Section Three

RESET

Dive Equipment
Scuba diving is an equipment-intensive activity. Therefore, you cannot consider your understanding of diving theory complete without a thorough knowledge of this vital subject. The equipment used by divers varies from convenience items such as underwater lights and dive knives, to essential items such as exposure suits and buoyancy control devices, to highly sophisticated life support systems such as tanks and regulators. Further complicating the picture is the ever-increasing application of computer technology to the design of modern diving equipment. Unfortunately, due to its apparent complexity many divers are reluctant to learn more about their equipment because they believe they are not mechanically inclined. This is a misconception. You neednt be a repair technician or a design engineer to understand the workings of modern scuba equipment. The fundamentals are actually quite simple. Besides, whats important is that you understand the concept of how diving equipment operates, not the technical details. Thats the purpose of this section to provide you with a conceptual understanding of diving equipment. Even if you have difculty changing a tire, youll nd the concepts discussed in this section to be simple and straightforward.

Objective 3.1
Explain the meaning of each legally required mark that appears on the neck of a scuba tank including: alloy designation, hydrostatic test date, working pressure, and overpressurization designation.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, in the side-bar article entitled Deciphering Cylinder Hieroglyphics.

Exercises:
1. Which of the following tank markings designates the type of metal used to construct the scuba tank? a. 3AL b. 7@89 c. 675432 d. 3000

Section Three: Dive Equipment

3-1

2. Which of the following tank markings designates the hydrostatic test date? a. 3AL b. 7@89 c. 675432 d. 3000 3. The (+) designation that appears on _____________ tanks denotes that the tank may be overlled to _____________ beyond its working pressure. a. steel/15% b. aluminum/10% c. steel and aluminum/10% d. steel/10%

Objective 3.2
Contrast the differences between steel and aluminum scuba tanks in terms of their relative ability to resist corrosion and calculate the capacity of tanks with different pressure and volume.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, in the sidebar article entitled International Cylinder Capacity Conversions Made Easy and under the heading Cylinders Materials

Exercises:
1. A steel tank whose capacity is 2016 litres/71.2 cubic feet at 168 bar/2475 psi and an aluminum tank whose capacity is 2265 litres/80 cubic feet at 203 bar/3000 psi are both lled to 133 bar/2000 psi. Which tank contains more air? a. The steel tank b. The aluminum tank c. Both would hold equal amounts d. The answer cannot be determined from the information given. 1. European Metric: An 8 litre tank is lled to 300 bar and a 12 litre tank is lled to 175 bar. Which tank will hold the greatest amount of air? a. The 8 litre tank b. The 12 litre tank c. Both would hold equal amounts d. The answer cannot be determined from the information given.

3-2

Diving Knowledge Workbook

2. Aluminum tanks were introduced because aluminum is a stronger metal and enables higher working pressures than in steel tanks. True False

Objective 3.3
Explain the purpose of a J valve and how it is designed to work.

Resources:
PADI Rescue Diver Manual, Chapter Two, under the heading Tanks and Tank Valves

Exercises:
1. The J-valve was designed as a means to: a. increase the reliability of the internal working mechanism. b. prevent the tank from rupturing if it is grossly overlled. c. warn the diver he has run low on air. d. All of the above are correct. 2. A scuba tank equipped with a J-valve is capable of holding 20-35 bar/300-500 psi more air than a tank without such a valve. True False

Objective 3.4
Explain the safety device and design feature that prevents an over-pressurized scuba tank from exploding.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the heading Cylinders Features.

Exercises:
1. To prevent a scuba tank from rupturing due to overpressurization, a burst disk is installed in the _____________, and is designed to rupture when the tank pressure rises above about _____________ of the tanks rated pressure. a. regulator/200% b. tank neck/225% c. valve/140% d. submersible pressure gauge/125%
Section Three: Dive Equipment 3-3

2. Why is it important that a burst disk be replaced regularly?

3. What is the primary advantage of the newer type of burst disk assembly that allows air to vent to the sides rather than straight out?

Objective 3.5
Explain the effect of extreme heat upon the structural integrity of a scuba tank, and what should be done in the event tanks are exposed to such conditions.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the headings Scuba Cylinder Care and Maintenance and Cylinders - Features

Exercises:
1. Explain why it is important to avoid any process involving heat treatment when having a scuba tank painted or renished.

2. To ensure the structural integrity of a scuba tank, it should be _____________ anytime it is _____________. a. destroyed/at an age of twenty years b. hydrostatically tested/exposed to temperatures above 82C/180F c. visually inspected/left unused for more than two years d. All of the above are correct

3-4

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Objective 3.6
Explain how scuba tanks are hydrostatically tested, and to what pressure this test is conducted.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the heading Scuba Cylinder Care and Maintenance. Note: Tank testing procedures vary from country to country. You are encouraged to learn more about local test procedures from your PADI Dive Center or Instructor.

Exercises:
1. During a hydrostatic test a scuba tank is placed in a water-lled chamber. The tank is then lled with compressed air and the amount of expansion that occurs in the tank is measured by the amount of water that is displaced. True False 2. To what pressure is a scuba tank lled during a hydrostatic test? a. 340 bar/5000 psi b. 200 % of its working pressure c. 5/3s of its working pressure d. The exact pressure depends upon what happens to the tank once it is pressurized.

Objective 3.7
List at least three reasons a scuba tank should be visually inspected annually.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the heading Scuba Cylinder Care and Maintenance.

Exercises:
1. Under what circumstances should a scuba tank be visually inspected? a. If loose material is heard rolling around inside the tank b. If a red or green accumulation is seen on the lter of the regulator rst-stage c. Once every year even if the tank appears in good condition d. All of the above are correct
Section Three: Dive Equipment 3-5

2. List three reasons why a visual inspection is performed on a scuba tank: a. b. c.

Objective 3.8
Explain the term open-circuit demand regulator and describe what advantages this design has over other types.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the heading Regulators.

Exercises:

1. The term open circuit refers to the fact that: a. electricity is used to test the regulators air-ow rate. b. the regulator is made from nonmagnetic metal. c. the exhaled air is released directly into the water. d. All of the above are correct. 2. The term demand valve refers to the fact that the regulator will provide air: a. during both inhalation and exhalation. b. only upon inhalation. c. only upon exhalation. d. at a constant ow regardless of the inhalation effort. 3. Identify three primary advantages of the open-circuit, demand valve regulator. a. b. c.

3-6

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Objective 3.9
List the major parts and explain the general function of the rst and second-stage of a scuba regulator.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the heading Regulators Features PADI Rescue Diver Manual, Chapter Two, under the heading Equipment Function and Function Related Problems

Exercises:
1. Explain the basic function of the rst-stage of a scuba regulator:

2. Explain the basic function of the second-stage of a scuba regulator:

3. What are two advantages of a DIN connector over the standard yoke screw type? a. b. 4. A pilot valve refers to a second-stage design that: a. uses a small valve to assist the opening of the main valve. b. directs the air ow more directly to the diver. c. requires the use of an ultra-high pressure tank. d. All of the above are correct.

Section Three: Dive Equipment

3-7

Objective 3.10
Dene the term fail-safe as it relates to regulator design and how this feature operates in the event of regulator malfunction.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the heading Regulators Features.

Exercises:
1. Fail safe refers to a regulators tendency to _____________ because of the use of a(n) ____ _________ valve in the second-stage. a. breathe easily/open circuit b. free-ow/downstream c. breathe easily/closed circuit d. free-ow/upstream 2. What is the primary advantage of the fail-safe design?

Objective 3.11
Dene the term environmental seal and what this device is designed to prevent.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the heading Regulators Features.

Exercises:
1. An environmental seal operates by: a. not allowing water to directly contact the rst-stage piston or diaphragm. b. not allowing water to directly contact the second-stage piston or diaphragm. c. increasing the temperature of the rst-stage. d. causing increased turbulence in the air ow of the rst-stage.

3-8

Diving Knowledge Workbook

2. What are two advantages of an environmental seal of the rst-stage? a. b.

Objective 3.12
Dene the terms balanced, unbalanced, upstream and downstream as they relate to regulator design.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the heading Regulators Features and in the side-bar article entitled The Differences Between Balanced and Unbalanced Valves

Exercises:
1. A valve that tends to open in the direction of ow is referred to as _____________ while a valve that tends to close in the direction of ow is referred to as _____________ . a. open circuit/closed circuit b. closed circuit/open circuit c. upstream/downstream d. downstream/upstream 2. The primary advantage of a balanced rst-stage over an unbalanced one is that: a. they breathe easier at greater depths, even at low tank pressures. b. they provide greater air ow. c. they are better able to supply a second diver breathing from an octopus. d. All of the above are correct.

Section Three: Dive Equipment

3-9

Objective 3.13
Explain the proper procedures for the use of dive computers among buddy teams.

Resources:
PADI Divemaster Manual, Section Five, under the heading Special Rules, Recommendations and Situations Using the RDP and Computers PADI Open Water Diver Manual, Chapter Five, under the heading Using a Dive Computer

Exercises:
1. Two divers may use a single dive computer provided they are careful to remain together and dive the exact same prole. True False 2. A buddy team exits the water. Both divers are using dive computers. After a short surface interval, they plan another dive to 18 metres/60 feet. One device allows 38 minutes of bottom time at 18 metres/60 feet, the other allows only 32 minutes. Based on this information how should they plan their dive? a. Plan a maximum bottom time of 38 minutes because computers are intentionally designed to be more conservative than dive tables. b. Plan a maximum bottom time of 32 minutes because computers are intentionally designed to be more conservative than dive tables. c. Plan a maximum bottom time of 38 minutes but be sure to make a safety stop before surfacing. d. Plan a bottom time of somewhat less than 32 minutes and make a safety stop before surfacing.

3-10

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Objective 3.14
State the type of depth gauge which automatically compensates for high altitude diving.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the sub-heading Instrument Specics. Adventures in Diving, Section One, Altitude Diving

Exercises:
1. A capillary depth gauge works by using: a. a simple system of pressure sensitive gears. b. a mechanical pressure transducer. c. Boyles Law. d. Archimedes Principle. 2. While on a dive in a mountain lake at an altitude of 3,000 metres/10,000 feet, a diver checks his depth. He is using a capillary depth gauge which indicates a depth of 14 metres/45 feet. If he actually measured the linear distance to the surface from where he is, he would nd that: a. he is exactly 14 metres/45 feet beneath the surface. b. he is actually more than 14 metres/45 feet below the surface. c. he is actually less than 14 metres/45 feet below the surface. d. The answer cannot be determined from the data provided.

Section Three: Dive Equipment

3-11

Objective 3.15
List at least three reasons related to equipment why divers should always avoid maximum decompression limits.

Resources:
Encyclopedia, Chapter Three, under the sub-heading Instrument Specics. PADI Deep Diver Manual

Exercises:
1. In terms of equipment considerations, avoiding the maximum limits of the dive tables is wise because: a. dive tables are imprecise. b. its hard to read dive tables while underwater. c. depth gauges can malfunction and/or be read inaccurately. d. you can get nitrogen narcosis more easily. 2. What special considerations are important in terms of equipment when planning a deep dive? a. The diver will use air more quickly than at a shallower depth. b. Breathing will become more difcult than at a shallower depth. c. The diver may have difculty controlling his descent/ascent. d. All of the above are correct.

3-12

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Section Three

Answer Key
Objective 3.1
Explain the meaning of each legally required mark that appears on the neck of a scuba tank including: alloy designation, hydrostatic test date, working pressure, and overpressurization designation.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (a) Which of the following tank markings designates the type of metal used to construct the scuba tank? 3AL. The designation 3AL indicates that the tank is made from an aluminum alloy approved by the U.S. Department of Transportation. (Aluminum tanks produced prior to July 1, 1982 will have other designations). 3AA indicates that the tank is made from an approved alloy of chromemolydbenum steel. 3A would indicate an older carbon steel alloy that is more prone to corrosion. 2. (b) Which of the following tank markings designates the hydrostatic test date? 7@89. This designation indicates that the tank was hydrostatically tested in July (the 7th month) of 1989. The @ is a mark registered with the U.S. Department of Transportation used to identify the test facility. Within the U.S. this test is legally required at least every ve years. The requirement varies outside of the U.S. 3. (d) The (+) designation that appears on steel tanks denotes that the tank may be overlled to 10% beyond its working pressure. This mark is valid only during the period of the rst hydrostatic test, unless a (+) appears after subsequent hydro tests. Also, some countries may not allow 10% overlling. Note: tank markings vary from country to country. You are encouraged to learn more about local tank markings from your PADI Dive Center or Instructor.

Section Three: Answer Key 3-13

Objective 3.2
Contrast the differences between steel and aluminum scuba tanks in terms of maximum pressure, thickness and capacity.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. Metric (a) A steel tank whose capacity is 2016 litres at 168 bar and an aluminum tank whose capacity is 2265 litres at 203 bar are both lled to 133 bar. Which tank contains more air? The steel tank. To answer this question, you need to compare how much capacity each bar accounts for. In steel tanks each bar accounts for 12 litres (2016 litres divided by 168 bar = 12 litres per bar). In an aluminum tank each bar accounts for 11.15 litres (2265 litres divided by 203 bar = 11.15 litres per bar). These constants can now be used to quickly determine how much capacity remains in a tank of a certain pressure. In the question, a steel 2016 litre tank lled to 133 bar contains 1596 litres (12 litres per bar x 133 bar = 1596 litres). An aluminum 2265 litre tank contains only 1482.95 litres (11.16 litres per bar x 133 bar = 1482.95 litres).

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

Imperial (a) A steel tank whose capacity is 71.2 cubic feet at 2475 psi and an aluminum tank whose capacity is 80 cubic feet at 3000 psi are both lled to 2000 psi. Which tank contains more air? The steel tank. To answer this question, you need to compare how much capacity each psi accounts for. In a steel tank each psi accounts for .0287 cubic feet (71.2 cubic feet divided by 2475 psi = .0287 cubic feet per psi). In an aluminum tank each psi accounts for .0266 cubic feet (80 cubic feet divided by 3000 psi = .0266 cubic feet per psi). These constants can now be used to quickly determine how much capacity remains in a tank of a certain pressure. In the question, a steel 71.2 cubic foot tank lled to 2000 psi contains 57.4 cubic feet (.0287 cubic feet per psi x 2000 = 57.4 cubic feet). An aluminum 80 cubic foot tank contains only 53.2 cubic feet (.0266 cubic feet per psi x 2000 psi = 53.2 cubic feet).

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

European Metric (a) An 8 litre tank is lled to 300 bar and a 12 litre tank is lled to 175 bar. Which tank will hold the greatest amount of air? The 8 litre tank. The size of the tank is measured from the internal volume (just like the gas tank in a car), and an 8 litre tank contains 8 litres of compressed air. To determine the tanks capacity, we simply multiply the volume with the pressure. The answer tells us how many litres of air at 1 atm the tank contains. In this question the 8 litre tank contains 2400 litres of air (8 x 300 = 2400 litres). The 12 litre tank contains 2100 litres (12 x 175 = 2100 litres).

3-14

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

2. Aluminum tanks were introduced because aluminum is a stronger metal and enables higher working pressures than in steel tanks. False. The reason aluminum was introduced was because of its resistance to corrosion, not its strength.

Objective 3.3
Explain the purpose of a J-valve and how it is designed to work.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (c) The J-valve was designed as a means to: warn the diver he has run low on air. The J-valve, which predates the submersible pressure gauge, was an early mechanical warning device that signaled a tank was running low on air. At approximately 20 to 35 bar/300 to 500 psi (depending on the spring tension), the reduced pressure enables a spring mechanism to begin shutting off the air ow, thereby warning the diver of low air. By activating the valve usually by pulling a lever to the down position the mechanism is released and normal air ow restored. With the advent of the submersible pressure gauge, J-valves began to disappear. In fact, when using a J-valve, many divers often disable it by keeping in the down position. Incidentally, be careful when lling tanks equipped with J-valves. They cannot be lled if the valve is in an up position. 2. A scuba tank equipped with a J-valve is capable of holding 20-35 bar/300-500 psi more air than a tank without such a valve. False. A tank is a tank; it can only hold a certain capacity regardless of the valve it uses. As was explained in the previous answer, the J-valve merely warns the diver that the tank is low on air. A K-valve, which is merely an on/off valve, does not do this.

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

Objective 3.4
Explain the safety device and design feature that prevents an overpressurized scuba tank from exploding.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (c) To prevent a scuba tank from rupturing due to overpressurization, a burst disk is installed in the valve, and is designed to rupture when the tank pressure rises above about 140% of the tanks rated pressure. The burst disc is installed in the valve in such a way that if it were to rupture while someone was wearing the tank the force would be directed away from the wearers head.

Section Three: Answer Key 3-15

Replacement of the disk should always be performed by a trained repairman to avoid inserting the wrong disk. A disk rated for an aluminum tank is not designed to blow until reaching a pressure of about 285 bar/4200 psi. This is greater than the hydrostatic test pressure of most steel tanks! The results of such a mix-up could be disastrous.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

2. Why is it important that a burst disk be replaced regularly? With the continual lling and emptying of a tank, the burst disk is constantly stressed. In fact, when they are removed during regular maintenance of the valve, burst disks are always bent or dimpled. As this causes the metal to weaken, the disk could blow at a pressure far lower than its rated pressure. Therefore, the disk should be replaced on at least an annual basis. 3. What is the primary advantage of the newer type of burst disk assembly that allows air to vent to the sides rather than straight out? Older burst disk plugs allow the air escaping from the tank to vent directly out (the force is directed perpendicular to the tank valve). When the disk ruptures, this design can cause the tank to spin sometimes out of control. The newer plugs are vented to redirect the air at a 90-degree angle, preventing the potential for spinning. Be sure your tank valve contains the newer style plug. If not, replace it.

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

Objective 3.5
Explain the effect of extreme heat upon the structural integrity of a scuba tank, and what should be done in the event tanks are exposed to such conditions.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. Explain why it is important to avoid any process involving heat treatment when having a scuba tank painted or renished. The molecular structure of metal can easily be altered by the application of heat. One of the most common alterations is to make the metal more brittle and therefore less able to withstand constant expansion and contraction. Some exterior nishing processes not intended for scuba tanks use heat as part of the procedure. When exposed to heat in excess of about 82C/180F, scuba tanks can lose their exibility. Therefore, rather than expanding while it is lled, it can rupture. Several serious injuries, and at least one death, have resulted from tanks exploding while being lled after heat treatment. Never use any form of heat treatment to have your tanks renished!

3-16

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

2. (b) To ensure the structural integrity of a scuba tank, it should be hydrostatically tested anytime it is exposed to temperatures above 82C/180F. The heat issue was explained in the previous answer. The age of the tank is not in and of itself a factor. Many tanks well over twenty years of age are still in use today. Older tanks are ne as long as they are structurally sound. However, if a tank is left unused for more than two years, it shouldnt just be visually inspected; it should be hydrostatically tested as well. That is the only way to conrm its structural integrity.

Objective 3.6
Explain how scuba tanks are hydrostatically tested, and to what pressure this test is conducted.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. During a hydrostatic test a scuba tank is placed in a water-lled chamber. The tank is then lled with compressed air and the amount of expansion that occurs in the tank is measured by the amount of water that is displaced. False. During a hydrostatic test a scuba tank is placed in a water-lled chamber. The tank is then lled with water, which is safer, easier and less expensive to pressurize. As the water pressure within the tank is increased, the amount of expansion that occurs in the tank is measured by the amount of water that is displaced in the exterior reservoir. When the internal pressure is released, the degree to which the tank recon-forms to its original size is measured. In essence, what is measured is the tanks exibility. Tanks that do not reconform to a point very close to their original size fail the test and are condemned. Note: tank testing procedures vary from country to country. You are encouraged to learn more about local test procedures from your PADI Dive Center or Instructor.

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

2. (c) To what pressure is a scuba tank lled during a hydrostatic test? 5/3s its working pressure. To measure the exibility of a tank during hydro, U.S. Department of Transportation regulations mandate that it be lled to 5/3s its working pressure. This means a 153 bar/2250 psi steel tank is tested to a pressure of 255 bar/3750 psi. A 203 bar/3000 psi aluminum tank is tested to 338 bar/5000 psi. Note: hydrostatic testing procedures vary from country to country. You are encouraged to learn more about local test procedures from your PADI Dive Center or Instructor.

Section Three: Answer Key 3-17

Objective 3.7
List at least three reasons a scuba tank should be visually inspected annually.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (d) Under what circumstances should a scuba tank be visually inspected? All of the responses are correct. Loose material could cause the valve to clog or indicate some other more serious problem. Red or green accumulation on the rst-stage lter indicates that there is a signicant amount of corrosion or foreign material within the tank. And nally, even if nothing appears to be wrong with the tank, it should always be visually inspected at least annually. Tanks used extensively in seawater should, in fact, be inspected even more often. 2. List three reasons why a visual inspection is performed on a scuba tank: a. To detect exterior damage such as severe scratches or dents. Severe external damage can weaken the tank just as severe internal corrosion. b. To detect severe interior corrosion, particularly in steel tanks. Excessive internal corrosion could clog the tank valve. In steel tanks a form of corrosion called pitting can actually weaken the tank structurally long before a hydro is required. c. To prevent galvanic action between the dissimilar metals of the tank and valve threads. Particularly in sea-water the electrolysis resulting from contact of dissimilar metals can actually cause the valve and tank thread to seize. In this case the valve cannot be removed without destroying the threads. A visual inspection is a small price to pay to avoid this problem.

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

Objective 3.8
Explain the term open-circuit demand regulator and describe what advantages this design has over other types.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (c) The term open circuit refers to the fact that: the exhaled air is released directly into the water. In this context, open-circuit has nothing to do with electrical or magnetic conductivity. It simply means that the path of the air from the tank terminates when it is exhaled into the water. This is in contrast to a closed-circuit system where the exhaled air is captured, ltered, reoxygenated and returned to the diver to be rebreathed.

3-18

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

2. (b) The term demand valve refers to the fact that the regulator will provide air: only upon inhalation. This is easily remembered by thinking of the regulator providing air only on the divers demand. The demand is the divers inhalation. On exhalation, the valves close and air ow is terminated until the next demand (breath). 3. Explain the three primary advantages of the open-circuit, demand valve regulator: a. It uses less air than a free-ow system. Free ow systems require a surface air supply, like those used in commercial diving. Obviously a scuba tank would be severely limited in providing such great amounts of air. b. It avoids carbon dioxide buildup by reducing dead air spaces. Surface-supplied helmets or hats, as they are referred to in commercial diving allow exhaled air to build up inside them. This means carbon dioxide is constantly accumulating. To avoid the problem of excessive carbon dioxide buildup the hat must be periodically purged or ushed. As there is so little dead air in the second--stage of a scuba regulator, carbon dioxide build-up is insignicant. (Although signicant buildup of carbon dioxide can occur within the diver himself.) c. It is simpler and less expensive than closed-circuit systems. Closed-circuit systems, although far safer today than in the past, do create special problems due to their complexity. In addition, they are currently cost prohibitive for recreational diving.

Objective 3.9
List the major parts and explain the general function of the rst and second-stage of a scuba regulator.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. Explain the basic function of the rst-stage of a scuba regulator. Although there are a wide array of styles and models of scuba regulators, they all function in fundamentally the same way they are pressure-reduction valves. As such, the rst-stage takes the tremendously high pressure air in the tank and reduces it to an intermediate pressure. This intermediate pressure varies according to the design and manufacturer of the regulator, but its normally between about 6 bar/85 psi to 10 bar/140 psi plus the ambient water pressure. (If the regulator could not compensate for the ambient water pressure, then it couldnt deliver air once the ambient water pressure exceeded the intermediate pressure rating).

Section Three: Answer Key 3-19

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

2. Explain the basic function of the second-stage of a scuba regulator. The second-stage continues the process discussed in the above item. It takes the intermediate pressure from the rststage and breaks it down to a pressure equal to the surrounding water pressure. The ambient pressure is sensed by a exible second-stage diaphragm. 3. What are the two advantages of a DIN connector over the standard yoke screw valve? Long popular in Europe, DIN (Deutsche Industrie-Norm) connectors are becoming more common in the U.S. They provide two primary advantages over the yoke screw design: a. A better seal between the tank and regulator valves because the O-ring is actually trapped between the two valves. (The tank valve is female and the regulator connector is male.) b. Because the tank valve and regulator are secured by threads, the connection is much stronger than the yoke screw assembly. In addition, the O-ring is enclosed deep within the tank valve and is more stable. This system, because of its high security, enables the use of much higher air pressures. 4. (a) A pilot valve refers to a second-stage design that: uses a small valve to assist the opening of the main valve. A pilot valve uses a smaller valve as a helping hand to open the main second-stage valve. Because less effort is required to activate the smaller assisting valve, pilot valve regulators tend to breathe more responsively. However, because they are more sophisticated, they require more maintenance.

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

Objective 3.10
Dene the term fail-safe as it relates to regulator design and how this feature operates in the event of regulator malfunction.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (b) Fail safe refers to a regulators tendency to free-ow because of the use of a(n) downstream valve in the secondstage. A downstream valve means that it will tend to open with the ow of air. Therefore, if a problem occurs in the rst-stage, the air ow will open the valve allowing air to escape to the second-stage. Then, the downstream design of the second-stage valve will also open, causing the regulator to free-ow. This is a vital safety feature.

3-20

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Correct: Confident Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

2. What is the primary advantage of the fail-safe design? The primary advantage of the fail-safe design of regulators is that in the event of a malfunction, air is still delivered to the diver. Although the air flow is continuous, its a situation the diver can deal with while ascending to the surface. Never continue a dive with a free-flowing regulator even if the air flow is manageable.

Objective 3.11
Define the term environmental seal and what this device is designed to prevent.
Correct: Confident Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

Correct: Confident Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (a) An environmental seal operates by: not allowing water to directly contact the first-stage piston or diaphragm. When high pressure air depressurizes it draws a tremendous amount of heat from the surrounding environment. Imagine if this reduction in temperature were to occur in water that is already near freezing. Any water within the first-stage would then freeze and prevent the open valves from closing. This is referred to as a regulator freeze-up. This problem can be avoided by preventing water from getting into the first-stage. However, whatever substance is used to fill the first-stage must have a freezing point well below the freezing point of water. Substances such as alcohol or silicone grease are normally used for this purpose. This is an important consideration for those who dive in extremely cold water. 2. What are the two advantages of an environmental seal of the first-stage? The primary advantage of an environmental seal is described in the previous answer it prevents freeze-up. However, a second advantage is that in preventing water from entering the first-stage, dirt and foreign matter are also kept from entering the first-stage.

Objective 3.12
Define the terms balanced, unbalanced, upstream and downstream as they relate to regulator design.
Correct: Confident Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (d) A valve that tends to open in the direction of flow is referred to as downstream, while a valve that tends to close in the direction of flow is referred to as upstream. This concept was partially explained in item 1 of objective 3.10. An easy way to understand it is to think of how you enter a room. If you can push a door open it opens with you then the door is said to be downstream. If, on the other hand, you must pull the door toward you it opens against you the door is said to be upstream.
Section Three: Answer Key 3-21

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

2. (d) The primary advantage of a balanced rst-stage over an unbalanced one is that: All the responses are correct. In a balanced regulator design, the operation of the valves are unaffected by the pressure in the tank. Rather than the air forcing the valves of the rst-stage open, the force is directed around them. As a result, larger orices can be used providing more air ow to the diver. This, in turn, makes the regulator breathe easier than a similar though unbalanced design. The greater air ow also makes it easier to supply a second diver who might be breathing from an alternate air source.

Objective 3.13
Explain the proper procedures for the use of dive computers among buddy teams.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. Two divers may use a single dive computer provided they are careful to remain together and dive the exact same prole. False. A buddy team should never share a single computer because no matter how hard they try, both buddies can never dive the exact same prole. Therefore, for optimal safety, each diver must have his own computer. 2. (d) A buddy team exits the water. Both divers are using dive computers. After a short surface interval, they plan another dive to 18 metres/60 feet. One device allows 38 minutes of bottom time at 18 metres/60 feet, the other allows only 32 minutes. Based on this information how should they plan their dive? Plan a bottom time of somewhat less than 32 minutes and make a safety stop before surfacing. In the scenario described, the divers should not only use the more conservative computer, but cut a few minutes of the remaining time as well. When planning bottom time, always be conservative. Using the more conservative computer to control the dive is the wisest practice. In addition, because little is known about the decompression phenomenon, and individuals vary considerably in their susceptibility to decompression sickness, no dive table or computer should ever be dived to its limit. For this same reason, making a safety stop at the conclusion of every dive is also advised.

3-22

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

3. (b) Which portion of the ear is most affected by changes in pressure? middle ear. The outer ear structures (canal, lobes) are open to the water, and are unaffected by changes in ambient pressure. Like any air-lled structure of the body, the middle ear is affected by changes in ambient pressure. Although what occurs in the middle ear can, in turn, affect the inner ear, the inner ear itself is not directly affected by the change in ambient pressure because it is uid-lled.

Objective 3.14
State the type of depth gauge which automatically compensates for high altitude diving.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (c) A capillary depth gauge works by using: Boyles Law. A capillary depth gauge is merely an empty plastic tube open at one end to allow water to enter. In accordance with Boyles Law, the internal air space will ll with water in a predictable manner half the original volume at 10 metres/33 feet, one third at 20/66, one fourth at 30/99, etc. By marking off where the water column will be at various depths, a crude but highly accurate gauge can be constructed with no moving parts. In practice, however, capillary gauges are plagued by problems such as difculty in seeing the rising water column, increasingly small increments of depth beyond 66 feet, and air bubbles getting into the tube. For these reasons capillary gauges are rarely used as the sole means of determining a divers depth. They are most commonly used as backup devices in shallow water. 2. Metric (c) While on a dive in a mountain lake at an altitude of 3,000 metres, a diver checks his depth. He is using a capillary depth gauge which indicates a depth of 14 metres. If he actually measured the linear distance to the surface from where he is, he would nd that: he is actually less than 14 metres below the surface. This sounds strange until we remember how a capillary depth gauge works. A closed air space will ll with water in accordance to the relative atmospheres it is exposed to. In essence, it will show a relationship of atmospheres rather than indicate an actual ambient pressure. For example, from sea level an open container (such as a capillary gauge) is taken to two atmospheres. It will be half full. As we started at one atmosphere at the surface, twice that pressure would be two atmospheres. This we know occurs at 10 metres. But remember, the capillary gauge is actually telling us that the depth is twice the surface pressure not that the pressure is 2 ata. Lets compare this to what would happen at
Section Three: Answer Key 3-23

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

Imperial Answer

altitude. We will start from an altitude equal to a surface pressure of 0.7 atm (this occurs at about 3,000 metres). In this instance 1 atmosphere is no longer 1 ata, but rather 0.7 atm. Therefore two atmospheres will not be 2 ata, but rather 1.4 atm. Note that the second atmosphere occurred much more quickly because the rst atmosphere was less than that at sea level. In fact, if we start from an atmospheric pressure of 0.7 atm, we can easily determine that the pressure of 1.4 atm occurs at a depth of 7 meters in fresh water. (0.7 atm divided by 0.100 atm/m = 7m.) Although the diver is at two atmospheres, he is only 7 metres beneath the surface. Still the capillary gauge, which reads the atmospheric relationship, will indicate 10 metres! Now you can begin to see why altitude diving requires special procedures, and why special training should be sought.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

Metric Answer

Imperial (c) While on a dive in a mountain lake at an altitude of 10,000 feet, a diver checks his depth. He is using a capillary depth gauge which indicates a depth of 45 feet. If he actually measured the linear distance to the surface from where he is, he would nd that: he is actually less than 45 feet below the surface. This sounds strange until we remember how a capillary depth gauge works. A closed air space will ll with water in accordance to the relative atmospheres it is exposed to. In essence, it will show a relationship of atmospheres rather than indicate an actual ambient pressure. For example, from sea level (1 atmosphere = 15 psi) an open container (such as a capillary gauge) is taken to two atmospheres. It will be half full. As we started at 15 psi at the surface, twice that pressure would be 30 psi. This we know occurs at 33 feet. But remember, the capillary gauge is actually telling us that the depth is twice the surface pressure not that the pressure is 30 psi. Lets compare this to what would happen at altitude. We will start from an altitude equal to a surface pressure of 10 psi (this occurs at about 10,000 feet). In this instance one atmosphere is no longer 15 psi, but rather 10 psi. Therefore two atmospheres will not be 30 psi, but rather 20 psi. Note that the second atmosphere occurred much more quickly because the rst atmosphere was less than that at sea level. In fact, if we start from an atmospheric pressure of 10 psi, we can easily determine that the pressure of 20 psi occurs at a depth of just over 23 feet in fresh water. (10 psi divided by .432 psi/ft = 23.14 ft). Although the diver is at two atmospheres, he is only 23 feet beneath the surface. Still the capillary gauge, which reads the atmospheric relationship, will indicate 33 feet! Now you can begin to see why altitude diving requires special procedures, and why special training should be sought.

3-24

Diving Knowledge Workbook

Objective 3.15
List at least three reasons related to equipment why divers should always avoid maximum decompression limits.
Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

1. (c) In terms of equipment considerations, avoiding the maximum limits of the dive tables is wise because: depth gauges can malfunction and/or read inaccurately. Analog depth gauges tend to have a wide range of accuracy, particularly when you consider that few divers ever have them regularly recalibrated. Therefore, if planning a dive to the NDL for a specic depth, an inaccurate depth gauge one that reads too shallow could place you in a decompression situation without you even being aware of it! So, aside from the physiological consequences of diving to table limits (an unwise practice to begin with), the limitations of your equipment also show that it could be doubly unwise. 2. (d) What special considerations are important in terms of equipment when planning a deep dive? All of the responses are correct. Because of the increased pressure at depth, the diver must breathe more air from his tank. This increases his rate of air consumption. Secondly, because the air is much denser at depth, it requires more effort to move it in and out of his lungs. It therefore becomes more difcult to breathe. Lastly, when deep diving, site orientation and controlling the rate of descent/ascent becomes difcult. This is why some form of descent line is always advised when deep diving.

Correct: Condent Guess Incorrect: Simple Mistake Lack of Knowledge

Section Three: Answer Key 3-25

Section Analysis
From the answer key, identify any items marked "correct-guess" or "incorrect-lack of knowledge." These items represent important points of information or concepts you still might not fully understand. Check below any objectives that contained items with a "correct-guess" or "incorrect-lack of knowledge" response. Completing this section is an important step in determining your understanding of dive equipment as it relates to recreational diving. Condent Correct Responses Guess Total

Simple Mistake Incorrect Responses

Lack of Knowledge

Total

Objectives To Be Reviewed:
3.1 3.6 3.11 3.2 3.7 3.12 3.3 3.8 3.13 3.4 3.9 3.14 3.5 3.10 3.15

3-26

Diving Knowledge Workbook