of the Graduate School

DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my grandfather, the late Colonel James D. Wattenbarger, who is greatly missed and loved. His words of encouragement are never far from my mind and have often kept me going on this project. Though you are not here, I know that you are very proud.

ACKLOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my mother, Norma Reece, sister, Jana Reece, and brother, T.J. Reece for their support and encouragement. Also, my utmost gratitude to all of my family members for their positive support and a pat on the back when I needed it.

ABSTRACT SHANA JEAN REECE. The Relationship Among Stress, Burnout, and Locus of Control of School Psychologists (Under the direction of Dr. STEVE TROTTER). The purpose of this study was to determine how stress, burnout, and locus of control are related for school psychologists providing direct services in the Metropolitan Nashville Public School System. This knowledge is essential in providing the needed experience and outlook of working as a school psychologist. The current study provided school psychologists with demographic questionnaires regarding factors such as psychologist to student ratio, number of schools served, location of school, administration support, and role conflict. Also participants were asked to rate which of their direct service roles; consultation, assessment, and intervention portray the most stress and burnout. Participants completed the School Psychologists and Stress Inventory (Wise, 1985), the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1986), and the Rotter Locus of Control Scale (Rotter, 1966). The data from 55 surveys was completed by school psychologists and analyzed using SPSS 17.0. Descriptive statistics, MANCOVAs, MANOVA, and a Pearson r correlation were used to determine significance when data is cross-referenced with demographic data. There were no significant relationships between school psychologists stress and burnout levels and number of schools served, location of school, number of special education students served, and locus of control. Based on the results, the researcher suggests that school districts provide a mandatory training addressing the

effects of stress and burnout, as well as time and stress management skills. Suggestions for future research are also given.

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE INTRODUCTION...1 Statement of the Problem.5 Significance of Study...6 Definition of Terms..6 Research Questions..7 II. LITERATURE REVIEW9 Practitioner to Student Ratio..11 Number of Schools13 Location of School.14 Role Conflict..15 Administration Support..16 Direct Services...17 III. METHODS20 Participants.20 Instrumentation..20 Procedure...22 Hypotheses.23 Statistical Analysis.23 IV. RESULTS24 Demographic Data.24 Survey Data...24 Analysis of Hypotheses.....26

ix V. DISCUSSION.31 Implications and Findings.......... 32 Limitations of the Study.....................39 Recommendations...................41 Suggestions for Future Research.....................41 REFERENCES..43 APPENDIXES..54 A. Informed Consent....55 B. Demographic Questionnaire........57 C. School Psychologists and Stress Inventory (SPSI)......59 D. Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI).61 E. Rotter Locus of Control Scale.63 F. Institutional Review Board Letter of Acceptance...66

x LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. 2. PAGE Demographic Data.25 MANCOVA concerning the number of schools served and stress and burnout...28 MANOVA concerning the location of school served and stress and burnout...29 MANCOVA concerning the number of students served and stress and burnout...30 Pearsons r correlation concerning external locus of control and stress and burnout...30

3.

4.

5.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Stress and tension are part of the professional lives of school psychologists. At times, stress may be tolerable and stimulating, but often school psychologists experience excessive demands on their mental and physical resources as they deal with students, parents, and colleagues. Even the best organized school psychologist is often bombarded with daily role conflicts, interpersonal conflicts, unscheduled meetings, frequent interruptions, and heavy workload. Research suggests that symptoms of burnout are often reported frequently among school psychologists, particularly feelings of emotional exhaustion (Huebner, 1993). However, little research has been conducted on the stress experienced by school psychologists or the relationship between burnout and stress. Within the past several years, school psychologists have been required to expand their services and the results of these additional demands and responsibilities have provided more stressful conditions for special services personnel. Due to the historical implementation of IDEA (The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) and Public Law 94-192 (1974) a significant degree of stress in schools has been formed among school psychologists. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has created additional responsibilities over the past 30 years, including team meetings, due process

paperwork, individualized education program, and intensive involvement and accountability with parents (Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement 2004). The combination of working with exceptional children and implementing the mandate of IDEA has appeared to shape stressful conditions which many special services personnel have been in previous years unable to cope (Shaw, Bensky & Dixon, 1981). In addition, special education departments must provide services to infants and toddlers under Part H of Public Law 99-457 (1978) (Mowder, Widerstrom & Sandall, 1989). Lastly, not only do special education departments provide services to those with educational disabilities but they also must provide services to handicapped persons under section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Wise (1985) reported that school psychologists often experience a wide variety of occupational stressors. Such stressors include an overabundance of work, insufficient pleasure at work, inadequate structure, poor relationships with supervisor personnel, and the feeling of lacking control over ones situation. Wise (1985) also reported that several demographic variables including gender, age, type of working community, number of districts, number of years experience, and salary were significantly related to the school psychologists ratings of stressful events. In a similar study, Reiner & Hartshorne (1982) contend that the lack of time and excessive caseloads, as well as lack of support and appreciation are the predominant sources of distress amongst school psychologists. School psychologists have long reported job related stressors. Clair, Kerfoot, & Klaus Meier (1972) identified several areas of dissatisfaction among school psychologists. Areas identified were an unavailability of adequate testing and

interviewing facilities. In addition was a lack of funding to attend conventions, lack of inservice training, lack of opportunity for placement, advancement, and isolation from fellow school psychologists. Huebner & Mills (1994) reported that daily hassles were more stressful for practicing school psychologists than high profile incidents such as suicides. Last & Silverman (1989) conveyed that the experience with burnout likely results in school psychologists drifting away from the profession and into other professions involving less stress. School psychologists are redefining their roles, a fact which can lead to higher occupational stressors and an increase in potential burnout (DeAngelis, 2002). For school psychologists who provide services to an eclectic array of clients, burnout could be a significant problem. According to Levinson, Fetchkan, & Hohenshil (1988) school psychologists are relied upon to make important and critical decisions about children which may affect those children for the rest of their lives. Although school psychologists usually function as a member of an interdisciplinary decision making team, Giliam & Coleman (1981) have shown that school psychologists, by virtue of their expert power and diagnostic expertise, are frequently regarded as the most influential members of this team. Locus of control may help to explain much about ones perceived stress in the workplace. According to Hurrell & Murphy (1991) locus of control is one of the most widely studied variables in psychology. However, very few studies have been conducted in the work setting of school psychologists. Rotter (1990) formulated the locus of control construct to explain the failure of people to respond in a predictable manner to

reinforcement. According to Rotter (1966), if an individual perceives reinforcement to be contingent upon his/her own actions then positive or negative reinforcement will strengthen or weaken the behavior. If the individual believes that reinforcement is externally controlled by chance, fate, or powerful others, then reinforcement will not strengthen or weaken the behavior. It is a personality orientation characterized either by the belief that one can control an event by ones own efforts (internal locus of control) or that the future is determined by forces outside ones control (external locus of control) (Strickland, 2006). An external locus of control can cause school psychologists to feel like everything that is happening in their work environment is out of their control. Yet school psychologists with internal locus of control feel that they can be the change agents in their lives and have control over what is going on in their environment (Lunenburg & Cavadid, 1992). If school psychologists are stressed they are likely to have less job satisfaction. Whether one believes that one has control over their world has a significant impact on how the stress in their life affects them. The school psychologist with an external locus of control may be affected more negatively by stress in the workplace because the psychologist perceives the stress as something he or she cannot make stop or go away (Hoyos & Kallus, n.d.). School psychologists who feel they are more burned out have been found to ascribe an external locus of control. They feel like they have fewer coping strategies or perceived past reinforcement strategies outside their control (Lunenburg & Cadavid, 1992). Moreover, externals have been shown to report more burnout (Glogow, 1986; McIntyre, 1984), job satisfaction (Spector, 1982), stress (Haplin,

Harris, & Haplin, 1985; Lester, 1982), alienation (Korman, Wittig-Berman, & Lang, 1981), and lower self- esteem (Lester, 1986). On the other hand, there are school psychologists who believe they control what happens in their lives, those with internal locus of control, report lower anxiety and higher self-esteem (Schultz & Shultz, 2001). These school psychologists reported being less negatively impacted by stress in the workplace than school psychologists with an external locus of control. Statement of the Problem The discussion above has identified a number of stressful conditions which exist within the work environment of those involved in the helping profession. The acknowledgement of stressful factors that contribute to burnout among school psychologists is important in the progress to decrease those factors and improve the career satisfaction of school psychologists. With the importance of school psychologists role noted, job setting factors influence the quality of services provided by school psychologists. School psychologists need to be aware of, and use, all appropriate resources to decrease burnout rates. Therefore, practitioner to student ratio, number of schools served, location of school, role conflict, administration support, and the stress of providing the main services of direct services (consultation, assessment, and intervention) may impede the progression of decreasing burnout factors among school psychologists in the job setting. School psychologists perceptions of control or lack of thereof, over employment roles also pose as a deciding factor of stress and burnout levels.

Significance of Study This study sought to determine how stress, burnout, and locus of control are related for school psychologists providing direct services in the Metropolitan Nashville Public School System (MNPS). This knowledge is essential in providing the needed experience and outlook of working as a school psychologist. Factors such as psychologist to student ratio, number of schools served, location of school, administration support, and role conflict can help to determine the causes and rate of stress and burnout. Also the rating of school psychologists services including consultation, assessment, and intervention may play a role in what area school psychologists report to be the most stressful. The results of this study may add to further research supporting the resilience of school psychologists to burnout. Definitions of Terms School Psychologist. A field that applies principles of clinical psychology and educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' behavioral and learning problems (www.nasponline.org). They collaborate with educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments for all students that strengthen connections between home and school (www.naspoline.org). Stress. An adaptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or physiological processes that are a consequence of any external action, situation, or event that places special physical and/or psychological demands upon a person (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1980).

Burnout. A state of physical and emotional depletion resulting from working conditions (Freudenberger, 1975). It has been further defined as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Locus of Control. A concept initially used to distinguish between two types of situations those in which outcomes are determined by skill in contrast to settings where chance is the main determinant of success and failure (Rotter, 1966). External Locus of Control. Individual believes that his/her behavior is guided by fate, luck, or other external circumstances (Rotter, 1990). Internal Locus of Control. Individual believes that his/her behavior is guided by his/her personal decisions and efforts (Rotter, 1990). Research Questions 1. What relationship exists between demographic variables (student ratio, number of schools served, and location of school) and stress of school psychologists? 2. What relationship exists between demographic variables (student ratio, number of schools served, and location of school) and burnout of school psychologists? 3. What relationship exists between demographic variables (student ratio, number of schools served, and location of school) and locus of control of school psychologists? 4. What is the relationship between locus of control as measured by the Rotter Locus of Control Scale, and stress as measured by the School Psychologists and Stress Inventory?

5. What is the relationship between locus of control as measured by the Rotter Locus of Control Scale, and burnout as measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory?

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE It is a widely held belief in the research that the cumulative effect of work related stress in the helping profession can result in a condition known as burnout (Belcastro & Hays, 1984). Burnout has become a growing concern in a variety of human service professions (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). The term burnout was first introduced by Freudenberger (1975) to refer to the emotional and physical wearing away experienced by some professionals who work in health and care agencies (Huebner, 1993). Since then, research on burnout among human professionals has flourished. More than 2,500 articles were published during 1975-1989 alone (Kleiber & Enzmann, 1990). Farber (1991) concludes that expressions of burnout now reflects todays work environment which includes: (a) pressure of meeting the demands of others, (b) intense competition, (c) a drive to make money, and (d) a sense of being deprived of something that is deserved. Maslach (1982) highlights three domains in which stressful events can arise in the work setting: organizational, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. In the area of school psychology, studies related to burnout have not been as frequently conducted as in the other helping professions (e.g., nursing, social work, and mental health workers) (Golembiewski, Munzenrider, & Stevenson, 1985; Hoff & Buchholz, 1996; Huebner, 1992, 1993a, 1993b; Jackson, Schwab, & Shuler, 1986; Jenkins & Maslach, 1994; Leiter & Meechan, 1986; Maslach, 1982; Maslach & Leiter, 1996, Niebrugge, 1994; Reiner & Hartshorne,

10

1982). For school psychologists, organizational stressors include a range of issues such as role ambiguity, role conflict, and role overload (Brown, 1979; Huberty & Huebner, 1988; Hughes, 1979; Last & Silberman, 1989; Wright & Thomas, 1982). Other organizational stressors can include external forces, such as federal and state regulations, legislations, and litigation (Lupiani, 1978) and pressures from colleagues such as teachers and administration (Huberty &Huebner, 1988). Interpersonal stressors include problems with supervisors or other colleagues (Hays & Clair, 1978; Lesiak & Lounsbury, 1977). There has been an abundance of burnout among teachers and other helping professionals; research related to burnout among school psychologists has not generated much attention (Hoff & Buchholz, 1996). Hubeny-Pierson & Archibald uncovered only 14 studies examining burnout prior to 1987. Their investigation examined the relationships among burnout for school psychologists in the Connecticut public school systems. Results indicated that school psychologists, when compared to four other teacher groups (i.e., classroom teachers, school social workers, guidance counselors, and reading specialists) reported the second lowest levels of burnout along the Depersonalization dimension and mid-range perceptions of burnout along the Emotional Exhaustion and Personal Accomplishment dimensions. School psychologists reported the second highest level of Role Conflict and the highest level of Role Ambiguity. Role Conflict was a major factor in predicting Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization among school psychologists. A study conducted by Huberty & Huebner (1988) found a negative correlation between age and burnout in a national sample of school psychologists. The results concluded that as school psychologist grew older they

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developed a variety of behavioral and attitudinal patterns that reduced the likelihood of burnout. School psychology is one of the several human service professions faced with challenges and demands that can serve as antecedents to burnout. Huebner (1992) examined the extent of burnout among a national sample of school psychologists and found approximately thirty percent displayed high levels of burnout. The study also reported that burnout was related to school psychologists wanting to leave the profession all together. Those who leave the school psychology profession for another career or to return to school have been described as the walking wounded of the burnout syndrome (Reiner & Hartshorne, 1982). Pierson-Hubeny and Archambault (1987) examined the responses of 289 Connecticut school psychologists as part of a larger study of supportive services personnel including classroom teacher, social workers, guidance counselors, and reading specialist. The study found that school psychologists experienced moderate rates of burnout on the emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment dimensions of burnout and relatively low ratings on the depersonalization dimensions of the MBI. The study also revealed that role conflict and role ambiguity were rated as stressful by school psychologists, and that these role related stressors were significant predictors of the three aspects of burnout examined. Practitioner to Student Ratio School psychologists are not evenly distributed across the nation. A study conducted by Fagan (1994) reported significant state and regional variations and most

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states do not meet the NASP standard of one school psychologist for every 1,000 students. Lund, Reschly & Connolly-Martin (1998) found that 25.5 percent of full-time practicing school psychologists work in settings that are at or below the 1,000:1 ratio, and almost one-half (48.7 percent) work in settings with ratios of 1,5000:1 or less. However, 32.5 percent of school psychologists work in settings with ratios of greater than 2,000:1. There is considerable state-by-state variation in students to school psychologist ratios (Lund, Reschly & Connolly-Martin, 1998: Thomas, 2000). Connolly and Reschly (1990) reported a national student-to-practitioner ratio of 1,874:1. When they reported the ratios by regions using NASPs five regions, the northeast has the lowest ratio at 1,183:1 and the west region has the highest ration at 3,104:1. In the area of school psychology, numerous investigators have found psychologists to student ratio or caseloads to be significant predictors (negatively related) of career satisfaction and have been associated with increased role conflict and burnout (Ahrens, 1977). Caseload for school psychologists has traditionally been expressed as the student-to-psychologist ratio. Increased caseloads have been found to decrease the direct and indirect interventions engaged by school psychologists (Keith, Brown, & Oberman, 1992), influence the opportunity for boundary-spanning activities, and limit role diversity (Jerrell, 1984). Work load, which included caseload, was identified as a factor in high burnout among school psychologists (Wright & Gutkin, 1981) and caseload has been found to be negatively related to job satisfaction (Anderson, Hohenshil, & Brown, 1984).

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Number of Schools Traditionally, most school psychologists have simultaneously served two or three schools in their district, but in recent years there appears to be an increasing number who are housed full-time within a single school. Proctor & Steadman (2003) examined whether school psychologists who serve a single (In-House group) differed from school psychologists who serve several schools concurrently (Traditional group) in the three areas of job satisfaction, burnout, and effectiveness as perceived by school psychologists. Thirty-two practicing school psychologists who were employed by a single school and 31 who served two or more schools completed a questionnaire that served as the basis for the study which included seven questions related to demographics (e.g. age, gender, highest degree, ethnicity, years of practicing as a school psychologist, number of schools currently served, and prior teaching experience). Items 1-15 related to job satisfaction, 16-22 related to burnout, and 23-28 pertained to perceived effectiveness which were all on a Likert-type scale in which the respondents rated their agreement with each item (Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree). A multivariate analysis of variance was used to yield a valid statistical analysis. Although the two groups differed on the measures of job satisfaction, results indicated that neither group is really dissatisfied with their jobs. The difference between these two groups on the job satisfaction score was the largest among the three dependent variables. Items such as job diversity, caseload, others familiarity with the school psychologists, and integration into school activities provided the most variance among the two groups. Also, school psychologists demonstrated that those who serve a single school are less likely to experience symptoms of burnout than

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those who serve two or more schools. In regards to how school psychologists perceive their professional effectiveness both groups reported that they believe that they are effective in helping students, teachers, and administrators and others are knowledgeable of their professional capabilities. Location of School School psychologists are typically employed in the following settings: public or private schools, universities, clinics, institutions, private practice, and community agencies. However, the majority (approximately 82.6 percent) practice in primary and secondary schools. Thomas (2000) reported that the percentage of school psychologists varies by setting: urban schools 30.3 percent; suburban schools, 44.8 percent; and rural schools, 24.9 percent. Professional activities in which school psychologists engage in vary based upon location and setting of school district. In the past rural school psychologists were more likely to consult with board members, conduct home visits, and design school-wide programs rather than their urban and suburban colleagues (Hughes & Clark, 1981). Goldwasser, Myers, Christenson, & Graden (1983) found that in urban districts, parents and teachers were less frequently involved in consultation activities such as Support Team and IEP meetings. School psychologists working in systems requiring a greater number of special education evaluations per week seemed to have less opportunity to provide non-special education services such as consultation and prevention activities. There was a greater tendency for consultation to occur in suburban school districts.

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There has been increased interest in the problems faced by the rural school psychologists in recent years. School psychologists working in rural areas are found to have higher student/psychologists ratio, a shorter tenure in their job, and have less experience in the field (Hughes, 1982). Rural psychologists in one study reported twice the level of dissatisfaction with their jobs as that reported by a national sample (Solly & Hohenshil, 1986). Curtis, Hunley & Grier (2002) examined the relationships between the professional practices of school psychologists and the factors of practitioner training, experience, gender, school district setting, and students-to-school psychologist ratio. The study used a 31 item survey requesting demographic and professional practice information from 1,411 NASP members. A statistical significance using an analysis of variance was found between the type of school system and years of experience for school psychologists working in different settings. School psychologists with more years of experience and those with higher levels of training were found to have served more students through consultation and to have conducted more in-service programs when compared to those with less experience or training. There was not a significant difference in the number of reevaluations completed between urban and suburban school districts. Larger student-to-school psychologist ratios were associated with special education related practices such as initial evaluations and reevaluations. Role Conflict Role definition determinants produce role ambiguity. The term refers to a lack of clarity regarding a professionals responsibilities, methods, goals, and/or accountability. Role conflict is another determinant that refers to inconsistent or incompatible role

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demands. This is especially evident when opposing pressures or expectations are exerted or experienced in such a way that satisfying one makes compliance with another impossible. Sheridan & Gutkin (2000) listed several important problems inherent in the traditional practice of school psychology, including the prevalence of medical model paradigm, the structure of school psychological services, and the growing incidence of problems facing young people and their families. Last & Silberman (1989) point out another obstacle that seems to be challenging the literature on burnout and drifting away among school psychologists. The challenge is the immersion in a constant professional identity crisis. This is especially evident in the United States where there is controversy between the American Psychological Association (APA) and the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). Questions of identity crisis not only convey role conflict, but also diffuse identity. Working out of professional roles and knowledge base may give to an array of role conflicts and also diffuse identity which can result in emotional exhaustions, stress, and burnout (Last & Silberman, 1989; Sheridan & Gutkin, 2000). As the needs of schools change, the school psychology communities must establish a definitive role. Administration Support Human service professionals are often expected to work within the restraints of policies and procedures, are subjected to unhelpful supervisors and colleagues, and are expected by supervisors to conquer immense work-loads (Edelwich & Brodsky, 1980). These unreasonable restraints and demands must be contended with on a daily basis, and

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it is not surprising that the unrelenting demands on the helping professional can produce high levels of stress. A number of studies have demonstrated the effect of supervision on the burnout of school psychologists. The lack of supervision by persons who are not trained as school psychologists has been found to negatively effect job satisfaction (Anderson, Hohenshil, & Brown, 1984). Pines (1981) reported that the better the social support relationships, the less burnout. Pines & Aronson (1988) classify social support actions into six categories based on extensive research with collaborative groups. The six functions of social support include: (a) listening, (b) technical support, (c) technical challenge, (d) emotional support, (e) emotional challenge, and (f) sharing social reality. The research concludes that people need effective support systems of dynamic communicative feedback to buffer the potential of burnout. Niebrugge (1994) surveyed 139 school psychologists from the Illinois School Psychologists Association to determine variables of burnout. The study used the Maslach Burnout Inventory, the School Psychologists Stress Inventory (SPI), and a specifically designed demographic and job satisfaction questionnaire. The results of the study suggested that symptoms of burnout occur frequently among school psychologists with primarily demographic factors such as satisfaction with supervision and caseload to psychologists discrepancy indexes being the best predictors of burnout. Direct Services In 1998 the NASP membership directory provided survey data on the percentage of time members spend in various professional activities. Less than half of the school

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psychologists reported time was spent assessing children. Included in the process of assessment is presenting results to parents and school/other staff as well as utilizing assessment information primarily to plan interventions for students experiencing academic or behavior difficulties in school. Consultation and behavioral and other therapeutic interventions accounted for 30 percent of professional time. The remainder was spent in service training provided and received, administration, and research. School psychologists have reported that ideal roles would involve a reduction in the amount of time devoted to assessment and an increase in time devoted to interventions and consultation (Reschly & Wilson, 1995; Smith, 1984). In a study of Pennsylvania school psychologists (Levinson, 1990), role functions alone were found to account for more than one-third of the variance in burnout. School psychologists who have more diversity in their roles they perform are more satisfied in their jobs (Jerrel, 1984). Hutton, Dubes, & Muir, (1992) explored variables specifically related to assessment based on an earlier study conducted by Goh, Teslow, & Fuller (1981). Within the study only the percentage of time spent on assessment activities were analyzed regionally. Respondents from one region (Eastern) reported spending the least amount of time on assessment activities (M= 47.34%). Respondents from three out of the four remaining regions consistently spent the majority of their time on assessment activities. In all the research presented, each article represents knowledge and factors that contribute to burnout in the field of school psychology. However, the area of burnout among school psychologists has gone unaddressed. Most research conducted on the

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subject of school psychologists and burnout is primarily outdated and needs to be examined further to obtain updated information in order to prevent stress and burnout.

CHAPTER III METHODS Participants Participants were recruited from the Metropolitan Nashville Public School System. Participants were employed as a school psychologist in a public educational setting. Participants included in the research were asked to volunteer to participate in the current study. All school psychologists were currently working with exceptional education students. The researcher arrived at the participants site of employment to provide school psychologists a summary of the current study and to obtain participant involvement in the study. Instrumentation Informed Consent. Participants were given informed consents prior to the questionnaires. Informed consents address participants volunteering for participation, confidentiality of participation, and purpose of study. Demographic Questionnaire. Participants were given a demographic questionnaire, which includes gender, ethnicity, age, educational level, grades assigned, location of school, number of schools served, years of experience, number of students at current school, number of special education students served, and number of yearly evaluations completed. Participants will also be asked to rate their level of support from

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supervisors, administration, and colleagues as well as rate the most stressful service to provide as a school psychologist. School Psychologist and Stress Inventory (SPSI). The School Psychologist and Stress Inventory was developed by Wise (1985). It is a self-report device consisting of 32 stressful events related to areas such as interpersonal conflict, risks to self and others, time management, and legal issues. The SPSI is based on a 6-point Likert scale measuring how often school psychologists experience each statement in their job. Zero occurring Never to 6 occurring Ever day. Reliability and validity are not reported for the SPSI in previous research. Maslach Burnout Inventor (MBI). The Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1986) is a multidimensional measure of occupational well-being. The Maslach Burnout Inventory is a 22-item self-report instrument. It consists of three scales: Emotional Exhaustion (EE), Depersonalization (DP), and Personal Accomplishment (PA). The Emotional Exhaustion refers to a persons feelings of being overwhelmed by job demands. The second factor, Depersonalization, refers to the development of negative feelings and attitudes toward the client. Lastly, the third factor, Personal Accomplishment, is displayed in feelings of being incompetent to help clients. People who experience all three symptoms have the greatest degrees of burnout. Reported reliability coefficients for the subscales include: .90 for Emotional Exhaustion; .79 for Depersonalization; and .71 for Personal Accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). A 6-point Likert scale of 0= Never, 1= A few times a year or less, 2= Once a month,

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3= A few times a month, 4= Once a week, 5= A few times a week, and 6= Every day was used as the scoring key for the MBI. For this study, the MBI was used as a global measure, measuring general burnout of school psychologists. Rotter Locus of Control Scale. Rotter Locus of Control scale (1966) measures the extent of a person's internal or external reinforcement beliefs. The scale is a 29-item forced choice scale. Rotter's data indicated that scores on the I-E scale exhibited sufficient convergent discriminate validity and satisfactory internal and test-retest reliability (Beretvas, Suizzo, Durham, & Yarnell, 2008). The scale is scored by summing the number of external responses, that is, the higher the scores, the more external the person is. Procedure The researcher scheduled a time during after work hours to conduct questionnaires with school psychologists at the school psychologists site of employment. The researcher conducted research within a group setting with school psychologists. The school psychologists were given a packet containing four items: (1) consent form (see Appendix A), (2) demographic form (see Appendix B), (3) the School Psychology and Stress Inventory (SPSI) (see Appendix C), (4) the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (see Appendix D), and (5) the Rotter Locus of Control Scale (see Appendix E). The School Psychology Stress Inventory (SPSI) was created by Wise (1985). The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) Scale was created by Maslach & Jackson (1986). For the purpose of this research, clients refer to the students, teacher, parents, and other for whom school psychologists provide service. The Rotter Locus of Control Scale was created by Rotter

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(1966). The researcher instructed school psychologists to first complete the consent form while explaining that this survey is voluntary and completely confidential. The participants will then be asked to complete the demographic information sheet followed the SPSI, MBI, and lastly the Rotter Scale. Upon completing the items participants were then free to leave. Hypotheses The following hypotheses are stated in the null: 1. A relationship will occur between higher stress and burnout levels and the increase of schools served by school psychologists. 2. School psychologists providing direct services in a rural area will report higher levels of stress and burnout. 3. A relationship will occur between higher stress and burnout levels and the increase of students served by school psychologists. 4. School psychologists with an external locus of control will report more stressors and higher burnout than school psychologists with an internal locus of control. Statistical Analyses Descriptive statistics were explored through an examination of frequency distributions. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was conducted to examine the first hypothesis. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine the second hypothesis. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was conducted to examine the third hypothesis. A Pearsons r correlation was conducted to examine the last hypothesis.

CHAPTER IV RESULTS Participants Participants were 55 school psychologists working in the Metro Nashville Public School System. Fifty five out of 62 employed school psychologists returned the surveys which resulted in an 82% response rate. Subjects were predominantly women (81.8% followed by men at 18.2%), and employed in urban areas (78.18%, as opposed to rural 21.82%). 3.6% percent indicated they held a masters degree, 72.7% held an educational specialist degree, and 23.6% held a doctoral degree. The data from 55 surveys completed by school psychologists was analyzed using SPSS version 17.0 (2010). The survey attempted to ascertain the respondents stressors, level of burnout, and locus of control. Descriptive participant attributes (frequency and percentage) for demographic variables were analyzed and reported in the following table.

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Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of School Psychologists Variable Total Percent Gender Male 10 18 Female 45 81.8 Race Caucasian 42 57.0 African American 13 23.6 Age 32-39 years 23 41.8 41-49 years 19 34.7 50-57 years 13 23.5 Education Masters 2 3.6 Ed. S 40 72.7 Doctoral 13 23.6 Location of School Urban 43 78.2 Rural 12 21.8 Number of Schools 1 1 1.8 2 13 23.6 3 31 56.4 4 10 18.2 Number of Students 100-150 10 18.2 151-200 36 65.5 201-over 9 16.4 Most Stressful Service Consultation 7 12.7 Assessment 19 34.5 Interventions 29 52.8__ The results of the school psychologists responses to The School Psychologists Stress Inventory (Wise, 1985) reported a mean score of 98.13 (SD= 16.57) out of a possible score of 192. A mean score of 98.13 indicated that, on average, the participants experienced high stress events once a week. The most stressful events encountered by

26

school psychologists were: 1). Not enough time to perform job adequately, 2). Feeling caught between childs needs and administrative constraints, 3). Inadequate secretarial help, and 4). Lack of contact with professional colleagues. School psychologists reported providing interventions as the most stressful service to provide in the school setting at 50.9%, followed by providing assessments at 34.5% and, lastly, consultation at 12.7%. Results also indicated that school psychologists receive minimal support from supervisors and administration. Statistics from the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1986) revealed that of the 55 participants, 42.81% reported experiencing moderate levels of burnout. Only 18.36% of participants scored a total of 26-35, out of a possible 35, on the burnout scale indicating relatively high levels of burnout. Almost half of the participants (38.83%) reported low burnout levels of 16-25. The most frequently occurring burnout items were: 1) Working with people all day is really a strain for me, and 2) I feel Im working too hard on my job. The results from the Rotter Locus of Control Scale (1966) reported that almost three fourths of the school psychologists (70.91%) working in Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools reported having an internal locus of control. The remaining 29.09% reported an external locus of control. Analysis of Hypotheses Hypothesis 1 stated that a relationship will occur between stress and burnout levels and the increase of schools served by school psychologists. Item 8 (number of schools served) of the demographic questionnaire, the School Psychologists Stress Inventory, and the

27

Maslach Burnout Inventory relate to this hypothesis. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) between the number of schools served and stress and burnout (as shown in Table 2) was used to determine whether the hypothesis should be retained or rejected. Using the Bonferroni approach to control for Type I error across the two correlations, a p of less than or equal to.01 was required for significance. The independent variables included schools with four levels (a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 3, and (d) 4. Years of experience reported by school psychologists stood out as a variable that was expected to relate to stress and burnout and might obscure the effects of increase of stressful factors and burnout levels. The overall results of the logistic regression equation indicated that years of experience did not significantly predict stress and burnout. The SPSI questionnaire was scored by totaling up the final score of each participants survey (192-161 every day, 160-129 a few times a week, 128-97 once a week, 96-65 a few times a month, 64-33 a few times a year or less, and 32-0 never). Thus, raw scores range from 0 (lowest stress) to 192 (highest stress level). A median split was used to determine High Stress and Low Stress scores. A score less than or equal to 96 was defined as Low Stress and a score greater than 96 was defined as High Stress. The MBI questionnaire was also scored by totaling up the final score of each participants survey (132-111 every day, 110-89 a few times a week, 88-67 once a week, 66-45 a few times a month, 44-23 a few times a year or less, and 22-0 never). Raw scores were summed for the total, with reverse-scoring performed for all negative items (e.g. I am stressed out at my job). The results evaluating normality of sampling distributions, linearity, homogeneity of variance, homogeneity of regression, and reliability of covariates were satisfactory. Results

28

indicated that there was no statistical significance between the increase of schools served and stress [F(3, 50) = 1.49, p = .230]. The results of the correlation analysis show that there was no statistical significance between the increase of schools served and burnout [F(3, 50) = .81, p = .494]. Therefore, the first hypothesis was rejected. Table 2 Results of Multivariate Analysis of Covariance concerning number of schools served and stress and burnout_____________________________________________ __________ df SS MS F value p value burnout stress 1 3 1007.982 1138.862 335.994 379.621 .810 1.486 .494 .082

Hypothesis 2 stated that school psychologists providing direct services in a rural area will report higher levels of stress and burnout. Item 7 (location of school) of demographic questionnaire, the School Psychologists Stress Inventory, and the Maslach Burnout Inventory relate to this hypothesis. The Bonferroni approach was used to control for Type I error across the two correlations, a p of less than or equal to.01 was required for significance. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) between the location of school served and stress and burnout (as shown in Table 3) was used to determine whether the hypothesis should be retained or rejected. The results of the correlation analysis show that the current hypothesis was not supported as provided by the results stating that there was no statistical significance between the location of schools served and stress [F(1, 53) = .06, MSE = 16.73, p = .808]. Also, the results indicated that there was no statistical significance between the location of schools served and burnout [F(1, 53) = .62, MSE = 253.27, p = .433].

29

Table 3 Results of Multivariate Analysis of Variance concerning location of school served and stress and burnout_________________________________ ____________df SS F value p value burnout stress 1 1 253.269 16.727 .623 .060 .433 .808__

Hypothesis 3 stated that a relationship will occur between higher stress and burnout levels and the increase of students served by school psychologists. Item 12 (number of students served) of demographic questionnaire, the School Psychologists Stress Inventory, and the Maslach Burnout Inventory relate to this hypothesis. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) between the number of students served and stress and burnout (as shown in Table 4) was used to determine whether the hypothesis should be retained or rejected. Again, the Bonferroni approach was used to control for Type I error across the two correlations, a p of less than or equal to.01 was required for significance. The independent variables included number of students served with three levels (a) 1-150, (b) 151-200, and (c) 201- over. Years of experience reported by school psychologists stood out once again as a variable that was expected to relate to stress and burnout and might obscure the effects of increase of stressful factors and burnout levels. The overall results of the logistic regression equation indicated that years of experience did not significantly predict stress and burnout. Results indicated that there was no statistical significance between the increase of students served and stress [F(2,51) = .28, p = .756]. The results of the correlation analysis show that there was no statistical significance between the increase of schools served and burnout [F(2,51) = .1.04, p = .360]. They hypothesis was not supported by indication of the results.

30

Table 4 Results of Multivariate Analysis of Covariance concerning number of students served and stress and burnout_____________________________________________ df SS MS F value p value burnout 2 854.150 427.075 1.043 .039 stress 2 151.598 75.799 .281 .011 Hypothesis 4 stated that school psychologists with an external locus of control will report more stressors and higher burnout than school psychologists with an internal locus of control. A Pearsons r correlation between external locus of control and stress and burnout of school psychologists (shown in Table 5) was used to determine whether the hypothesis should be retained or rejected. Lastly, using the Bonferroni approach to control for Type I error across the two correlations, a p of less than or equal to.01 was required for significance. The fourth hypothesis in the study was rejected. The results of the correlation analysis show that there was no statistical significance between locus of control and burnout [r(55) = .31, p = .020] and no statistical significance between locus of control and stress [r(55) = .09, p = .536]. Table 5 Results of Pearson r correlation concerning external locus of control of school psychologists and stress and burnout level_____________________________ ________________________________stress burnout lofc stress Pearson Correlation 1 .470 .085 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .536 N 55 55 55 burnout Pearson Correlation .470 1 .313 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 N 55 55 55 lofc Pearson Correlation .085 .313 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .536 .020 ____________N 55 55 55

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION Only a handful of researchers have investigated the concept of burnout in the field of school psychology (Huberty & Huebner, 1988; Huebner, 1992; Heubner, 1993a; Huebner, 1994; Mills & Huebner, 1998; Pierson-Hubeny & Archambault, 1987; Reiner & Hartshorne, 1982; Sandale, 1993). These studies have attempted to understand and describe the concept of burnout in the context of school psychology. Only two nationwide job satisfaction surveys have been completed in the field of school psychology (Worrell, 2004). In both studies, random samples of school psychologists who were NASP members were surveyed using a modified version of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. In both the Anderson, Hohenshil, & Brown (1984) study and the Brown, Hohenshil & Brown (1998) study, 85 percent of school psychologists indicated that they were satisfied with their jobs. The current study aimed to examine school psychologists levels of stress and burnout. The study looked at the number of schools served by school psychologists, location of school, number of special education students served, and locus of control of school psychologists. Brown, Hohenshil, & Brown (1998) noted that job satisfaction is necessary to ensure continuous and high quality services to children and the adults who

32

work with them. Studies indicated that job satisfaction influences the emotional and physical well being of an individual (Coll & Freeman, 1997), and job satisfaction is associated with stress and burnout (Kesler, 1990). Number of Schools Served Prior research has reported the importance years of experience plays in the area of stress and burnout. The study conducted by McKelvey & Webb (1995) revealed that one of the strongest correlations with career satisfaction among school psychologists was years of practice. Huberty & Heubner (1998) noted, as to age, burnout was greatest among the younger workers, while the older workers were found to have lower rates of burnout. With increased age, professionals seem to develop a variety of behavioral and attitudinal patterns that reduced the likelihood of burnout. Last & Silberman (1989) explained that school psychologists who are exposed for several years to the realities and demands of professional school psychology, undergo an inevitable process of psychological erosion. That erosion does not usually terminate in burnout, but rather tends to be resolved though drifting away into another field of professional psychology. For this current study, years of experience was looked at as a covariate, and ruled out as a factor that accounted for stress and burnout of school psychologists. The average number of years of experience for school psychologists in this study was 11.2 years. Considering the limitations of this sample, the results indicated that the number of years of experience is not related with an increase of stress and burnout.

33

The results of the analyses suggest that a correlation does not exist between the increase of schools served and higher stress and burnout levels. The results indicated that school psychologists who are employed in a single school and three schools experience stress a few times a month and have low levels of burnout. Those serving two and four schools reported encountering stress once a week with high levels of burnout. Comparing these two groups, one and three schools and two and four schools, those serving one or three schools have higher rates of job satisfaction, lower rates of burnout, and may perceive themselves to be more effective than do school psychologists who serve two or four schools. School psychologists serving two or four schools reported working in elementary schools where as those serving one or three schools reported working in middle and high schools. Finally, the overall total mean scores for burnout (68.25) were average compared to those for stress (95.4), but nevertheless indicated that stress and professional burnout does not appear to be a significant problem for this population. The current results are commensurate with Proctor & Steadman (2003) in comparing the job satisfaction of school psychologists housed in a single school to those serving two or more schools, stating that overall both groups reported low levels of burnout. Location of School In this study, there was no relationship between the location of school served by school psychologists and stress and burnout levels. The study is limited in testing location of school in relation to stress and burnout levels because the vast majority of school psychologists in this study reported working in an urban area. Results do not generalize

34

to school psychologists working in other areas such as rural or suburban. The results only generalize to school psychologists who are working in an urban location. Arnold, Seekins, & Nelson (1997) compared factors such as job opportunities, schools, public transportation, salary, prestige, and opportunities for spousal employment among school psychologists working in urban and rural settings. Those employed in urban settings reported more job opportunities, access to public transportation, better schools, higher salary, more prestige, and opportunities for spousal employment. Reschley & Connoly (1990) investigated the prevailing assumptions regarding differences between school psychologists in different settings. Perceptions of key issues, such as job satisfaction, of school psychologists in rural, urban, suburban, and combination settings were compared using data from a large, nationally representative sample of practitioners. Four items provided information rather directly related to the key variable of job satisfaction and indirectly to the likely inclination to leave either the current employment setting or the school psychology profession. There were no differences among the groups on any of these variables. School psychologists in all settings express general satisfaction with their career choice; are equally, as well, satisfied with their current positions; find that their current positions generally meet the expectations they had when they entered school psychology graduate work; and the vast majority intend to continue in a school psychology career. Practitioner to Student Ratio Again, ruling out the impact of years of experience among the current sample of school psychologists, a significant correlation was not found between years of experience

35

and stress and burnout. In this study, there was no relationship between the number of special education students served by school psychologists and stress and burnout levels. School psychologists reported an average of 151-200 students served in each of their schools served per year. The results of a correlation between number of special education students served and school psychologists stress and burnout indicated that the number of special education students served, in a range from 151 to 200, impacted school psychologists who experience stress and burnout once a week. Similar to prior findings, Huebner, Gilligan, & Cobb (2002) highlight the importance of an appropriate fit between the person and the job. To support this view, they emphasized a study conducted by Huebner & Mills (1994), in which burnout was predicted by the difference between the school psychologists ideal and actual caseloads, rather than by the mere number of cases. Huebner (1992) also found that the size of caseload did not predict burnout, but the school psychologists perceptions of their caseload significantly related to burnout. Hughes (1979) also suggested that the discrepancy between actual and ideal roles contributes to the decrease in job satisfaction among school psychologists. The current and previous studies are also consistent with the results of a study of clinical psychologists (Raquepaw & Miller, 1989), reporting that their perceptions of their caseloads did not relate significantly to burnout. Locus of Control The results of the last hypothesis found no significance between external locus of control and higher stress and burnout levels. The findings reveal that overall school

36

psychologists reporting an internal or external locus of control experienced stress and burnout symptoms once a week. Wylie (2003) studied the contributions of personality variables to the prediction of burnout in school psychologists in Arizona. The analysis demonstrated that secure individuals who are generally relaxed under stressful conditions and who are dependable and moderately well organized with clear goals are less likely to depersonalize the students who they work with. The analyses also revealed that easygoing individuals who do not put unrealistic pressure on themselves feel a high level of personal accomplishment in their work place. The study also suggests that school psychologists who reported themselves as easygoing, not inclined to make plans or schedules, not concerned with demands and putting limited pressure on themselves to perform, appeared to show a relationship with an overall positive self-assessment of his/her occupational effort, abilities, and accomplishments as school psychologists. Administration Support Lawler (1973) stated that it is not surprising that the research shows that job satisfaction is a function of both the individual and the work environment. The characteristics of the work environment, including the social climate, can influence an individuals perception of overall job satisfaction, and combined with the individuals social and demographic characteristics may in fact be the major determinants of job satisfaction. According to Brown (1992), employee supervision and interaction have been found to be the two significant factors when looking at job satisfaction. Supervision was

37

the area that school psychologists reported receiving minimal to no support. These findings conquer with previous research provided by Niebrugge (1994) that reported demographic variables, such as satisfaction with supervision, were found to be the best predictors of burnout among 139 school psychologists from the Illinois School Psychologist Association. Positive interactions tend to include constructive feedback, effective communication, and a focus on quality rather than quantity (Schrofell, 1999). These findings are consistent with the results of Huebners (1994) study in which supervisors level of support contributed significantly to school psychologists depersonalization behaviors as well as to their job satisfaction. The study indicated that Lack of contact with professional colleagues was one of the highest stressful events that school psychologists encountered. This is partly due to the recent removal of the school psychologists main office, in which they were able to collaborate and consult with one another regarding professional tasks. Fellow employees can satisfy many social needs, and sympathetic co-workers can increase job satisfaction (Green, 2000). Leiter (1988) found that co-worker interactions both ameliorate and exacerbate burnout. He found that (a) a greater number of links with co-workers in the informal network was associated with increasing feelings of personal accomplishments, and (b) that a greater number of reciprocal links with co-workers in the work-related network predicted increased feelings of personal accomplishment and also a greater emotional exhaustion.

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Direct Services Results related to issues of professional concern indicated that participants felt significant restrictions in their functioning in the schools due to time constraints imposed by referrals for testing and administrative duties. As cited earlier in the chapter, Last & Silberman (1989) found overload determinants contributing to this drifting away from the profession by school psychologists. These authors described quantitative overload, such as, too much to do or the volume of tasks to be executed in order to complete an assignment successfully and too many responsibilities to be met at too rapid a pace. This is because school psychologists are required, within the framework of a single case, to engage in a variety of activities, assignments, contacts, interventions, planning, and coordination that must be completed in regard to assessment at various levels, consult with the various significant persons involved, and direct interventions and supervision. In the past school psychologists have consistently expressed the desire to vary their tasks to include a decreased emphasis on assessment and an increased emphasis on interventions (Cook & Patterson, 1977). Reschley & Wilson (1995) surveys completed in 1986 and 1991 indicated that half of the school psychologists estimated that they spent 75% of their time with psychological testing activities. The current study found that school psychologists find providing interventions as the most stressful job performed. This is partly due to the demands of state law and requirements when assessing for the criteria of a Specific Learning Disability. Years before the term Response to Intervention (RTI) came into use, school psychologists could assess a child who the Support Team suspected of having a Learning Disability without having to gather weeks of pertinent

39

information. The reason for the actual and desired role discrepancy is largely related to special education laws such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) which dictate equality for children with disabilities. These laws define the role of the school psychologist to include assessment, consultation, and parent training. As a result, Jenkins and Crumbly (1986) report that special education duties of school psychologists increased 30% after the enactment of Public Law 94-142 (Education of the Handicapped Act). It seems ironic that the legislation that caused a surge in the need for school psychologists (Dwyer & Gorin, 1996) is also one of the primary sources of role restriction and dissatisfaction within the profession. Limitations Limitations of this study are the relatively small sample size, lack of broad geographic representation, and the use of outdated standardized questionnaires. The generalizability of this study is limited by the use of Metropolitan Nashville Public School Psychologists as subjects. Results can only be generalized with the Metro Public Schools. The reliance of qualitative, subjective determination for ratings is a significant limitation. Self-report measures such as those involved in the School Psychology Stress Inventory, Maslach Burnout Inventory, and Rotter Locus of Control Scale impose additional limitations. Self-report tendencies towards enhancement, denial, selfdeceptions, and individual response style may all affect self-report measure results. Limitations in the current study interfered with the examination of each of the four hypotheses. The first hypothesis conducted examined the correlation of the increase of schools served and stress and burnout levels. Due to a homogeneous sample of school

40

psychologists serving no more than three schools, the examination of the first hypothesis addressing the relationship between schools served and stress and burnout was limited. The range of number of schools served varied largely by participants and did not result in a significant increase or decrease of school psychologists stress and burnout levels. The second stated hypothesis addressed the differences between school location and stress and burnout levels. The vast majority of school psychologists reported their school location in an urban setting. Due to the lack of variability of location of the identified school, the MANOVA resulted in non-significance. The third hypothesis addressed the correlation between number of special education students served and stress and burnout levels of school psychologists. The nonsignificant result of the analysis between these variables may be misleading due to participants who identified serving 151-200 students overshadowing other participants by more than forty five percent. Although, school psychologists who reported serving 100150 special education students had the lowest burnout rate, but they also reported having the highest stress factors serving the minimal of students. A limitation also occurred with the examination of the fourth hypothesis regarding the locus of control and stress and burnout levels of school psychologists. Overall, both groups, internal and external locus of control, reported signs of stress and burnout once a week.

41

Recommendations Burnout should be recognized as a factor in the field of school psychology. When it occurs and why it occurs needs to be regularly investigated and interventions need to be continuously modified to accommodate those identified as burned-out or emotionally exhausted. It is important for the administrator and trainer of school psychologists to begin to suggest all school psychologists undergo anti-burnout intervention throughout their career as part of their professional development. The most critical to the current practice of school psychologist, is the implications of the correlation between personality and burnout. It will be critical for those training and hiring school psychologists to become aware of certain personality characteristics and the relationship to burnout. School psychologists, particularly those who are experiencing high level of stress, should be educated to symptoms of burnout during their graduate training. School psychologists needs to take the time to develop a suitable array of coping strategies that can be used to dissipate the stress that can lead to strain and hence burnout. Suggestions for Future Research This study could be replicated with a larger sample derived from a greater number of states. A qualitative design could potentially capture the difference in perceived job stress and burnout from county to county in Tennessee by investigating closely the subtle differences in population served and difference in roles. Additionally, a longer and more recent questionnaire would lend itself to more stringent examinations of construct validity, such as factor analysis. Items could also be

42

added that examine other variables related to job satisfaction, burnout, and effectiveness, such as diversity of student population and socioeconomic status.

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Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout the cost of caring. Englewood Cliffs: NJ: Prentice-Hall. Maslach, C. & Jackson, S.E. (1986). Maslach Burnout Inventory (2nd Ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Maslach, C., Jackson, S.E., Leiter, M.P. (1996). Maslach Burnout Inventory (3rd Ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Merrell, K. W., Ervin, R. A., & Gimpel, G. A. (2006). School psychology for the 21st century. NY: Guilford. McIntyre, T.C. (1984). The relationship Between teacher locus of control and burnout. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, 210-217. McKelvy, R.S. & Webb, J.A. (1995). Career satisfaction among psychiatrists in Texas. Southern Medical Journal, 88, 5. Mowder, B.A., Widerstrom, A.H. & Sandall, S. (1989). School psychologists serving atrisk and handicap infants, toddlers, and their families. Professional School Psychology, 4(3), 159-171. Niebrugge, K.M. (1994). Burnout and job satisfaction among practicing school psychologists in Illinois. Paper presented at the 26th Annual Meeting of the National Association of School Psychologists, Seattle, WA. Nowicki, S. & Duke, M.P. (1974). A locus of control scale for non-college as well as college adults. Journal of Personality Assessment, 38, 136-137. Pierson-Hubeny, D. & Archambualt, F.X. (1987). Role stress and perceived intensity of burnout among school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 24, 244-253.

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Appendix A Informed Consent

55

CONSENT FORM The purpose of this study is to determine how stress, burnout, and locus of control are related for school psychologists providing direct services in the public education setting. The information will be collected anonymously and will be kept confidential. Your participation is totally voluntary, and you may refuse to participate. If you participate, please answer questions truthfully. There are no known risks associated with your participation. The four questionnaires will take an estimated twenty minutes to complete. You may leave or withdraw from the study at anytime without penalty. If you have questions about your participation in this research, please contact the Principal Researcher or the Dissertation Supervisor: Shana Reece, M.S. Department of Psychology Tennessee State University (615) 417-6470 Steve Trotter, Ph. D. Department of Psychology Tennessee State University (615) 963-5161

Signature:________________________________

Date:_________________

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Appendix B Demographic Questionnaire

57

Please circle appropriate response or indicate the numbered responses to each question on the line to the right of each question. Your information will be kept strictly confidential 1. Gender: Male/ Female 2. Race: Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, Asian, other 3. Age: ______ 4. Education Level: Please circle highest degree: Masters degree Educational Specialist degree Doctoral degree, PhD 5. Primary grade level(s) that you are assigned: Pre-School Elementary School Middle School High School 7. What area is your school located: Urban Setting (Characteristic of the city or city life) Rural Setting (Relating to, or characteristic of the country) 8. How many schools do you serve? _____ 9. How many years have you been in your district? ____ (1) 1-5 years ______(2) 6-10 years _____(3) 10-15 years _____ 16-20 years

10. How many years have you been at your current school? _____ (1) 1-5 years ______(2) 6-10 years _____(3) 10-15 years _____ _____ 16-20 years

11. Approximately how many students attend your school?

12. Approximately how many special education students does your school currently serve? _____ 13. How much support do you receive from supervisor(s)? None Minimal Adequate Extensive

14. How much support do you receive from administration? None Minimal Adequate Extensive

15. How much support do you receive from other colleagues? None Minimal Adequate Extensive

16. Which service provides the most stress for you in your school setting: Consultation Assessment Interventions

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Appendix C School Psychologists and Stress Inventory (SPSI)

59

Stress Inventory
Please read each statement carefully and mark the number (from 0 to 6) that best described how frequently you experience that statement in your job. Please respond as honestly and as accurately as possible. Your responses will be kept strictly confidential.

Never 0

A few times a year or less 1

Once a month 2

A few times a month 3

Once a week 4

A few times a week 5

Every day 6

__ Notification of unsatisfactory job performance __ Not enough time to perform job adequately __ Public speaking arrangements (e.g. PTA) __ Working with uncooperative principals and other administrators __ Conducting in-service workshops __ A change in the schools/districts with you serve __ Lack of appropriate services for children __ Keeping up with current professional literature __ Incompetent and/or inflexible superiors __ A backlog of more than 5 reports to be written __ Pressure to complete a set of number of cases (e.g. you must test at least 100 children a year) __ Conference or staffings with resistant teachers __ Keeping your district legal (i.e. in compliance with federal, state, and local regulations) __ Teacher dissatisfaction with your recommendations __ Feeling caught between childs needs and administrative __ Child abuse cases __ Carrying testing equipment around in unfavorable weather conditions

__ Report Writing __ Potential suicide cases __ Insufficient recognition of your work __ Being told that you have it easy by classroom teachers __ Telling parents their child is handicapped __ Lack of consensus in a staffing __Inadequate secretarial help __ Lack of contact with professional colleagues __ Screening bilingual children __ Impending teachers a strike in your district __ Supervising an intern or school psychology graduate student __ Conducting parent groups __ Lack of availability of appropriate assessment materials __ Spending time driving between schools

constraints (i.e. trying to fit a child into existing program) __ Threat of due process hearing

Adapted from School Psychologists and Stress Inventory by P. Wise, 1985.

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Appendix D Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)

61

Burnout Inventory
Please read each statement carefully and decide if you feel this way about your job. If you have never had this feeling, write a 0 (zero) before the statement. If you have had this feeling, indicate how often you feel it by writing the number (from 1 to 6) that best describes how frequently you feel that way. For purposes of this research, clients refer to the students, teachers, parents, and others for whom you provide your service. Please respond as honestly and as accurately as possible. Your responses will be kept strictly confidential.

Never 0
How Often (0-6) 1._____ 2._____ 3._____ 4._____ 5._____ 6._____ 7._____ 8._____ 9._____ 10.____ 11.____ 12.____ 13.____ 14.____ 15.____ 16.____ 17.____ 18.____ 19.____ 20.____ 21.____

A few times a year or less 1

Once a month 2

A few times a month 3

Once a week 4

A few times a week 5

Every day 6

Statements:

I feel emotionally drained from my work. I feel used up at the end of the workday. I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job. I can easily understand how my clients feel about things. I feel as if I treat my clients as if they were impersonal objects. Working with people all day is really a strain for me. I deal very effective with the problems of my clients. I feel burned out from my work. I feel Im positively influencing other peoples through my work. Ive become more callous toward people since I took this job. I worry that this job is hardening me emotionally. I feel very energetic. I feel frustrated by my job. I feel Im working too hard on my job. I dont really care what happens to my clients. Working with people directly puts too much stress on me. I can easily create a relaxed atmosphere with my clients. I feel exhilarated after working closely with my clients. I have accomplished many worthwhile things in this job. I feel like Im at the end of my rope. In my work I deal with emotional problems very calmly. I feel clients blame me for some of their problems. EE: _____ _____ DP: _____ _____ PA: _____ _____

22.____ Administrative Use Only:

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Appendix E Rotter Locus of Control Scale

63

Rotter Locus of Control Scale

Please read each statement carefully .Indicate which of each statement you believe to be true, despite what you may wish to be true. There are no right or wrong answers.

1. 2. 3.

_____ Children get into trouble because their parents punish them too harshly. _____ The trouble with most children nowadays is that their parents are too easy with them. _____ Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck. _____ People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make. _____ One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don't take enough interest in politics. _____ There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to prevent them. _____ In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world _____ Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard he or she tries. _____ The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense. _____ Most students don't realize the extent to which their grades are influenced by accidental happenings. _____ Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader. _____ Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken advantage of their opportunities. _____ No matter how hard you try some people just don't like you. _____ People who can't get others to like them don't understand how to get along with others. _____ Heredity plays the major role in determining one's personality _____ It is mainly one's experiences in life which determine what they're like. _____ I have often found that what is going to happen, will happen. _____ Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action. _____ In the case of the well prepared student there is rarely if ever such.a thing as an unfair test. _____ Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work that studying is often useless. _____ Becoming a success is a matter of hard work. Luck has little or nothing to do with it. _____ Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time. _____ The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions. _____ This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the little guy can do about it. _____ When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work. _____ It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out to be a matter of good or bad fortune.

4.

5.

6.

7. 8. 9.

10.

11. 12.

13.

64

14. 15. 16.

_____ There are certain people who are just no good. _____ There is some good in everybody. _____ In my case getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck. _____ Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin. _____ Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was lucky enough to be in the right place first. _____ Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability, and luck has little or nothing to do with it. _____ As far as world affairs are concerned, most of us are the victims of forces we can neither understand, nor control. _____ By taking an active part in political and social affairs the people can control world events. _____ Most people don't realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental happenings. _____ There really is no such thing as "luck." _____ One should always be willing to admit mistakes. _____ It is usually best to cover up one's mistakes. _____ It is hard to know whether or not a person really likes you. _____ How many friends you have depends upon how nice a person you are. _____ In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones. _____ Most misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three. _____ With enough effort we can wipe out political corruption. _____ It is difficult for people to have much control over the things politicians do in office. _____ Sometimes I can't understand how teachers arrive at the grades they give. _____ There is a direct relationship between how hard I study and the grades I get. _____ A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they should do. _____ A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are. _____ Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things that happen to me. _____ I do not believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my life. _____ People are lonely because they don't try to be friendly. _____ There's not much use in trying too hard to please people. If they like you, they like you. _____ There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school. _____ Team sports are an excellent way to build character. _____ What happens to me is my own doing. _____ Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control over the direction my life is taking. _____ Most of the time I can't understand why politicians behave the way they do. _____ In the long run the people are responsible for bad government on a national as well as on a local level.

17.

18.

19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

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Appendix F Institutional Review Board Letter of Acceptance

2342219122291414

Research and Sponsored Programs

Tennessee State University 3500 John A. Merritt Blvd. Nashville, Tennessee 37209-1561

Office of the Vice President

To:

Shana Reece shanaj20@hotmail.com Dr. Steve Trotter strotter@tnstate.edu Dept.: Educational Administration

From: Dr. G. Pamela Burch-Sims, Chair, Institutional Review Board Re: Protocol #HS2009-2356

Date: Wednesday, November 11, 2009 The document listed below has been carefully reviewed and found to be in compliance with OPRR document title 45, Code of Federal Regulations part 46, the protection of human subjects, as amended by Federal policy, effective August 19, 1991. This project is approved as it presents minimal or no research risks to the pool of impending human subjects. Please make note, that any deviations in the administration of the protocol, accidental or otherwise should be reported to the IRB as soon as possible. The FWA for Tennessee State University is #FWA00007692, which is effective from July 16, 2007 through July 16, 2010. "The Relationship among Stress, Burnout, and Locus of Control of School Psychologists" This approval is valid for one year from the date indicated above. Continuation of research beyond that date requires re-approval by the Institutional Review Board. Please contact me at 963-5661 or e-mail irb@tnstate.edu for additional information.

AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY/AFFIRMATIVE ACTION EMPLOYER M/F