KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY

Name: Hilal Rauf

Subject: Advanced Computer Networks Subject Code: BSIT - 63 PART: TA

1. What is DNS? Why is DNS required? What is the basis to choose the domain to an organization? ANS: DNS, the Domain Name System is a distributed hierarchical naming system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various informations with domain names assigned to each of the participants. This is required because domain names are alphabetic, as they're easier to remember. The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses. Every time we use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain name www.example.com might translate to 198.105.232.4. The basics of choosing domain to an organization by attaching random names to IP address and managing them is too nontrivial. So, a structured approach is needed. Best way is to employ the postal addressing system. o Country o State o District o Taluk o City o Street Internet is divided into 200 Domains at Top level Each top-level domain is further divided into sub domain. Each sub domain is further divided into one or more levels of sub domains. Top level domain can be split into two major classes. o Generic - generic domain names include Om, int, mil, gov, org, net, edu...... biz, info, name (recent addition 2000 Nov) aero, coop, museums (new ones) Country - each country has one entry, in, ae, us, jp etc Top level domain should be unambiguous and non-contentious.

1. What are the different components of Internet cloud? How does WWW is connected with Internet cloud? Explain. ANS: A cloud client consists of computer hardware and/or computer software that relies on cloud computing for application delivery, or that is specifically designed for delivery of cloud services and that, in either case, is essentially useless without it. Examples include some computers, phones and other devices, operating systems and browsers Cloud application services or "Software as a Service (SaaS)" deliver software as a service over the Internet, eliminating the need to install and run the application on the customer's own computers and simplifying maintenance and support. Key characteristics include Network-based access to, and management of, commercially available (i.e., not custom) software Activities that are managed from central locations rather than at each customer's site, enabling customers to access applications remotely via the Web

 Application delivery that typically is closer to a one-to-many model (single instance, multi-tenant architecture) than to a one-to-one model, including architecture, pricing, partnering, and management characteristics Centralized feature updating, which obviates the need for downloadable patches and upgrades.

Cloud platform services or "Platform as a Service (PaaS)" deliver a

computing platform and/or solution stack as a service, often consuming cloud infrastructure and sustaining cloud applications. It facilitates deployment of applications without the cost and complexity of buying and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. Cloud infrastructure services or "Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)" delivers computer infrastructure, typically a platform virtualization environment as a service. Rather than purchasing servers, software, data center space or network equipment, clients instead buy those resources as a fully outsourced service. The service is typically billed on a utility computing basis and amount of resources consumed (and therefore the cost) will typically reflect the level of activity. It is an evolution of virtual private server offerings. The servers layer consists of computer hardware and/or computer software products that are specifically designed for the delivery of cloud services, including multi-core processors, cloudspecific operating systems and combined offerings.

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks

that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast array of information resources and services, most notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail. Most traditional communications media, such as telephone and television services, are reshaped or redefined using the technologies of the Internet, giving rise to services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV. Newspaper publishing has been reshaped into Web sites, blogging, and web feeds. The Internet has enabled or accelerated the creation of new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking sites. 2. What are the advantages of good routing protocol? Explain one of the routing protocols in detail. ANS: The main objectives of the network layer are to deliver the packets to the destination. The delivery of packets is often accomplished using either a connection-oriented or a connectionless network service. In a connection-oriented approach, the network layer protocol first makes a connection with the network layer protocol at the remote site before sending a packet. When the connection is established, a sequence of packets from the same source to the same destination can be sent one after another. In this case, there is a relationship between packets. They are sent on the same path where they follow each other. A packet is logically connected to the packet traveling before it and to packet traveling after it. When all packets of a message have been delivered, the connection is terminated. In a connection oriented approach, the decision about the route of a sequence of packets with the same source and destination addresses can be made only once, when the connection is established. The network device will not compute the route again and again for each arriving packet. In a connectionless situation, the network protocol treats each packet independently, with each packet having no relationship to any other packet. The packets in a message may not travel the same path to their destination. The internet protocol (IP) is a connectionless protocol. It handles each packet transfer in a separate way. This means each packet travel through different networks before settling to their destination network. Thus the packets move through heterogeneous networks using connection less IP protocol. DIRECT AND INDIRECT ROUTING

There exits two approaches for the final delivery of the IP packets. In the Direct delivery, the final destination of the packet is a host connected to the same physical network as the deliverer (Figure 1). Direct delivery occurs when the source and destination of the packet are located on the same physical network or if the delivery is between the last router and the destination host. The sender can easily determine if the delivery is direct. It can extract the network address of the destination packet (Mask all the bits of the Host address) and compare this address with the addresses of the networks to which it is connected. If a match is found, then the delivery is direct. In direct delivery, the sender uses the destination IP address to find the destination physical address. The IP software then delivers the destination IP address with the destination physical address to the data link layer for actual delivery. In practical sense a protocol called address resolution protocol (ARP) dynamically maps an IP address to the corresponding physical address. It is to be noted that the IP address is a FOUR byte code where as the Physical address is a SIX byte code. The Physical address is also called as MAC address, Ethernet address and hardware address. When the network part of the IP address does not match with the network address to which the host is connected, the packet is delivered indirectly. In an indirect delivery, the packet goes from router to router until it reaches the one connected to the same physical network as its final destination. Note that a delivery always involves one direct delivery but zero or more indirect deliveries. Note also that the last delivery is always a direct delivery. In an indirect delivery, the sender uses the destination IP address and a routing table to find the IP address of the next router to which the packet should be delivered. The sender then uses the ARP protocol to find the physical address of the next router. Note that in direct delivery, the address mapping is between the IP address of the final destination and the physical address of the final destination. In an indirect delivery, the address mapping is between the IP address of the next router and the physical address of the next router. Routing tables are used in the routers. The routing table contains the list of IP addresses of neighboring routers. When a router has received a packet to be forwarded, it looks at this table to find the route to the final destination. However, this simple solution is impossible today in an Internetwork such as the Internet because the number of entries in the routing table make table lookups inefficient. Several techniques can make the size of the routing table manageable and handle such issues as security. 3. What is streaming? Give some examples of streaming. What are the challenges in designing multimedia networking? ANS: Streaming. In a streaming stored audio/video application, a client begins playout of the audio/video of few seconds after it begins receiving the file from the server. This means that the client will be playing out audio/video from one location in the file while it is receiving later parts of the file from the server. This technique, known as streaming, avoids having to download the entire file (and incurring a potentially long delay) before beginning playout. There are many streaming multimedia products, such as RealPlayer, QuickTime and Media Player. Examples are Streaming stored audio/video, Streaming live audio/video Real-time interactive audio/video. Packet Loss Consider one of the UDP segments generated by our Internet phone application. The UDP segment is encapsulated in an IP datagram. As the datagram wanders through the network, it passes through buffers (that is, queues) in the routers in order to access outbound links. It is possible that one or more of the buffers in the route from sender to receiver is full and cannot admit the IP datagram. In this case, the IP datagram is discarded, never to arrive at the receiving application. End-to-End Delay

End-to-end delay is the accumulation of transmission, processing, and queuing delays in routers; propagation delays in the links; and end-system processing delays. For highly interactive audio applications, such as Internet phone 4. What is the purpose of E-mail? What are the tools provided in the E-mail? Mention different E-mail service providers and their special features. ANS: Electronic mail is the most widely used tool in the present world for fast and reliable communication. It is based on RFC 822. E-mail system supports five basic functions.
1) Composition: Helps in creating message and answers, supports many

functions such as insertion of address after extraction from the original message during replying etc.
2) Transfer: Causes movement of message to the destination. Connection

establishments and passage of message is done here. 3) Reporting: Do involve in reporting the origin of email whether it is delivered, lost or abandoned. 4) Disposition: Do involve in invoking certain tools to enable reading email message which come as attachment. Ex: Abode to read a pdf file attachment. 5) Disposition: Involves, Reading, discarding, savings, replying, forwarding etc. Additional features of E-mail system Forwarding: forward email to another email ID Mail box: storing/retrieving email Mailing list: Send copies to the entire email list. Other functions: CC: carbon copy BCC: Blind copy High priority Yahoo, Gmail, Hotmail, AOL etc 5. How does UBL work? Explain the various steps of server side operation. Give an example.
ANS: XML is only the foundation on which additional standards can be defined to achieve

the goal of true interoperability. The Universal Business Language (UBL) initiative is the next step in achieving this goal. The UBL effort addresses this problem by building on the work of the ebXML initiative. EbXML is a joint project of UN/CEFACT, the world body responsible for international Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), and the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information

Standards (OASIS), a nonprofit consortium dedicated to the open development of XML languages. UBL is organized as an OASIS Technical Committee to guarantee a rigorous, open process for the standardization of the XML business language. The development of UBL within OASIS also helps ensure a fit with other essential ebXML Specifications. Server Side Operation Upon clicking a URL, the server side offers the following operations. Accepts a TCP connection from a client. Get the name of the file requested disk. Get the file from the disk. Return the file to the client. Release the TCP connection Problems with this type is the disk access with every request SCSI disk have a disc access time of 5 ms. so it permits 200 disks access per second It is still lower if the files are larger. To overcome this, the web server maintains a large cache space which holds n most recent files. Whenever a request comes, the server first look into caches and respond appropriately. To make the server faster, multithreading is adapted. There exists different concepts and design in one design. The server has a front end module and k processing modules (threads). The processing modules have access to the cache. The front end module accepts input request and pass it to one of the module. The processing module verifies the cache and responds if the file exists else it invokes disk search and caches the file and also send the file to the client. At any instant of timet out of k modules, K-X modules may be few to take requests, X modules may be in the queue waiting for disk access and cache search. If the number of disks is enhanced then it is possible to enhance the speed.

1. Each Module does the following. Resolve the name of the Web page requested. E.g.: http:// www.cisco.com 2. There is no file name here. Default is index .html. 3. Perform access control on the client check to see if there are any restrictions. 4. Perform access control on the web page. Access restrictions on the page itself. 5. Check the cache. 6. Fetch the requested page. CACHE Front end - - - - - - - K Processes K - Module Threads In coming Request. Out going Reply 7. Determine MIME type 8. Take care of miscellaneous address ends. (Building User profile, Satisfaction.) 9. Return the reply to the client. 10. Make an entry in the server log.

If too many requests come in each second, the CPU will not be able to handle the processing load, irrespective of no of disks in parallel. The solution is to add more machine with replicated disks. This is called server form. A front end still accepts the request and sprays them to all CPUs rather than multiple threads to reduce the load on that machine. Individual machines are again Multithreaded with Multiple disks.

It is to be seen that cache is local to each machine. TCP connection should terminate at processing node and not at front end.

7. What are the criteria consider to develop a routing protocol? Explain the OSPF routing protocol in detail? ANS: There exits two approaches for the final delivery of the IP packets. In the Direct delivery, the final destination of the packet is a host connected to the same physical network as the deliverer (Figure 1). Direct delivery occurs when the source and destination of the packet are located on the same physical network or if the delivery is between the last router and the destination host. The sender can easily determine if the delivery is direct. It can extract the network address of the destination packet (Mask all the bits of the Host address) and compare this address with the addresses of the networks to which it is connected. If a match is found, then the delivery is direct. In direct delivery, the sender uses the destination IP address to find the destination physical address. The IP software then delivers the destination IP address with the destination physical address to the data link layer for actual delivery. In practical sense a protocol called address resolution protocol (ARP) dynamically maps an IP address to the corresponding physical address. It is to be noted that the IP address is a FOUR byte code where as the Physical address is a SIX byte code. The Physical address is also called as MAC address, Ethernet address and hardware address. When the network part of the IP address does not match with the network address to which the host is connected, the packet is delivered indirectly. In an indirect delivery, the packet goes from router to router until it reaches the one connected to the same physical network as its final destination. Note that a delivery always involves one direct delivery but zero or more indirect deliveries. Note also that the last delivery is always a direct delivery. In an indirect delivery, the sender uses the destination IP address and a routing table to find the IP address of the next router to which the packet should be delivered. The sender then uses the ARP protocol to find the physical address of the next router. Note that in direct delivery, the address mapping is between the IP address of the final destination and the physical address of the final destination.

 In an indirect delivery, the address mapping is between the IP address of the next router and the physical address of the next router. Routing tables are used in the routers. The routing table contains the list of IP addresses of neighboring routers. When a router has received a packet to be forwarded, it looks at this table to find the route to the final destination. However, this simple solution is impossible today in an Internetwork such as the Internet because the number of entries in the routing table make table lookups inefficient. Several techniques can make the size of the routing table manageable and handle such issues as security.
OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol developed for Internet Protocol (IP) networks by the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The working group was formed in 1988 to design an IGP based on the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm for use in the Internet. Similar to the Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP), OSPF was created because in the mid-1980s, the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) was increasingly incapable of serving large, heterogeneous internetworks. This chapter examines the OSPF routing environment, underlying routing algorithm, and general protocol components. OSPF was derived from several research efforts, including Bolt, Breakneck, and Newmans (BBNs) SPF algorithm developed in 1978 for the ARPANET (a landmark packetswitching network developed in the early 1970s by BBN), Dr. Radia Perlmans research on fault-tolerant broadcasting of routing information (1988), BBNs work on area routing (1986), and an early version of OSIs Intermediate System-to- Intermediate System (IS-IS) routing protocol. OSPF has two primary characteristics. The first is that the protocol is open, which means that it is in the public domain. The OSPF specification is published as Request for Comments (RFC) 1247. The second principal characteristic is that OSPF is based on the SPF algorithm, which sometimes is referred to as the Dijkstra algorithm, named for the person credited with its creation. OSPF is a link-state routing protocol that calls for the sending of link-state advertisements (LSAs) to all other routers within the same hierarchical area. Information on attached interfaces, metrics used, and other variables is included in OSPF LSAs. As OSPF routers accumulate link-state information, they use the SPF algorithm to calculate the shortest path to each node. As a link-state routing protocol, OSPF contrasts with RIP and IGRP, which are distance-vector routing protocols. Routers running the distance-vector algorithm send all or a portion of their routing tables in routing-update messages to their neighbors.
6. Why is BGP needed? Explain com 1BGP used in place of the 1GP? ANS: The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the protocol backing the core routing decisions on the Internet. It maintains a table of IP networks or 'prefixes' which designate network reach ability among autonomous systems (AS). It is described as a path vector protocol. BGP does not use traditional Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) metrics, but makes routing decisions based on path, network policies and/or rule sets. For this reason, it is more appropriately termed a reach ability protocol rather than routing protocol.BGP was created to replace the Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) routing protocol to allow fully decentralized routing in order to allow the removal of the NSFNet Internet backbone network. This allowed the Internet to become a truly decentralized system. Since 1994, version four of the BGP has been in use on the Internet. All previous versions are now obsolete. The major enhancement in version 4 was support of Classless Inter-Domain Routing and use of route aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables. Since January 2006, version 4 is codified in RFC 4271, which went through more than 20 drafts based on the earlier RFC 1771 version 4. RFC 4271 version corrected a number of errors, clarified ambiguities and brought the RFC much closer to industry practices. Most

Internet users do not use BGP directly. Since most Internet service providers must use BGP to establish routing between one another (especially if they are multihued), it is one of the most important protocols of the Internet. Compare this with Signaling System 7 (SS7), which is the inter-provider core call setup protocol on the PSTN. Very large private IP networks use BGP internally. An example would be the joining of a number of large Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) networks where OSPF by itself would not scale to size. Another reason to use BGP is multihoming a network for better redundancy either to multiple access points of a single ISP (RFC 1998) or to multiple ISPs. BGP neighbors, or peers, are established by manual configuration between routers to create a TCP session on port 179. A BGP speaker will periodically send 19-byte keep-alive messages to maintain the connection (every 60 seconds by default). Among routing protocols, BGP is unique in using TCP as its transport protocol. When BGP is running inside an autonomous system (AS), it is referred to as Internal BGP (IBGP or Interior Border Gateway Protocol). When it runs between autonomous systems, it is called External BGP (EBGP or Exterior Border Gateway Protocol). Routers on the boundary of one AS exchanging information with another AS are called border or edge routers. In the Cisco operating system, IBGP routes have an administrative distance of 200, which is less preferred than either external BGP or any interior routing protocol. Other router implementations also prefer EBGP to IGPs, and IGPs to IBGP.