Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Table
of
Contents
List
of
Figures
..............................................................................................................................................
3
List
of
Abbreviation
..................................................................................................................................
4
1.
Introduction
........................................................................................................................................
5
1.
PK/PD
Model
.......................................................................................................................................
6
2.
Control
System
...................................................................................................................................
8
2.1.
Open-Loop
Control
..................................................................................................................
9
2.2.
Closed-Loop
Control
.............................................................................................................
10
2.3.
Adaptive
Control
....................................................................................................................
10
3.
Pharmacology
&
Physiology
of
Anesthetic
Drugs
............................................................
12
3.1.
Basics
of
Drugs
........................................................................................................................
12
3.2.
Receptors
..................................................................................................................................
14
3.3.
Surface
Receptors
..................................................................................................................
15
3.3.1.
G-protein
coupled
..............................................................................................................
15
3.3.2.
Ligand-gated
ion
channel
...............................................................................................
15
3.3.3.
Enzyme-linked
....................................................................................................................
16
3.4.
Intercellular
Receptors
.......................................................................................................
16
4.
Current
Measuring
Indices
.........................................................................................................
18
5.
Anesthetic
Machine
.......................................................................................................................
18
5.1.
Heart
Rate
Monitor
...............................................................................................................
19
5.2.
Respiratory
Monitor
.............................................................................................................
20
5.3.
Measuring
Node
.....................................................................................................................
20
5.4.
CPU
...............................................................................................................................................
21
5.5.
Intravenous
Injection
...........................................................................................................
21
5.6.
Volatile
Distribution
.............................................................................................................
21
6.
Target-Controlled
Induction
.....................................................................................................
23
7.
Closed-Loop
Adaptive
Control
.................................................................................................
24
7.1.
Current
Technology
..............................................................................................................
24
7.2.
Adaptive
Control
....................................................................................................................
24
7.3.
Further
Works
........................................................................................................................
26
8.
Conclusion
.........................................................................................................................................
27
Bibliography
..............................................................................................................................................
28
List
of
Figures
Figure
1:
PK/PD
compartment
model.
.............................................................................................
7
Figure
2:
Settling
time,
rise
time
and
overshoot
..........................................................................
9
Figure
3:
Open-loop
control
system
..................................................................................................
9
Figure
4:
A
closed-loop
control
structure
....................................................................................
10
Figure
5:
General
MRAC
control
structure
..................................................................................
11
Figure
6:
The
plasma
distribution
of
IV
drug
as
a
function
of
time
..................................
12
Figure
7:
Alveolar
partial
pressure
of
an
inhaling
drug
.........................................................
13
Figure
8:
A
G-protein
coupled
receptor
........................................................................................
15
Figure
9:
A
ligand-gated
coupled
receptor
..................................................................................
16
Figure
10:
Enzyme-coupled
receptor
............................................................................................
16
Figure
11:
A
cytoplasm
receptor
......................................................................................................
17
Figure
12:
A
BIS
Index
measuring
node
........................................................................................
18
Figure
13:
An
inhaling
anesthetic
machine
.................................................................................
19
Figure
14:
A
single
heartbeat
............................................................................................................
20
Figure
15:
A
TCI
IV
drug
injector
.....................................................................................................
21
Figure
16:
An
inhalable
administration
tube
..............................................................................
22
Figure
17:
L1
adaptive
control
structure
......................................................................................
25
Figure
18:
Acceptable
control
scenario
........................................................................................
25
Figure
19:
Unacceptable
scenario
...................................................................................................
26
List
of
Abbreviation
BCCH
BIS
BPM
CPU
DOH
ECG
EEG
HRM
IV
MIMO
MIAC
MRAC
SISO
TCI
Pa
PA
Pbr
PD
PID
PK
BC Childrens Hospital Bispectral Beats per Minute Central Processing Unit Depth of Hypnosis Electrocardiography Electroencephalography Heart Rate Monitor Intravenous Multi-Input Multi-Output Model Identification Adaptive Control Model Reference Adaptive Control Single-Input Single-Output Target-Controlled Induction Artillery Partial Pressure Alveolar Partial Pressure Brain Partial Pressure Pharmacodynamics Proportional Integral Differential Pharmacokinetics
1. Introduction
Anesthetic
machine
is
used
to
aid
anesthesiologist
to
put
a
patient
into
a
state
of
anesthetic
hypnotic
and
sedative.
The
main
component
of
the
machine
is
the
Central
Processing
Unit
(CPU)
that
performs
the
calculation
of
how
much
drug
is
required
to
achieve
the
state.
The
two
areas
that
require
profound
knowledge
are
the
PK/PD
model
describing
the
patient,
and
the
control
algorithm
used.
There
is
a
large
variability
amongst
patients
and
that
is
an
important
issue
regarding
the
robustness
of
the
controller.
This
report
will
describe
the
PK/PD
model
in
depth.
It
will
describe
the
theory
of
control
structure.
It
will
conclude
by
using
these
subjects
to
describe
the
methods
used
to
control
depth
of
anesthetic.
1. PK/PD
Model
Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamics
modeling
is
a
technique
that
combines
the
two
classical
pharmacological
studies
into
one.
It
integrates
the
two
models
into
one
mathematical
model
that
can
successfully
be
used
to
predict
the
time
course
of
concentration
of
an
administrated
drug
and
the
pharmacological
effects
(Stoelting
&
Hillier,
2006).
Pharmacokinetics
(PK)
is
concerned
with
what
the
body
does
to
an
administrated
drug.
It
is
the
quantitative
study
of
the
absorption,
distribution,
metabolism
and
excretion
of
the
injected/inhaled
drug.
PK
will
determine
the
concentration
of
drug
at
anytime
and
its
effect.
Pharmacodynamics
(PD)
is
concerned
with
what
the
drug
does
to
the
body.
It
is
the
study
of
the
intrinsic
sensitivity
or
responsiveness
of
receptors
to
a
drug
and
the
mechanisms
by
which
these
effects
occur.
The
structure-sensitive
of
the
drug
is
explored
in
this
model.
The
responsiveness
of
the
receptors
to
the
drug
is
determined
by
measuring
the
plasma
concentration
required
to
evoke
a
pharmacological
effect.
The
combined
PK/PD
Model
can
be
used
to
determine
the
full
life
cycle
of
the
drug
and
the
patient.
The
model
is
simplified
by
considering
the
body
to
be
composed
of
different
compartments.
Known
as
Compartment
Model
(Stoelting
&
Hillier,
2006),
each
compartment
represents
a
theoretical
space
that
compromises
of
different
organs
and
functionalities.
The
more
complicated
the
model,
the
more
compartments
there
are.
Figure
1:
PK/PD
compartment
model.
There are many methods used for determining PK/PD models; however, all are empirical. Each compartment is separated, and the effect of age, sex, height, weight, and etc. are tested on a large sample (Prinzlin, Campbell, & Sutcliffe). This will allow an empirical formula to be postulated; the variability is also modeled. Some model methods include: Schuttler, Schnider, Short, Marsh, Peadfusor, Kataria (Knibbe, Della Pasqua, & Danhof). Schuttler is usually used as a default one.
2. Control
System
A
control
system
is
a
device/algorithm
that
is
used
to
manage,
regulate
and
maintain
another
system.
The
CPU
controls
the
administrated
drug
to
control
the
anesthetic
state.
The
controlled
system
is
the
patient.
Control
systems
are
broken
down
to
either
non-adaptive,
or
adaptive.
The
non- adaptive
system
can
be
open-loop
or
close-loop.
Current
anesthetic
machines
are
open-loop.
The
ECEM
team
at
UBC
has
designed
a
closed-loop
control
machine,
and
is
working
on
the
prototype
of
the
adaptive
version.
There
are
three
important
control
engineering
performance
matrices.
Settling
time
denotes
the
time
it
takes
for
the
output
to
settle
within
5%
of
the
set-point.
Rise
time
denotes
the
time
it
takes
the
output
to
initially
reach
to
10%
of
the
set-point.
Overshoot
is
the
maximum
deviation
from
the
set-point
after
the
rise
time
(Astrom
&
Murray,
Feedback
Systems
An
Introduction
for
Scientists
and
Engineers,
2008).
Figure
below
shows
these
matrices
graphically.
Figure
2:
Settling
time,
rise
time
and
overshoot
Figure
3:
Open-loop
control
system
Controller
works
by
inverting
the
system.
Defining
the
system
as
M,
the
controller
is
then
of
the
form
Mc-1.
Defining
the
desired
state
as
r,
the
output
as
y,
result
in:
y(t) = r(t) C M = r(t) M c1 M = r(t)
If Mc-1 and M dont match up, the output would not directly follow r(t). This control loop cannot cancel out added noise. Most importantly, inverting a system is a risky task; the zeros of M will become the poles and the system will have singularities. This will cause instability and large unrealistic controller actuator (while Mc-1 and M cancel out, the control output or the drug flow, is r(t)* Mc-1 and this could take very large values).
Figure
4:
A
closed-loop
control
structure
Adaptive control is broken down to either Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC), or Model Identification Adaptive Control (MIAC) (Astrom & Witternmark, 1994). In MRAC, a model (such as PK/PD) is defined. The controllers action is then to force the system to follow the model. In MIAC, the system is identified, and the controller is altered to match the system. Both cases run online, and are continuously updated and approach steady state. MRAC is described below.
Figure
5:
General
MRAC
control
structure
The control architecture is shown above it contains the Plant (Patient PK/PD Model), Reference Model (a fixed PK/PD model that has ideal behavior), Adjustment Mechanics, and the Controller. This architecture is able to successfully cancel out the Plant, and cause the Plant to follow the References output this is without inverting the system. The main disadvantage of the MRAC algorithm is the trade off between robustness and the speed of adaption. Increasing the adaptation gain increases the adaptation this is required for stability reasons. However, high gain also increases the noise, which can cause instability.
11
Figure
6:
The
plasma
distribution
of
IV
drug
as
a
function
of
time
Inhalable drug enters the capillary blood artery through the alveolar. Just as any other gas, the exchange takes place due to partial pressure gradient between the two gases in the alveolar and the capillary blood. Denoting the arterial blood partial pressure as Pa, and the alveolar partial pressure as PA, the exchange of gases occurs until Pa PA . The blood acts as a reservoir of drug. This drug is distributed in the body and is absorbed in tissues. The tissue and the blood will exchange drug to equilibrate the partial pressures. In the case of hypnotic,
12
denoting Pbr as the partial pressure of drug in the brain, this means PA Pbr . A simple equality describes these partial pressures:
Pa PA Pbr
This
equality
allows
a
convenient
method
of
measuring
the
anesthetic
drug;
knowing
one
of
the
partial
pressures
will
identify
the
other
partial
pressures.
Measuring
PA
is
the
simplest
and
is
used
as
an
index
for
depth
of
anesthesia.
It
is
important
to
keep
in
mind
that
the
drug
is
distributed
due
to
partial
pressure
and
not
absolute
volume
of
drug.
Figure
7:
Alveolar
partial
pressure
of
an
inhaling
drug
Solubility, degree of hydrophilic or lipophilic, concentration/partial pressure gradient, cardiac output and other factors contribute to the speed and strength of anesthetic. The lower its solubility in blood, the faster the anesthetic acts. This seems unintuitive. Solubility defines how much a drug can be dissolved in blood before equilibrium is reached. If solubility is low, then equilibrium is reached faster, and the drug enters the tissues faster. Solubility is analogous to heat capacitance.
13
The higher the heat capacitance, the longer it takes for a material to heat up, just as the higher the solubility, the longer it takes for the drug to show its pharmacological effect. Cardiac output corresponds to the volume of blood present in the alveoli artery. The higher the output, the higher the amount of drug required bringing the partial pressure of the blood to equilibrium with the alveolar pressure. In other words, high cardiac output will delay the pharmacological effect.
3.2. Receptors
The
pharmacological
effect
of
a
drug
is
contributed
to
the
drug-receptor
interaction.
This
interaction
alters
the
functionality
or
conformity
of
a
specific
cellular
component
that
results
in
number
of
steps
that
eventually
lead
to
the
pharmacological
effect.
Receptors
are
classified
based
on
their
physical
locations:
surface
receptors
are
found
on
the
cell
membrane,
while
intercellular
receptors
are
found
in
the
cytoplasm.
If
a
drug
is
hydrophilic,
then
it
can
only
interact
with
the
surface
receptors.
These
receptors
will
carry
the
neurotransmitter
signal
into
the
cell.
If
the
cell
is
lipophilic,
then
the
drug
may
cross
the
cell
membrane,
and
interact
with
the
receptors
inside
the
cytoplasm.
This
complex
acts
as
ligand-regulated
transcription
factor
to
modulate
gene
expression
by
binding
to
the
regulatory
DNA
sequence.
The
activity
of
a
drug
is
categorized
by
its
ability
to
activate
receptors.
A
full
agonist
will
fully
activate
the
receptor.
A
partial
agonist
can
only
activate
some
of
the
receptors
it
attaches
to.
An
antagonist
cannot
activate
the
receptor
and
will
prevent
other
agonists
from
activating
the
receptor.
14
Figure
8:
A
G-protein
coupled
receptor
contains residues that form the binding site. When a ligand activates the receptor, the channel opens and allows the flow of ions into the cell.
Figure
9:
A
ligand-gated
coupled
receptor
3.3.3. Enzyme-linked
The
enzyme-linked
receptors
behave
similar
to
the
ligand-gated
receptors.
Once
activated,
they
release
an
enzyme
inside
the
cell.
Figure
10:
Enzyme-coupled
receptor
16
exogenous neurotransmitter. As these ligands interact inside the cell, they bind with the DNA sequence and regulate the gene of the cell, and can have genetic effects.
Figure
11:
A
cytoplasm
receptor
17
Figure
12:
A
BIS
Index
measuring
node
5. Anesthetic
Machine
Any
anesthetic
machine
can
be
broken
down
to
the
same
components:
Heart
and
Respiratory
monitors,
measuring
node,
CPU,
and
a
drug
delivery
instrument.
The
difference
between
machines
is
either
algorithm
used
to
control
the
DOH
or
the
measuring
index.
18
Figure
13:
An
inhaling
anesthetic
machine
19
Figure
14:
A
single
heartbeat
The HRM then needs to properly measure these intervals and these peaks to calculate the beats per minute (BPM).
20
5.4. CPU
The
CPU
runs
the
algorithm
that
determines
the
rate
of
flow,
and
the
amount
of
injection
required.
A
control
algorithm,
either
closed-loop
or
open-loop
is
used
for
this
purpose.
Figure
15:
A
TCI
IV
drug
injector
21
Figure
16:
An
inhalable
administration
tube
22
6. Target-Controlled
Induction
Target-Controlled
Induction
(TCI)
is
the
latest
anesthetic
machine.
It
uses
an
open- loop
approach
and
relies
heavily
on
the
correctness
of
PK/PD
model.
Since
the
algorithm
is
open-loop,
it
is
not
possible
to
reach
zero
steady
state
error,
and
any
slight
mismatch
between
the
patient
and
the
PK/PD
model
will
result
in
further
errors.
The
system
is
usually
modified
with
a
small
feed-forward
gain
(less
than
1),
ensuring
that
the
algorithm
always
underperforms;
the
anesthesiologist
can
manually
inject
a
bolus
if
required.
23
24
Figure
17:
L1
adaptive
control
structure
Below are two examples (input propofol, and output WAV index) controlling the output based on some PK/PD models modeled by Dr. Bernhard MacLeod at UBC Pharmacology Department. The system is able to control one of the examples, but fails to reach the target for the other. Both examples are stable. No noise placed on the system.
Figure
18:
Acceptable
control
scenario
25
Figure
19:
Unacceptable
scenario
8. Conclusion
The
future
of
anesthetic
machines
lies
in
closed-loop
control
and
adaptive
theory.
Due
to
the
large
variability
in
patients,
the
adaptive
theory
is
the
only
option
for
a
full
robustness
control
structure.
While
L1
Adaptive
Control
may
fail
to
hold
up
to
its
promises
of
robustness
and
fast
adaptation,
adaptive
control
has
come
a
long
way
since
its
formulation
in
the
1960s
and
will
definitely
provide
the
degree
of
robustness
required
in
this
field.
27
Bibliography
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K.
J.,
&
Murray,
R.
M.
(2008).
Feedback
Systems
An
Introduction
for
Scientists
and
Engineers.
New
York:
Princeton
University
Press.
Astrom,
K.
J.,
&
Witternmark,
B.
(1994).
Adaptive
Control.
Upper
Saddle
River:
Prentice
Hall.
Hovakimyan,
N.,
&
Cao,
C.
(2010).
L1
Adaptive
Control
Theory
Gauranteed
Robustness
with
Fast
Adaptation.
Philadelphia:
SIAM.
Ioannou,
P.
A.,
Jafari,
S.,
Rudd,
L.,
Annaswamy,
A.
M.,
Ortega,
R.,
&
Narendra,
K.
S.
L1
Adaptive
Control:
Stability
and
Robustness
Properties
and
Misperceptions.
Ioannou,
P.,
&
Fidan,
B.
(2006).
Adaptive
Control
Tutorial.
Philadelphia:
Siams.
Keesman,
K.
J.
(2011).
System
Identification
An
Introduction.
New
York:
Springer.
Knibbe,
C.,
Della
Pasqua,
O.,
&
Danhof,
M.
Introduction
to
population
PKPD
modelling
in
paediatric
clinical
pharmocology.
Leiden/Amsterdam.
Prinzlin,
J.,
Campbell,
A.,
&
Sutcliffe,
N.
A
Comparison
of
Four
Pharmacokinetic/
Pharmacodynamic
Models
of
Propofol
TCI
in
an
Older
Population.
Department
of
Anaesthesia,
Golden
Jubilee
National
Hospital,
Clydebank.
Stoelting,
R.
K.,
&
Hillier,
C.
S.
(2006).
Pharmacology
&
Physiology
in
Anesthetic
Practice.
Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania,
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Lippincott
Williams
&
Wilkins.
28