Master

Informed strategies
Lecture Plan
Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies Best-rst search Greedy search A* search Designing heuristics Iterative improvement algorithms Hill-climbing
Informed search strategies Best-rst search Greedy search A* search Designing heuristics Iterative improvement algorithms Hill-climbing
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
1 / 28
Informed strategies
Blind vs. informed search strategies
Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies Best-rst search Greedy search A* search Designing heuristics Iterative improvement algorithms Hill-climbing
Blind search methods You already know them: BFS, DFS, UCS et al. They dont analyse the nodes in the fringe; they simply pick the rst one (going down or sideways). Informed search methods They try to guess which node in the fringe is most promising.... ...by using an evaluation function, also known as the heuristic. The heuristic is based on additional knowledge about the search space.
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
2 / 28
Informed strategies
Best-rst search Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies
Best-rst search algorithm family General approach: picks node for expansion based on evaluation function, f (n). We dont know goal is best; if we knew, it wouldnt be a search at all. Heuristic function h(n) is the key component of f (n). Heuristic functions h(n) = estimated cost of the cheapest path from node n to the goal node. If n is the goal node, h(n) = 0.
Best-rst search Greedy search A* search Designing heuristics Iterative improvement algorithms Hill-climbing
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
3 / 28
Informed strategies
Best-rst search Search Methods GEIST
Heuristic functions
Choosing an evaluation function If we know the locations of cities, we know the straight-line distances between them. hSLD straight-line distance from n to Bucharest.
Oradea Neamt
Informed strategies Best-rst search Greedy search A* search Designing heuristics Iterative improvement algorithms Hill-climbing
71
75
Arad
Zerind
151
87
Iasi
140
Sibiu
92 99
Fagaras Vaslui Rimnicu Vilcea
118 80
Timisoara
111 70
Lugoj
97 146
Pitesti
211
142 98
Mehadia
101 138
85
Hirsova
Urziceni
75
Dobreta
86
Bucharest
120
Craiova
90
Giurgiu Eforie
Straightline distance to Bucharest Arad 366 Bucharest 0 Craiova 160 Dobreta 242 Eforie 161 Fagaras 178 Giurgiu 77 Hirsova 151 Iasi 226 Lugoj 244 Mehadia 241 Neamt 234 Oradea 380 Pitesti 98 Rimnicu Vilcea 193 Sibiu 253 Timisoara 329 Urziceni 80 Vaslui 199 Zerind 374
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
4 / 28
Informed strategies
Best-rst search Search Methods GEIST
Heuristic functions
Admissible heuristic Never overestimates the cost to reach the goal, e.g. h(n) h (n) (where h (n) is the real cost to get from n to goal). Is by nature optimistic. Monotonic (consistent) heuristic For every node n and every successor n of n (generated by any action a), estimated cost of reaching the goal from n is no greater than the stop cost of getting to n plus estimated cost of reaching the goal from n : h(n) c(n, a, n ) + h(n ). This is a form of general triangle inequality: each side of a triangle cannot be longer than sum of two other sides.
GEIST (KA AGH) Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
5 / 28
Informed strategies
Greedy search Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies Best-rst search Greedy search A* search Designing heuristics Iterative improvement algorithms Hill-climbing
Greedy search
Greedy best-rst search Only takes into account the heuristic, e.g. f (n) = h(n).
Arad 366
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
6 / 28
Informed strategies
Greedy search
Arad
Sibiu 253
Timisoara 329
Zerind 374
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
6 / 28
Informed strategies
Greedy search
Arad
Sibiu
Timisoara 329
Zerind 374
Arad 366
Fagaras 176
Oradea 380
Rimnicu Vilcea
193
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
6 / 28
Informed strategies
Greedy search
Arad
Sibiu
Timisoara 329
Zerind 374
Arad 366
Fagaras
Oradea 380
Rimnicu Vilcea
193
Sibiu 253
Bucharest 0
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
6 / 28
Informed strategies
Greedy search
Greedy search properties Completeness: No can get stuck in loops. Time complexity: O(b m ), but depends on quality of heuristic. Space complexity: O(b m ) keeps all nodes in memory. Optimality: No.
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
7 / 28
Informed strategies
A* search Search Methods GEIST
A* search
A* search algorithm Idea: avoid expanding paths that are already expensive. f (n) = g (n) + h(n), where:
g (n) cost so far to reach n, h(n) estimated cost from n to goal (heuristic), therefore f (n) estimated total cost of path through n to goal.
Arad 366=0+366
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
8 / 28
Informed strategies
A* search
Arad
Sibiu 393=140+253
Timisoara 447=118+329
Zerind 449=75+374
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
8 / 28
Informed strategies
A* search
Arad
Sibiu
Zerind 449=75+374
Arad
Fagaras
Oradea
Rimnicu Vilcea
646=280+366 415=239+176 671=291+380 413=220+193
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
8 / 28
Informed strategies
A* search
Arad
Sibiu
Zerind 449=75+374
Arad
Fagaras
Oradea
Rimnicu Vilcea
646=280+366 415=239+176 671=291+380 Craiova Pitesti Sibiu
526=366+160 417=317+100 553=300+253
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
8 / 28
Informed strategies
A* search
Arad
Sibiu
Zerind 449=75+374
Arad 646=280+366 Sibiu
Fagaras
Oradea 671=291+380
Rimnicu Vilcea
Bucharest 450=450+0
Craiova
Pitesti
Sibiu
591=338+253
526=366+160 417=317+100 553=300+253
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
8 / 28
Informed strategies
A* search
Arad
Sibiu
Zerind 449=75+374
Arad 646=280+366 Sibiu
Fagaras
Oradea 671=291+380
Rimnicu Vilcea
Bucharest 450=450+0
Craiova 526=366+160 Bucharest 418=418+0
Pitesti
Sibiu 553=300+253
591=338+253
Craiova
Rimnicu Vilcea
615=455+160 607=414+193
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
8 / 28
Informed strategies
A* optimality
Lets suppose that... ...a suboptimal goal G2 has been generated. Let n be an unexpanded node on a shortest path to the optimal goal G .
Start
G2
Proof f (G2 ) = g (G2 ), since h(G2 ) = 0 g (G2 ) > g (G ), since G2 is suboptimal g (G ) f (n), since h is admissible Since f (G2 ) > f (n), A* will never select G2 for expansion
GEIST (KA AGH) Search Methods 1 czerwca 2010 9 / 28
Informed strategies
A* with consistent heuristic

Node expansion order If the heuristic is consistent, A* expands nodes in order of increasing f value. A* gradually adds f -contours of nodes; contour i has all nodes with f = fi , where fi < fi+1 .
O N I
380
Z A S F
400
T L M D
R P H U
420
B E G
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
10 / 28
Informed strategies
A* with inconsistent heuristic

If h is inconsistent: As we go along the path, f may sometimes increase. A* doesnt always expand nodes in order of increasing f value, as it may nd lower-cost paths to nodes it already expanded. A* should re-expand those nodes; however, the Graph-Search algorithm will not re-expand them.
This example is due to Prof. Dana Nau. GEIST (KA AGH) Search Methods 1 czerwca 2010 11 / 28
Informed strategies

Informed strategies

Informed strategies

Informed strategies

Informed strategies

Informed strategies
A* search Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies Best-rst search Greedy search A* search Designing heuristics Iterative improvement algorithms Hill-climbing
Properties of A*
A* properties Completeness: Yes, unless there are innitely many nodes with f < f (G ). Time complexity: Exponential, depends on mean relative error of heuristic. Space complexity: Keeps all nodes in memory. Optimality: Yes, if:
for Tree-Search, the heuristic is admissible, for Graph-Search, the heuristic is admissible and consistent.
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
12 / 28
Informed strategies
Designing heuristics Search Methods GEIST
Heuristic functions
Heuristic function quality An admissible heuristic never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal. It usually underestimates see the SLD heuristic. However, a good heuristic function tries to minimise the gap between its value and the actual cost. Example How would you design a heuristic for the 8-puzzle?
7 5 8 3
Start State
4 6 1
5 1 4 7
2 5 8
Goal State
3 6
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
13 / 28
Informed strategies
Designing heuristics Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies Best-rst search Greedy search A* search Designing heuristics Iterative improvement algorithms Hill-climbing
Heuristic functions
Example How would you design a heuristic for the 8-puzzle?
7 5 8 3
Start State
4 6 1
5 1 4 7
2 5 8
Goal State
3 6
8-puzzle: two possible heuristics h1 (n): number of tiles not in their places h2 (n): sum of Manhattan distances of all tiles from their places
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
14 / 28
Informed strategies
Designing heuristics Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies
Heuristic functions
Example How would you design a heuristic for the 8-puzzle?
7 5 8 3
Start State
4 6 1
5 1 4 7
2 5 8
Goal State
3 6
8-puzzle: two possible heuristics h1 (S) = 6 h2 (S) = 4 + 0 + 3 + 3 + 1 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 14
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
15 / 28
Informed strategies
Heuristic functions
8-puzzle: two possible heuristics h1 (S) = 6 h2 (S) = 4 + 0 + 3 + 3 + 1 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 14 Heuristic domination If h2 (n) h1 (n) for all n, then h2 dominates h1 . Therefore, h2 is always better than h1 . Performance comparison Number of nodes expanded if solution is at depth d : d 14 24 IDS 3 473 951 54 000 000 000 A*(h1 ) 539 39 135 A*(h2 ) 113 1 641
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
16 / 28
Informed strategies
Designing heuristics Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies
Heuristic functions
Heuristic domination If h2 (n) h1 (n) for all n, then h2 dominates h1 . Therefore, h2 is always better than h1 . Hybrid heuristics If ha and hb are admissible heuristics, then h(n) = max(ha (n), hb (n)) is admissible and dominates both ha and hb . Deriving admissible heuristics Admissible heuristics can be derived from the exact solution cost of a relaxed version of the problem.
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
17 / 28
Informed strategies
Heuristic functions
Deriving admissible heuristics Admissible heuristics can be derived from the exact solution cost of a relaxed version of the problem. Example: 8-puzzle For the 8-puzzle problem: If the rules are relaxed so that a tile can move anywhere, then h1 (n) (number of misplaced tiles) gives the exact cost. If the rules are relaxed so that a tile can can move to any adjacent square (regardless of whether its occupied), then h2 (n) (sum of Manhattan distances) gives the exact cost.
7 5 8 3
Start State
4 6 1
5 1 4 7
2 5 8
Goal State
3 6
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
18 / 28
Informed strategies
Iterative improvement algorithms Search Methods GEIST
Iterative improvement algorithms

Iterative improvement For many problems, the solution is important, not how we got there the path is irrelevant. State space: set of complete congurations; nd optimal conguration (e.g., TSP) or conguration satisfying constraints (e.g., timetable). Iterative improvement: keep current state, try to improve it. Example: Travelling Salesman Problem Start with any complete tour, then try to switch pairs.
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
19 / 28
Informed strategies
Iterative improvement algorithms Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies
Iterative improvement algorithms

Example: n-queensExample: n-queens
Put nPut n queens n anboard n board two that noon thequeens queens on an on n n with no so queens two same conict on same row, column, or diagonal row, column or diagonal. Move a queen to reduce number of conicts
Move a queen to reduce number of conicts.
h=5
h=2
h=0
Almost always solves n-queens problems almost instantaneously for very large n, e.g., n = 1million
Informed strategies
Hill-climbing Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies
Hill-climbing search
Hill-climbing ascent/descent search
Hill-climbing (or search algorithms. Also called local greedy gradient ascent/descent)
Like climbing Mt. Everest in thick fog, with amnesia. Like climbing Everest in thick fog with amnesia
function Hill-Climbing( problem) returns a state that is a local maximum inputs: problem, a problem local variables: current, a node neighbor, a node current Make-Node(Initial-State[problem]) loop do neighbor a highest-valued successor of current if Value[neighbor] Value[current] then return State[current] current neighbor end
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
21 / 28
Informed strategies
Hill-climbing Search Methods GEIST
objective function
global maximum
shoulder local maximum "flat" local maximum
current state
state space
Hill-climbing algorithm can get stuck on: local maxima, ridges, ats.
Informed strategies
Variants of hill-climbing search If an algorithm (e.g., standard hill-climbing) only selects moves which improve the solution, it is bound to be incomplete. Random-start algorithms are complete, but very ineective. Stochastic hill-climbing picks one of the better successors at random. First-choice hill-climbing generates random successors until it nds one better than the current state. Random-restart hill-climbing conducts a series of searches, starting with random start states. It is complete with probability close to 1, because it must eventually generate the goal state.
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
23 / 28
Informed strategies
Simulated annealing
Background In metallurgy, annealing is the process used to temper or harden metals and glass by heating them to a high temperature and then gradually cool them. This allows the material to coalesce into a low-energy crystalline state. The algorithm Selects move at random. If the move improves the solution, it is made every time. If the move worsens the solution, the probability if it is made is determined upon:
the amount E by which the solution is worsened, the so-called temperature T , which is decreased in every iteration.a
a That way, the bad moves are more likely to be allowed at the start, and become less likely as the temperature decreases.
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
24 / 28
Simulated annealing
Idea: escape local maxima by allowing some bad moves but gradually decrease their size and frequency
function Simulated-Annealing( problem, schedule) returns a solution state inputs: problem, a problem schedule, a mapping from time to temperature local variables: current, a node next, a node T, a temperature controlling prob. of downward steps current Make-Node(Initial-State[problem]) for t 1 to do T schedule[t] if T = 0 then return current next a randomly selected successor of current E Value[next] Value[current] if E > 0 then current next else current next only with probability e E/T
Chapter 4, Sections 34 8
Simulated annealing
Informed strategies
Hill-climbing Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies Best-rst search Greedy search A* search Designing heuristics Iterative improvement algorithms Hill-climbing
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
25 / 28
Informed strategies
Local beam search

Local beam search Idea: keep k states instead of 1; choose top k of all their successors. Not the same as k individual searches run in parallel. Searches that nd good states invite others to join them. Threads that do not provide good results are discarded. Problem Often, all k states end up on same local maximum. Solution: stochastic local beam search Choose k successors at random, but still be biased towards the good ones.
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
26 / 28
Informed strategies
Genetic algorithms
Genetic algorithms Variant of stochastic beam search. Successor states generated by combining two parent states (rather than modifying a single state). We have k randomly generated states, called the population. Each state is caled an individual. Each individual is represented as a string over a nite alphabet. Steps in GA
1
Evaluate tness of each individual in population, as probability of being selected for reproduction. Perform selection, taking tness into account. Perform crossover within pairs (at random point). Introduce random mutation to allow for stochastic exploration.
2 3 4
Informed strategies
Genetic algorithms
24748552 32752411 24415124 32543213
24 31% 23 29% 20 26% 11 14%
32752411 24748552 32752411 24415124

Pairs
32748552 24752411 32752124 24415411

CrossOver Mutation
32748152 24752411 32252124 24415417
Fitness
Selection
GEIST (KA AGH)
Search Methods
1 czerwca 2010
28 / 28

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Informed strategies

GEIST (KA AGH)

Blind vs. informed search strategies

GEIST (KA AGH)

Best-rst search Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies

GEIST (KA AGH)

Best-rst search Search Methods GEIST

GEIST (KA AGH)

Best-rst search Search Methods GEIST

GEIST (KA AGH)

GEIST (KA AGH)

GEIST (KA AGH)

GEIST (KA AGH)

GEIST (KA AGH)

A* search Search Methods GEIST

GEIST (KA AGH)

A* search Search Methods GEIST

GEIST (KA AGH)

A* search Search Methods GEIST

646=280+366 415=239+176 671=291+380 413=220+193

GEIST (KA AGH)

A* search Search Methods GEIST

646=280+366 415=239+176 671=291+380 Craiova Pitesti Sibiu

526=366+160 417=317+100 553=300+253

GEIST (KA AGH)

A* search Search Methods GEIST

Arad 646=280+366 Sibiu

526=366+160 417=317+100 553=300+253

GEIST (KA AGH)

A* search Search Methods GEIST

Arad 646=280+366 Sibiu

Craiova 526=366+160 Bucharest 418=418+0

GEIST (KA AGH)

A* search Search Methods GEIST

A* search Search Methods GEIST

A* with consistent heuristic

GEIST (KA AGH)

A* search Search Methods GEIST

A* with inconsistent heuristic

A* search Search Methods GEIST

A* with inconsistent heuristic

A* search Search Methods GEIST

A* with inconsistent heuristic

A* search Search Methods GEIST

A* with inconsistent heuristic

A* search Search Methods GEIST

A* with inconsistent heuristic

A* search Search Methods GEIST

A* with inconsistent heuristic

GEIST (KA AGH)

Designing heuristics Search Methods GEIST

GEIST (KA AGH)

GEIST (KA AGH)

Designing heuristics Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies

8-puzzle: two possible heuristics h1 (S) = 6 h2 (S) = 4 + 0 + 3 + 3 + 1 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 14

GEIST (KA AGH)

Designing heuristics Search Methods GEIST

GEIST (KA AGH)

Designing heuristics Search Methods GEIST Informed strategies

GEIST (KA AGH)

Designing heuristics Search Methods GEIST

GEIST (KA AGH)

Iterative improvement algorithms Search Methods GEIST

Iterative improvement algorithms