Airport

I INTRODUCTION Airport, transportation center used for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Airports provide transportation not only for people but also for freight, such as mail, perishable foods, and other important items. An airport is composed of several areas and structures that are designed to serve the needs of both aircraft and passengers. Runways are the long, narrow areas where airplanes take off and land. Taxiways are paths that aircraft follow from the runways to the terminal building, where passengers board and exit aircraft at areas called gates located within the terminal. The terminal also contains ticket and baggage counters. The control tower is located near the terminal. From this tower, people involved in air traffic control coordinate aircraft movement both in the air and on the ground. Maintenance and refueling facilities for aircraft are located near the runways or in nearby hangars. For security purposes, access to major airports is usually limited to special roads. Many airports have large automobile parking areas or multistory ramps to accommodate travelers. Airports are among the busiest transportation centers. The business they create is vital to the world economy and individual national economies. In the United States, over 500 airports provide airline passenger service to about 600 million people annually. These airports also handle about 15 million metric tons of air cargo each year. Canadas 26 airports in its National Airport System provide service to about 60 million passengers annually. The total annual economic impact of U.S. airports is estimated at over $500 billion. This value includes the price of airfares purchased by passengers, the salaries of airline and airport employees, taxes, and indirect earnings from related businesses and industries. Airports are so important economically that many companies will not locate factories or offices in cities that do not have an adequate airport. The busiest passenger airports in the world are Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport in Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago-OHare International Airport in Chicago, Illinois; Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles, California; Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, near Dallas, Texas; and Heathrow Airport in London, England. II TYPES OF AIRPORTS

Airports differ in size and layout depending on their function and the types of aircraft that use them. There are three major types of airports: military airports, general aviation airports, and commercial airports. Military airports have one or two paved runways, generally 3,000 to 4,600 m (10,000 to 15,000 ft) long. These airports are used only by military aircraft.

General aviation airports, which cater to small civilian aircraft, are smaller than commercial airports. They are often found in rural areas or in small towns. General aviation airports have one or two runways from 900 to 1,500 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft) long. Some runways at general aviation airports are paved, but many are simply grasscovered paths. Facilities vary widely at general aviation airports, depending on the size of the airport. Commercial airports are used by airlines. These airports may be small or large. Small commercial airports have one or two runways from 1,800 to 2,400 m (6,000 to 8,000 ft) long and can accommodate larger aircraft than general aviation airports can. Large commercial airports serve the worlds major cities. They usually have pairs of parallel runways from 3,000 to 3,700 m (10,000 to 12,000 ft) in length. Airports approved as destinations for flights from other countries are known as international airports. III AIRPORT OPERATIONS

Commercial airports are designed to transfer passengers and freight to and from aircraft. In order to accomplish this transfer as efficiently and as safely as possible, airport operations are grouped into four general areas: aircraft services, passenger and freight services, support services, and airport security. Aircraft services focus on the flight, maintenance, and refueling of aircraft at the airport, as well as on air traffic control around the airport. Passenger services are centered in the terminal building, where passengers purchase tickets, load and retrieve baggage, and enter and exit aircraft. Terminals are designed in a variety of ways depending on the needs and size of a given airport. Airports also provide many support services indirectly related to air travel, such as restaurants, shops, parking, and aircraft emergency services. Finally, airport security involves ensuring the safety of passengers and aircraft by screening passengers and their luggage for weapons or explosives. A Aircraft Services

The primary requirement of aircraft at an airport is an adequate runway. The runway of an airport allows aircraft to land at and take off from the airport. Airport runways are arranged to permit the maximum number of safe takeoffs and landings in all weather conditions. Runway designs at airports differ according to the type of aircraft the runway serves, the prevailing wind direction and speed, and the availability of land. Environmental factors such as nearby wildlife or obstructions to navigation such as mountains must also be considered when building runways. Many airports have more than one runway. Parallel runways at civilian airports must be separated by at least 1,300 m (4,300 ft) if simultaneous approaches are to be allowed on both runways. If runways are closer together than that, aircraft landings and takeoffs must be staggered to ensure that a safe degree of separation exists between aircraft during flight. Good design practices require each runway to have a parallel taxiway so aircraft can enter or leave the runway as directly as possible. Taxiways are short paths followed by aircraft that connect the runways to an area

called the apron, which surrounds the terminal gates. When an airplane lands, it moves from the runway to the taxiway, so that other aircraft can use the runway. Aircraft preparing to take off wait on the taxiway until the runway is clear. To aid in night landings and increase visibility in foul weather, runways are lit with white edge lights and taxiways are lined with blue edge lights. The control tower is a structure located at or near the terminal. It manages all air traffic at the airport. The tower is centrally located and elevated so that an unobstructed view of the airport can be maintained from the tower at all times. Controllers inside the tower issue taxiing instructions to guide aircraft both to and from the runways and ensure that aircraft do not land or take off until the runways are clear. At larger airports, smaller additional towers are staffed by airline employees who control the ground operations of the airlines they work for. The airline tower staff manages the flow of ground vehicles and aircraft in the immediate vicinity of the terminal building. It also coordinates baggage, fuel, and food service. Other airline employees provide pilots with final flight information, such as the passenger list and the latest weather information. Ground crews working on the apron area near the gates help maintain aircraft in between flights. They load baggage, restock food and other supplies, perform routine maintenance, and refuel aircraft. Fuel is normally stored in large tanks above ground and transported to aircraft either by underground pumping facilities or by refueling trucks. Repair facilities range from small facilities housed in a single hangar to large complexes that employ thousands of trained maintenance technicians. In cold climates, ground crews also work to keep runways and aircraft free of snow and ice. B Passenger Services

The airport terminal building provides all major passenger services, such as ticket sales, passenger check-in, baggage handling, and security. Inside the terminal, airline employees make flight reservations for travelers, issue seat assignments, and coordinate aircraft boarding. Baggage systems in the terminal distribute the luggage from each arriving flight and place the bags on large rotating carousels, where passengers reclaim their belongings. International airports also maintain customs and immigration areas for foreign travelers. All major terminals provide the same services, but a terminal can be organized in several different ways. The four different types of terminals are gate arrival, pier, satellite, and transporter. Each type connects passengers with aircraft in different ways. Gate arrival terminals are rectangular buildings that have aircraft parking on one side and have motor-vehicle parking as well, often on the opposite side of the terminal. Simple gate arrival terminals are the most common type of terminal found at small

airports. Aircraft simply park alongside the terminal, and passengers walk across the apron to board the aircraft. Large commercial airports use gate arrival terminals also. At most commercial airport gate terminals, such as at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, aircraft pull up directly to the terminal at predetermined areas called gates. Flexible covered pathways called airbridges connect the gate to the aircraft and allow passengers to board and exit the aircraft. Pier terminals have piers that extend outward like arms from a central building and provide boarding gates on both sides of each pier for its entire length. Each pier is known as a concourse. Pier terminals provide efficient use of space, since common facilities can be located in the central building instead of at each gate. If a given airline has use of nearby gates, or an entire pier, then passengers transferring to other flights may not have far to walk. Pier terminals are in use at Los Angeles International Airport, Heathrow Airport in London, and Toronto International Airport in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Satellite terminals also provide common facilities at a centralized building. However, passengers need not walk the length of a pier. Instead, transportation to gate areas is provided by buses or by automated rail systems such as people movers (see Public Transportation). Satellite terminals are often circular in layout and provide aircraft parking around their entire perimeter. They have many of the same characteristics of pier terminals. Satellite terminals are in use at Houston Intercontinental Airport in Houston, Texas, and Orlando International Airport in Orlando, Florida. Transporter terminals use a common building for the processing of passengers, who then board specialized vehicles known as mobile lounges that ferry passengers directly from the gate to the aircraft and back. Dulles International Airport in Washington, D.C., pioneered this concept. Transporter terminals work well for passengers on direct flights but are inconvenient for passengers who are transferring to other flights, since they cannot simply walk to their connecting aircrafts gate. Nevertheless, the flexibility of transporter terminal systems has made them popular at airports that have experienced rapid growth. The operators of such airports often find it easier to drive passengers to parked aircraft than to build an expensive new terminal. Since most airports were built decades ago, the majority of terminals have been modified and expanded as the airports have grown. Many airports use a combination of terminal designs. One of the best examples is John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City. C Freight Services

Commercial airports also transport freight in addition to serving passengers. The majority of airfreight is flown in the belly cargo compartments of aircraft used for regularly scheduled passenger flights. Freight generally consists of products from many individual shippers and is commonly transported to and from the airport by truck. Upon arrival at the airport, movers load the freight onto pallets or into

specialized freight containers bound for a common destination and then load the containers or pallets onto waiting aircraft. A significant amount of airfreight consists of express-delivery package shipments that are carried by integrated carriers. Integrated carriers are companies such as Federal Express, United Parcel Service, and DHL, all of which specialize exclusively in the air transportation of small packages and the related ground collection and distribution. Such carriers fly high-value or time-sensitive parcels on airplanes that carry only such parcels. See also Air Transport Industry: Air Cargo. D Support Services

Most terminals at commercial airports contain restaurants, lounges, car rental agencies, banking services, newsstands, and other retail establishments. Larger terminals may also include observation stations, currency exchanges, a post office, and chapels. Some airports feature office areas, where traveling businesspeople can send and receive electronic mail and fax messages and also make telephone calls. Commercial airports also provide plenty of short-term and long-term automobile parking. Airports can be reached by taxi and public transportation, but many travelers, particularly in the United States, get to and from an airport by driving an automobile. For these travelers, secure and convenient parking is a necessity. Airport parking is usually located in large parking ramps or nearby parking lots. Monorails, shuttle buses, or long, moving sidewalks are used to ferry passengers from the parking lots to the terminal buildings. Airports also maintain fire departments that are specially trained and equipped to fight aircraft fires. The local fire department usually provides fire protection for the rest of the airport. Airport fire trucks are equipped with water and a substance called aqueous film forming foam (AFFF). AFFF is used to combat aircraft fuel fires. The foam covers burning fuel more effectively than water alone and acts like a blanket to extinguish the fire. Airports must also be equipped for the removal of ice and snow from aircraft, runways, taxiways, and other access roads. IV AIRPORT SECURITY

Ensuring the safety of passengers and aircraft is a major concern at airports. Security personnel operate metal detectors and X-ray machines that screen baggage for possible weapons or illegal substances. Security personnel also require that each passenger show photo identification before entering an aircraft. Many areas of an airport, especially those areas that contain critical equipment, are protected by security personnel and are off-limits to the public. In the wake of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States, airport security became the responsibility of the federal government. The United States Congress enacted the Aviation and Transportation Security Act in response to the

attacks, which had exposed a number of weaknesses in airport and airline security. The new law expanded the number of baggage screeners, imposed standards for their training, and made them federal employees for an interim period of time. Beginning in January 2002, it required that all passenger luggage, including checked luggage, be screened. By the end of 2002, all checked luggage was to be put through special explosives-detecting devices. The law increased the number of armed federal air marshals flying on domestic flights and required international airlines to turn over advance copies of their passenger lists to U.S. Customs officials for background checks to screen out suspected terrorists. V AIRPORT CONSTRUCTION AND ADMINISTRATION

Selecting a new airport site is a complex, time-consuming, and expensive proposition. Local governments usually make the decision to construct or expand public airports. The money to fund construction for these airports comes from taxes or from the sale of bonds. Airport sites are selected based on airport traffic volume, the nearby population, availability of ground access, and existing air traffic flows. Once a proposed site has been selected, a detailed site plan is prepared. Aircraft noise plans, environmental impact studies, and building designs must be approved by the FAA before funding can be obtained. Only when these tasks have been completed can actual construction of an airport begin. Airports are owned and operated by many different agencies. Most small airports are privately owned. Large commercial airports are usually owned by city governments, regional port or airport authorities, or state or federal agencies. Most airports are operated by the agencies that own them, but some are operated by private organizations that have a contract to operate them or that lease them from their owners. Some private companies have purchased entire airports from their owners and operate them for profit. Airports receive revenue from a number of sources. Airports charge landing fees to the airlines for each airplane that lands and takes off from the airport. Airlines, food service companies, and retail establishments rent portions of the terminal. An airport also makes money from fees charged at parking lots. Airports can also charge a fee on each ticket sold to pay for improvements. Expenses involved in operating an airport include terminal and runway maintenance; utilities such as water, electricity, and heat; airport administration and salaries; and fire and security services. VI HISTORY

Airports have grown from simple grass-covered fields into some of the busiest transportation centers in the world, moving millions of passengers worldwide. As airline traffic increases, new airports are built to accommodate more passengers. A Airport Development

Early airplanes were light and had low operating speeds, so they could operate from any relatively level cleared field. Takeoff and landing fields in the 1910s and 1920s were generally built in any location that was convenient to the population being served. These airfields had no designated runways, because the airplanes did not require specially prepared or paved surfaces. Pilots simply positioned their aircraft into the wind and, after a short ground run of 300 to 900 m (1,000 to 3,000 ft), took off into the air. Because airfields were relatively easy to create in the early days of aviation, many cities had more than one. Terminal buildings, if they existed at all, were often multipurpose buildings housing the offices of a few airlines, weather observers, and air traffic controllers, as well as ticket counters, snack bars, and passenger-waiting and baggage-pickup areas. Multiengine airplanes, introduced in the 1930s, were heavier and needed longer paved runways to take off and land. As a new round of airport construction began, airport builders favored sites away from central downtown districts, such as outlying farm areas or unpopulated marshlands. These marginal sites were inexpensive, provided enough space for expansion, and were also clear of obstructions such as tall buildings. In most cities, government officials chose to designate only one airport in their region as a major airport. The other fields were closed, and their sites were subsequently used for shopping centers, industrial parks, and residential developments. These second-generation commercial airports of the 1930s were designed to serve airplanes that usually carried up to 75 passengers. Because airplane capacity was still relatively small, all terminal functions were handled on a single floor. Terminal buildings were usually of the gate terminal design, with airplanes on one side of the building and automobile parking on the other. With the introduction of jet airplanes into commercial service in 1959, facilities at many existing airports became outdated or obsolete. To correct this, another round of construction and expansion began. To allow long-range operations by the heavier and faster jet aircraft, runways now needed to be extended in length to about 3,000 m (about 10,000 ft). Terminals designed for the passenger volumes of earlier, smaller aircraft were no longer adequate for the new jet airplanes, which could seat more than 150 passengers on each flight. New concepts in terminal design that were implemented in the 1960s featured much larger architecture than that of earlier terminals. Many new terminals were built by specific airlines to serve their own customers. In the years following the deregulation of the U.S. domestic air-transport industry in 1978, airlines began converting their operations to hub-and-spoke systems. In this system, an airlines passengers are collected by flights from many spoke cities and are flown to a hub airport, which is normally located at a centralized point in the airlines route system. Passengers arrive at the hub in a wave of flights arriving at

approximately the same time. During the time the airplanes are on the ground at the hub (about 1.5 hours), passengers transfer to other airplanes that are going to their ultimate destination. Then all flights in the wave depart to the spoke cities and the whole process begins again. This pattern is repeated throughout the day to provide service at convenient frequencies. Prior to the establishment of hubs in the United States, long, nonstop domestic flights of 4,000 to 5,000 km (2,500 to 3,000 mi) were traditionally flown in large wide-body jets holding from 250 to 400 seats. These large jets flew usually once or twice per day for each airline in the market. With the advent of the hub-and-spoke system, nonstop flights have been largely replaced by shorter flights and smaller jets that fly as many as 12 connecting flights per day. B Modern Airports

Denver International Airport is the newest major commercial airport in the United States. Located outside Denver, Colorado, it opened in 1995. The airport covers an area of 137 sq km (53 sq mi). It has five runways, each 3,700 m (12,000 ft) long. The runways are at least 1,300 m (4,300 ft) apart, permitting two or three streams of aircraft to land simultaneously. The control tower is 33 stories tall. The terminal and concourses are in the center of the airfield, cover 140,000 sq m (1,500,000 sq ft), and include 94 airline gates. The Kansai International Airport in saka, Japan, was built on an artificial island located in saka Bay. The island is connected to the mainland by a bridge and is served by several ferries. The airport opened for business in 1994. Its location away from populated areas eliminated noise-pollution problems, allowing Kansai to become the first Japanese airport that is open 24 hours a day. The airport serves over 25 million passengers per year. The single runway is 3,500 m (11,000 ft) long, and a second parallel runway is planned for the future. The Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok International Airport opened in 1998. It has a single runway 3,800 m (12,400 ft) long, as well as facilities able to meet the demands of 35 million passengers and 3 million tons of air cargo shipped annually. A second runway is under construction. The airport was built on an island that was excavated 27 m (90 ft) down to reach solid bedrock and then refilled with topsoil. The terminal, which is over 1 km (0.6 mi) long, includes 75 gates. The total cost of the airport was $20 billion.