Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
SherifD.ElWakil
Manufacturing
Second Edition
SherifD. ElWakil
University of Massachusetts
Dartmouth
WAVELAND
PRESS, INC.
Prospect Heights,
Illinois
To the
memory ofMamdouh
Inc.
www.waveland.com
Copyright
be reproduced, stored
in writing from
in
in
the publisher.
America
Chapter 1
Overview
1.1
1
1
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Manufacturing
1.2 1.3
Overview of
1.4
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Types of Production
10 14
1.10
Review Questions
16
Chapter 2
Concurrent Engineering
17
19
INTRODUCTION
2.1
20
2
The Four
Pillars of
Concurrent Engineering
22
Forces of Change
24
2.6
A Success
Story:
Nippondenso
32
30
Review Questions
iii
iv
Contents
Chapter 3
33
34
NTRODUCTION
Classifications of Casting
3.1
by Mold Material
3.2
3.3
Classifications of Casting by
Method of
Filling the
Mold
52
58
Foundry Furnaces
63
68 72
75
Review Questions
Design Example
76
78
81
Design Projects
Chapter 4
Joining of Metals
I
84
NTRODUCTION
Riveting
4.1
84
84 120
121
4.2
4.3
Welding
4.4
4.5
123
4.6
128
Review Questions
Problems
133
130
Design Example
Design Projects
133
137
Chapter 5
Metal Forming
I
139
140
NTRODUCTION
Plastic
5.1
Deformation
145
Rolling
Metal Drawing
Extrusion
155
158 176
Forging
201
Review Questions
Problems
204
207
207
209
Contents
Chapter 6
211
212 238
6.2
6.3
241
Review Questions
Problems
242
244 245
246
Chapter 7
Powder Metallurgy
INTRODUCTION
7.1
248
Metal Powders
249
254
258 258
263
7.6 7.7
7.8 7.9
264
Parts
Powder Metallurgy
266
268
270
7.10
270
Review Questions
Problems
274
275
Design Project
277
Chapter 8
Plastics
I
278
279 282
NTRODUCTION
Classification of Polymers
8.1
8.2 8.3
Polymeric Systems
Processing of Plastics
283
291
8.4
8.5
303
References
328
Review Questions
Design Projects
328 330
vi
Contents
Chapter 9
331
INTRODUCTION
9.1
Cutting Angles
332
Chip Formation
Cutting Forces
334
339
343
348
353
Machinability
Cutting Fluids
Chatter
354
Phenomenon
356 356
9.9
358
359
Design Project
360
Chapter 10
Machining
10.1
of
Metals
362
361
INTRODUCTION
Turning Operations
10.2
10.3
379
382
10.4 10.5
10.6
Milling Operations
392
Grinding Operations
400
405
Sawing Operations
10.7
10.8
Broaching Operations
407 408
Review Questions
Problems
411
413
Chapter 11
415
416
INTRODUCTION
11.1
11.2
418
421
11.3
11.4
11.5
423
425 425
11.6
11.7
Overhead Costs
Design
to
Cost
427
Contents
vii
Review Questions
Problems
427
428 430
Design Project
Chapter 12
Design
12.1
for
Assembly
431
432
INTRODUCTION
Types and Characteristics of Assembly Methods
Selection of
Assembly Method
435
436
438
445
12.6
Methods
for Evaluating
DFA
446
Review Questions
Design Project
459
459
Chapter 13
462
13.2 13.3
Solid-Waste Management
464
469
13.4
13.5
472
473
Review Questions
475
Chapter 14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
INTRODUCTION
14.1
476
476
14.2
14.3
494
(DNC)
498
14.4
14.5
499
514
Review Questions
Problems
516
518
520
Chapter 14 Appendix
viii
Contents
Chapter 15
Industrial
Robots
523
524
525
INTRODUCTION
15.1
15.2
Methods
for Classifying
Robots
15.3
15.4
Components of
Robot
536
End
Effectors
537
15.5 15.6
Sensors
540
Robots
541
Industrial Applications of
Review Questions
545
Chapter 16
547
548
556 562
(MRP)
(FMS)
565
The
566
16.6
568
Review Questions
575
Appendix
Materials Engineering
I
577
NTRODUCTION
Types of Materials
A.l
577 580
A.2
A.3
Properties of Materials
580
A.4
A.5
Phase Diagrams
Ferrous Alloys
590
595 603
A.6 A.7
Aluminum Alloys
Copper Alloys
604
References
Index
605
610
At
nity
first
for manufacturing
was
commulike).
was
little
training
manual
skills
manner
its
in
and engineers
in
strategic importance.
Many government
pro-
present text serves to provide engineering students with the knowledge and skills re-
become good product designers. The design component in this book has been strengthened by adding four new
chapters:
2,
1 1
Concurrent Engineering
,
12, 13,
ucts
can
be
designed
taking
factors
like
the
lot
size
into
which were previously assigned at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, have been given at the end of several chapters. Students are encouraged to use computational tools like spreadsheets and
consideration. In addition,
some design
projects,
The
tals
fundamenis
of materials engineering.
processes, as well as for selecting materials during the product design process.
IX
Preface
aimed
rials
at
engineering students
who have
for a course
science textbook.
who
producing
this
book, chief
among them
Silverscreen.
Thanks
Mary
Community College
Fort Wayne
Wen
F.
Rolla
Masud
Salimian,
Morgan
Jr.,
State University
Richard D. Sisson.
Joel
W.
Troxler,
Montana
Ana Gonzalez
work
in
typing the
manuscript. The author wishes to thank Andrea Goldman and Jean Peck for their
must express
his
profound gratitude to
his wife and children for their patience as the huge task of completing this second edi-
God knows
SherifD. El Wakil
Chapter
vervlew
INTRODUCTION
Before learning about various manufacturing processes and the concept of design for manufacturing, that are
we
first
must become
familiar with
some
technical terms
industrial
for
and operation of
man-
ufacturing plants.
We
also
of
each of
these terms, as well as their significance to manufacturing engineers. The explanation of the word manufacturing and
its
impact on the
life-style of
the peo-
come
chapter
will
cover
all
Finally,
the concept
and why
it
is
needed
will
be explained.
/^~*\
by employing the
easiest, fastest,
and most
efficient
methods. If less efficient techniques are used, the production cost of the manufactured
produced by
in
order to
is,
therefore, to determine
equipment, tools, and processes required to convert the design of the desired product into reality in an efficient manner. In other words, it is the engineer's task to find out
the
Overview
needed
to
gineer must have a strong background in materials and up-to-date machinery, as well
as the ability to develop analytical solutions
lems experienced
the theoretical
in
manufacturing.
An
..2
AND STANDARD OF
able to
its
LIVING
living in
The standard of
usually
any nation
is
and services
avail-
owns an automobile, a refrigerator, an electric stove, a dishwasher, a washvacuum cleaner, a stereo, and, of course, a television set. Such a family also enjoys health care that involves modern equipment and facilities. All
ing machine, a
these goods, appliances, and equipment are actually
raw materials
in
that
have been
ser-
manufacturing
are, the
more
plentiful those
goods and
vices become; as a consequence, the standard of living of the people in that nation
On
is,
therefore, the
know-how and
capability
of converting raw materials into useful products, not just the availability of minerals or resources within its territorial land, that basically
many
import most of the raw materials that they manufacture and yet
standard of living.
maintain a high
Changing the shape of the raw stock without adding material to it or taking material away from it. Such change in shape is achieved through plastic deformation, and
the manufacturing processes that are based
on
this
extrusion, forging, and drawing, as well as sheet metal forming operations like
bending, deep drawing, and embossing. Bulk forming operations are covered in
Chapter
2.
5,
is
covered
in
Chapter
6.
Obtaining the required shape by adding metal or joining two metallic parts
gether, as in welding, brazing, or metal deposition.
in
to-
Chapter
4.
3.
Molding molten or
same shape
as the
final desired product, as in casting and powder metallurgy. These processes are cov-
7, respectively.
Removing
portions from the stock material to obtain the final desired shape.
A cut-
and possesses certain geometric characteristics is employed in removing the undesired material in the form of chips. Several chip-making (machining) operations belong to this group. They are exemplified
drilling operations
is
in
Chapter
10.
The physics of
covered in Chapter
YPES OF PRODUCTION
Modern
industries can be classified in different ways.
These
classifications
may be by
on production volume and the diversity of products. process is exemplified by casting industries, stamping industries, and Classification by the like. Classification by product indicates that industries may belong to the automovolume tive, aerospace, and electronics groups. Classification based on production
identifies three distinct types of production: mass,
We
text.
Mass Production
Mass production
is
volume of
the
same
(or very
An
50,000 pieces cannot usually be considered as mass production. As you may expect, the production volume is based on an established or anticipated sales volume and is not dimass-produced rectly affected by the daily or monthly orders. The typical example of
goods
is
its
modern
status in Detroit,
it is
some-
components.
Also, the personnel employed must be highly skilled in order to handle a variety of tasks that differ for the different parts that are manufactured.
Moderate Production
Moderate production is an intermediate phase between the job shop and the mass production types. The production volume ranges from 10,000 to 20,000 parts, and is the machines employed are flexible and multipurpose. This type of production
Overview
demand
for cus-
tomized products.
1.5 FUNDAMENTALS OF
MANUFACTURING ACCURACY
Modern manufacturing
machines,
units, or
is
fitting operations performed on was not the case in the early days of the Industrial Revolution, when machines or goods were individually made and assembled and there was always
with his or her file to make final adjustments before assembling The concepts of mass production and interchangeability came into being in 1798, when the American inventor Eli Whitney (born in Westboro, Massachusetts) contracted with the U.S. government to make 10,000 muskets. Whitney started by designing a new gun and the machine tools to make it. The components of each gun were manufactured separately by different workers. Each worker was assigned the task of manufacturing a large number of the same component. Meanwhile, the dimensions of those components were kept within certain limits so that they could
the
"fitter"
the components.
if
necessary and
fit
their
would
fit
terchangeable parts.
By doing
so, Eli
final step was merely to assemble the inWhitney established two very important concepts
is
based
namely,
interchangeability and
fits.
Let
now
discuss the different concepts associated with the manufacturing accuracy re-
Tolerances
A very
is that
it
is
caused by
machine
tool, as well as
piece and/or the fixture, temperature effects during processing, and sometimes the
it is
difficult to
of these factors,
it
is
more
permissible deviation from the nominal dimension that would not affect the proper functioning of the manufactured part in any detrimental way. According to the International Standardization Organization (ISO) system, the nominal dimension
to as the basic size of the part.
is
referred
The deviations from the basic size to each side (in fact, both can also be on the same side) determine the high and the low limits, respectively, and the difference between these two limits of size is called the tolerance. It is an absolute value without a sign and can also be obtained by adding the absolute values of the deviations. As you may expect, the magnitude of the tolerance is dependent upon the basic size and is des-
FIGURE 1.1
The relationship
between tolerance
and production cost
Tolerance
8 standard grades of
man-
As can be
ances necessitate very high production cost. Therefore, small tolerances should not be
specified
when designing
in that design.
Fits
Before two components are assembled together, the relationship between the dimensions of the mating surfaces must be specified. In other words, the location of the zero line (i.e.,
the line indicating the basic size) to
each of the two mating surfaces. As can be seen in Figure 1 .2a, this determines the degree of tightness or freedom for relative motion between the mating surfaces. Figure 1 .2a also
shows
fits:
is
an intermediate
always larger than the upper limit of the hole. The transition fit, as the name fit. According to the ISO, the internal enveloped part is always
FIGURE 1.2
The two systems of
fit
Basic size
shaft-basis system;
hole-basis system
(a)
(b)
~
L.
Hole tolerance zone
Overview
is
from the
is
fits
is
the hole.
for specifying
clear
two ways
is
and
The
indicated by a
letter,
which
grade
is
shafts,
is
designation
Interchangeability
When
buy a new one and rewould not be possible without the two main concepts of interchangeability and standardization. Interchangeability means that identical parts must be able to replace each other,
the service life of an electric bulb
is
over, all
you do
is
a fitter or a technician,
whether during assembly or subsequent maintenance work, without the need for any
fitting operations.
Interchangeability
is
toler-
ance,
further deviation
part
is
not allowed. Standardization, on the other hand, involves limiting the diversity and
total
number of
An example
is
is
the
standard gauge system for wires and sheets. Instead of having a very large
sheet thicknesses in steps of 0.001 inch, the
to only
number of
limited
45
(in
U.S. standards).
As you can
and
of tech-
in
DIN
(Deutsche Ingenieure Normen), standards that are finding some popularity worldwide.
the
GOST,
is
to
make
ception being projects that have to do with the national security or prestige. Let us establish a simplified
model
we can
Figure
1.3,
how to maximize the profit. As shown money from a bank to purchase machines
see
and raw materials and to pay the salaries of the engineers and other employees. Next, the raw materials are converted into products, which are the output of the manufacturing domain. Obviously, those products must be sold (through the marketing department) in
order to get cash. This cash
is,
in turn,
payment
to the bank;
the profit.
(i.e.,
We can
alize the
see in this model that the sequence of events forms a continuous cycle
is
prod-
1.7 Product
Life
Cycle
FIGURE 1.3
Overview
Through television and newspaper advertisements and word-of-mouth communication, a growing number of consumers learn about the product and its capabilities. Meanwhile, the management works on improving the performance and eliminating the shortcomings through minor design modifications. It is also the time for some custom tailoring of the
product for slightly different customer needs, in order to serve a wider variety of consumers.
As
is
in-
known
as the
growth
product
if
stage.
However,
This
is,
this trend
at
cycle.
During
usu-
ally faced
the
manage-
ment succeeds
it.
new
applications for
management
is in
of the maturity stage will be. Finally, the decline stage begins, the sales
rate,
is, at
a noticeable
some point, completely abandoned. The decrease in the sales is usually due to newer and better products that are pumped into the market by competing manufacturers to serve some customer need. It can also be caused by diminishing need for the uses and applications of such a product. A clever management would start developing and marketing a new product (B) during the maturity stage of the previous one (A) so as to keep sales continuously high, as shown in Figure 1.5.
FIGURE 1.5
The proper overlap of
products'
life
cycles
Time
opment (R
&
D) and
It
is
ent products.
and everyday applications of the results of the theoretical and experimental studies
are referred to as engineering.
transistor,
mi-
The
and the
such performance
is
shown
graphically in Fig-
ure
It is
1.6.
is
known
as the technology
its
development
cycle.
in
S curve because of
shape.
As can be seen
Figure
a lot of effort
is
at the
rate of
improvement
all
in
kinds of
how-
becomes
linear because
any further
improvement comes
levels out.
new
ones. Again, as time passes, the technology begins to be "exhausted," and performance
A "ceiling" is reached, above which the performance of the existing current technology cannot go because of social and/or technological considerations.
An
soon as
enlightened management of a manufacturing facility would allocate resources
effort to
and devote
it
an active
to mature.
The production
activities
shown in Figure
.7.
Any delay
R & D for developing new technology may result in creating a gap between
two curves (instead of continuity with the overlap shown in Figure 1.7), with the final outcome being to lose the market to competing companies that possess newer technology.
the
In fact, the United States
nies like
dominated the market of commercial airliners because compaBoeing and McDonnell Douglas knew exactly when to switch from propeller-
is contrary to what some major computer companies did when they continued to develop and produce mainframe computers and did not recognize when to make the switch to personal computers. Current
examples of technological discontinuity include the change from conventional telecommunications cables to fiber optics for communication and information transfer.
FIGURE 1.6
The technology
development cycle
(or
S curve)
Effort
10
Overview
FIGURE 1.7
Transfer from one S
curve to another
Effort
is
referred to as design.
It is,
of engineering that provides the professional engineer with the chance of creating original designs
realities.
The
is
the
ence
in the
there can be
most
design? Only
the customers
would be favored by
to create a
Although there
is
workable de-
sign, E. V. Krick has outlined the procedure involved in the design process,
and
his
Problem Formulation
As
that
illustrated
in
Figure
1.8,
problem formulation
is
the
first
comes
as a result of recognizing a
problem
in a
hand
is
worth solv-
ing. In other
words,
arising
11
FIGURE 1.8
The design process
(Adapted from
Introduction to
Krick,
An
2nd
ed.
New
York:
John
Wiley,
1969)
12
Overview
final
design
is
abandoned
It is
for
some
ginning again.
also important to
it is
remember not
to
necessary or desirable to do
Sometimes, a designer
is
or she will
searching for other good solutions. Therefore, you are strongly advised to postpone
indeed, highly
recommended
you have an appropriate number of viable solutions. to employ collaborative methods for enabling
the mind to penetrate into domains that might otherwise remain unexplored. A typical example is the technique of brainstorming, where a few or several people assemble to produce a solution for a problem by creating an atmosphere that encourages everyone to contribute with whatever comes to mind. After the problem is explained, each mem-
is,
in turn,
all
team members.
Decision Making
The
to
fourth stage involves the thorough weighing and judging of the different solutions
is,
with the aim of being able to choose the most appropriate one. That
trade-offs have
be made during
this stage.
1
as
.9,
is
in a
column, and
it
each solution
allocated a row.
Each solution
is,
how
fulfills
to 10) in
each
column. Because the design objectives do not have the same weight, each grade must be
multiplied by a factor representing the weight of the design function for which
given.
it
was
is
As you can
only a few.
important, therefore, to
now
simulation.
clas-
illustrating a
when making
decisions
to de-
under uncertainty).
is
the free-body
diagram used
its
end.
models easily
employed by designers to create and quickly. Examples include geometric modeling and finite element
that are
On
13
H
ui
2 '
I
I
to
a
u.
<
14
Overview
rameters and observing the output, which can be taken as an indication of the behavior of the real-world
see, simulation
can save a
lot
of time and effort that could be spent on experimental models and prois
when computer
simulation
is
employed.
simulation would not eliminate design iterations but rather would minimize their
are, therefore,
number. You
Documentation
In the fifth
and
last
stage of the design process, the designer organizes the material obit
in
output of this stage should include the attributes and performance characteristics of the refined design, given in sufficient detail. Accordingly, the designer
must communicate
all
(i.e.,
assem-
workshop drawings or blueprints), a written report, and possibly an iconic model. With the recent development in rapid prototyping techniques, a prototype can certainly be a good substitute for an iconic model. This approach has the advantage of
bly drawings and
manufacturing.
with an analysis of the desired function, which usually dictated the form as well
to the
FIGURE 1.10
The
old procedure for
Function
product design
Form
Material
Feedback
Manufacturing
15
many
1. In
some
were impossible
to
make;
in
other cases,
the designs
had
to
manufacturing process
to
be carried out
produc-
and/or the machine tools available would sometimes result in a need for specialpurpose, expensive machine tools. The
tion cost.
3.
final
in the
When
volume was large, parts had to be specially designed mass production (such as assembly).
4.
common
ing process
employed
the
acteristic
Because of these reasons and also because of the trend of integrating the
ties in
into considin
el-
eration the
As can be seen
Figure 1.11, design, material, and manufacturing are three interactive, interrelated
ements
barriers
that
form the manufacturing system, whose prime inputs are conceptual prodwhose outputs are manufactured products. In fact, the
and borders between the design and manufacturing departments are fading
FIGURE 1.11
The new concept of a
manufacturing system
for achieving rational
Function
Manufacturing system
product designs
Products
16
Overview
The tasks of the designer and those of the manucombined and done by the same person. It is,
emphasize concepts
like design
for manufactur-
Review Questions
1
1. 2.
~f
What
Is
is
9.
turn,
how can
between the
that nation?
status of
we maximize
different
the profits of a
company by two
manufacturing
in a nation
in
methods?
the stages involved in the life cycle of
10 Explain
why.
3.
a product.
11 What
is
some man-
duction of
new products?
S curve? Explain an American
it.
and exmain characteristics of each. Also mention some suitable applications for each
plain
12 What
is
the
suc-
the
tech-
type.
5.
What
are
the
6.
How
do we
15 What
mass produc-
is
meant by trade-offs?
How
can these be
What concepts
tion of
16
multicomponent products?
What
are
its
disadvantages?
8.
What
is
Why
is it
needed
in
modern
industries?
Chapter 2
ncurrent
gineering
INTRODUCTION
Concurrent engineering
is
new products
with the
It
has proven
to
be a key factor for the survival and, more importantly, for the
to
prosperity of
adopt
its
methodology and
good examples).
In fact,
many compain
nies can,
in
good
faith,
for
some
time
in
of corporations like
1970s
to review
and revise
their
product design practices versus those of their foreign competitors. An important milestone
in
in
is
considered to be the
Projects
report issued
improve concurrency
five years.
is
in
more than
Many
professionals
DARPA
report
are (though to a
team
de-
Concurrent engineering is a systematic approach to integrated, concurrent design of products and their related processes, including manufacture and support. This approach is intended to cause the developers,
17
18
Concurrent Engineering
from the outset, to consider all elements of the product life cycle from concept through disposal, including quality, cost, schedule, and user requirements.
A good way
to
it
means
is
to
compare
one
in
the con-
team
of qualified pro-
much
is
then fabricated
in
based on the documented design produced by the team. Note that the environ-
ment
in
is
ideal
and
is
floor
during production.
Weeks
or even
months
department receives the model and carries out acceptance tests to make sure
that the model conforms to the
criteria
established and agreed upon for the functioning and performance of the product.
of the de-
sign are
needed
in
most cases as a
result of the
new designs
may have
new product
damage
It
is,
therefore,
absence
in
of
starting early
the
initial
a larger
number
of design iterations
contrary,
in
and de-
On the
a concurrent
engineering environment,
turing,
R&D,
the design
process from
outcome
new
product. The
19
much
in
mind
cessful products,
it
Also,
it
tions
in
A good example
is
Boeing 777
During the
initial
sentatives of
lines),
customers, including
is
BOAC
(the British-government-owned
although Britain
its
customers
all
BOAC)
in
More
importantly,
some
serious modifications
lot
made
in
the
of
money and
initial
would create
and would require the use of a special fueling truck. Boeing was promptly
level of
many
tion and fast-changing consumer demands. These and other challenges call for the adoption of the concurrent engineering methodology. Following is a list of some of the
make
it
more
prolong the product development process and impact of design decisions on the functionality
final product.
many Asian
R&D
20
Concurrent Engineering
The need
need
to
The need
phenomenon
duction of
new products
to the
market
at a
something
that
can
Its life
cycle
was 20
to
to
word
example
clearly
same
time.
these depart-
ments
is
a piece of information
to another one).
The
final
outcome
that
would
market
at the
scheduled time.
at
New
where the
life
cycle of
months
(it
quence,
new
something
2.2 BENEFITS OF
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
The
benefits of adopting concurrent engineering are
is
affect the
summary of
is
meet the
product
life
cycle (see
The product introduction region (or start-up) of the Figure 1.4) will be very short. The sales volume will, there-
As
will result in
improved design
quality,
which
is
first six
months
after
new product
to the market.
These design changes are extremely expendevelopment process. The lower the
21
number of
more robust
is.
In a concur-
Reduced product development and design times will result from voice of the customer and from transferring information between
partments involved, including those downstream. This benefit
is,
conse-
in the
number of design
design. Another factor is forsaking sequential methods of product development and replacing them with concurrent ones.
optimum product
4.
Reduced production
the reduction in the
cost
is
two
benefits
namely,
and the
reduction in the time of the product development process. Reduced cost, of course,
provides a manufacturing
petitive pressures.
5.
company with
com-
Elimination of delays
for the
when releasing the product to the market will guarantee a new product. Also, it has been proven that delays in re-
As
new products
will be
pumped
into
the market
more
frequently,
which
is,
tomakers have over their American counterparts. They can produce more different
models, with smaller production volumes and shorter
7.
life
cycles.
Increased reliability and customer satisfaction will result from delivering the product "right the
first
company.
if
all
why
isn't
widely applied
is based on a manufacturing philosophy that requires breaking barriers between departments and establishing multidisciplinary teams. This philosophy clearly contradicts the authoritative culture that is currently dominant in the industrial estab-
gineering
lishment.
The
threat of loss of
power and
authority
also a
fac-
new
may be
communication
of
money and effort must be invested to create an adequate information system something that many companies either cannot afford or do not want to do. Yet another factor that holds
up the implementation of concurrent engineering is the temptation to short-run solutions to the problem of decreasing revenues,
22
Concurrent Engineering
without any regard to strategic planning and long-term goals. Examples include cutting
work company
the
would cause
uct delivery)
would
inevitably
managed.
Organization
This arena includes the managers, product development teams, and support teams
the organization itself
is vital
(i.e.,
its
change
their
work
habits to
match
in-
exchange of
as
fact,
one of
development process, as
will
be discussed
later.
Communication Infrastructure
The communication infrastructure encompasses the hardware, software, and expertise that together form a system that allows the easy transfer of information relating to product development. As you may expect, when the product complexity increases, the number of disciplines involved also increases, as does the volume of information to be transferred. The system to be established must be capable of handling the type and amount of data necessary for the product development process. It must retrieve, evaluate,
in
is
many
first
way
as important as design
and manufacturing
new
product.
The
to build a
comprehensive and
and
that
who
and evaluating the product development process. Electronic mail, interactive browsing
capabilities,
in
order to eliminate the need for shoveling piles of documents and papers between the
different departments
and teams.
Pillars of
Concurrent Engineering
23
Requirements
A broad
when
all
product
at-
customer
setting the specifications for the conceptual design. This consideration would, instart.
deed, ensure that the model or prototype meets the original goals from the
This
is
attributes
final
Of
should be defined very clearly and subjected to a continuous process of updating, evaluation,
and validation. As
is
the
time.
Continually updating these would certainly improve the product development process.
Product Development
In a concurrent engineering environment, the
maintenance, customer service, sales, and so on, must be considered in the early design
phase. This consideration, as previously mentioned,
a necessary condition for the imis
is
for manu-
(DFM) and
to
is
design for assembly (DFA) have been popular in recent days and
in
have proven
be valuable tools
The reason
that their
philosophy
design constraint, thus taking downstream processes like manufacturing and assembly
into full consideration during the early design phase of the product. In other words, the
is
Another part of the product development arena is what is sometimes referred to as component libraries. The design (and manufacturing) attributes of the different components, whether standard ones that were purchased or parts that were previously designed and manufactured, are kept in a database. The availability of such a database to team members will speed up the design process by providing them with many alternatives to choose from and, more importantly, by freeing them from reinventing the
the
slight modification in
the
team mem-
covered
later in the
book
in detail
when we
is
itself.
We
have
stages and
methodology
in
Chapter
Here,
we want
to
emphasize
in
again that good design has always been based on customer needs, which must be,
24
Concurrent Engineering
turn,
fact, it was for this reason that (QFD) was developed in Japan's Kyoto
Shipyard
in the
By
including
QFD
in the
touch with the customer, and, consequently, the designed products will meet customers' needs and expectations. Although
discussion will enlighten those engineers
QFD
is
beyond
with
members
in
charge of
QFD
in a multidisciplinary
team.
QFD
meaning of the word quality from the customer's point of view. The approach involves
constructing a matrix that
is
Chapter
The
attributes,
functions, and characteristics that the customer wants can be clearly identified and
used as input constraints or requirements for the process of designing the product as
previously mentioned.
to
To
repeat,
remember
that
is
stage.
methodology
is
number of
ORCES OF CHANGE
Implementing concurrent engineering
is
using them as resources or tools to create the concurrent engineering environment. Fol-
Technology
Technology has a very important
engineering.
the
fer
It
number of design
and
facilitates
transfull
is
between the different teams and departments. Managers should, therefore, take
advantage of the most up-to-date technology available and avoid technology that
technology
far
it
fast
pace
tips that
Keep engineers
them
site.
promptly employed
in
developing a com-
fact, this is
one of the
25
3.
Try
to
make use of
overcome
the "not-invented-here"
syndrome.
Many
industry people
make
their
It is
the mistake of completely ignoring any technology that was not invented in
develop technology starting from scratch. by establishing partnerships between companies, and by encouraging technology exchanges is worth exploring.
company
to fully
it,
It is
important here to cast light on one of industry's most difficult problems in the
United States
applications.
tive
the
bad
effects of having
is
Although there
R & D in military industries, it is classified and, therefore, not accessible for civilian inand commercial applications.
dustries
requirements in both cases. Although military criteria specify quality regardless of cost,
civilian requirements call for both quality
the performance
and cost. The picture is clear when you compare and the cost of a nuclear bomber with those of a commercial jetliner.
Management
Management
in a
its
role
from management
it.
in a traditional serial
manager's
managing changes and building an organizational structure and can respond quickly to surprises and sudden changes in demands and requirements. You may have already concluded that managers must have a general but solid understanding of current and relevant technical issues in order to communicate effectively with multidisciplinary teams. In fact, one of the most important tasks of miding responsibilities but also
that is flexible
dle
management
in a
is
sumis
is
diminishing continuously, especially in a company that adopts the concurrent engineering philosophy. More emphasis is being placed on creating product development teams
and
at the
As you may
expect,
complex tasks
them
into less
that are, in turn, dealt with simultaneously but separately with different teams.
communication problems, is less efficient, and is more expensive. Attention must also be given to the talents and the quality of team members in terms of choosing the right person for the right job. When establishing the teams, the management focus must be to concurrently execute tasks that are normally carried out sequentially
tivities that are
and
used
in
order to identify and locate the patterns of information flow and interaction. There
26
Concurrent Engineering
FIGURE 2.1
The PERT chart
namely,
in
the
PERT chart,
is
the
The PERT
chart,
Figure 2.1,
On
GANTT
on a time
shown
in
Figure 2.2. In
some
re-
DSM
method
The
DSM
method and
its
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT). The basic method involves representing the relationship among
to
be coupled.
As can be
square matrix; the need for information flow between two tasks
indicated by a check
Going horizontally across a task's row, the columns under which there are check marks are those from which information must be received in order to complete
(x).
mark
On
down
FIGURE 2.2
The GANTT chart
Task A
27
FIGURE 2.3
Initial
Tasks
ABCDEFGH
A
KLMNOPQRSTUV
phase
of the
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
28
Concurrent Engineering
FIGURE 2.4
Final
Tasks A
BCJ
KPHNOQLMRSTUV
phase of the
A
F
G
D
E
I
C
J
K
P
H N
O Q
L
M
R
S
T
U
29
FIGURE 2.5
The radar (spider) chart
Area
1
of activity
FIGURE 2.6
The bug chart
Actual
manufacturing
release date
and expenditure
Manufacturing
release
exenditure
target
Milestone
Manufacturing release
date target
30
Concurrent Engineering
Tools
There
is
an extremely large number of tools for handling various tasks in the different
selection of the right tool for the right job
is,
arenas.
tion,
The
new
in the
1980s are
now
technically obsolete,
need
to continually
For example,
systems in a
clear,
operation by a network of elements (each stands for a particular function) and by ar-
It
They
is
2000 about
transfer information
and
be
who
will
to
swapped. Also, based on the preceding discussion, the level of automation used must
be appropriate for the company, and automated
It is
PDTs must be
always important
to
remember
and
its
just
examples and
that there
two
impede
>
the forces of
change,
time to look
at a
how
successfully implemented and resulted in solving tough problems that were facing one
of the world's largest manufacturers of automotive parts. The original report was given
in a
A Case
at the
MIT
in
by the author to Nippondenso Co. Ltd. during on interviews with the company's personnel and
staff.
here,
however, so as
to
four arenas.
31
is
me-
components,
supplier to Toyota and other Japanese and foreign car companies, and
to
about $10 billion dollars in 1989. Now that you have a clear idea about the size of this company and the diversity of its products, let us see how they created a concurrent engineering environment. Following is the company's approach
amounted
in
Organization
Nippondenso's philosophy
ing
it
is
based on developing the product and the process for maklike production engineering,
at the
sentation
machines and
tools,
promptly steps
in
from the concept phase to the detailed-design phase. Top management when a crisis occurs and when a crucial decision needs to be made. Of
is
steps.
Requirements
In addition to product performance specifications and production cost targets, there are other severe constraints dictated by the nature of the business of Nippondenso as a
(i.e.,
the need to
meet ordering
patterns).
The
re-
quirements of customers (like Toyota) include delivering extremely large amounts of products on a just-in-time (JIT) basis, with high variety and an unpredictable model
mix
tle
that is
always changing.
further constraint
is
lit-
or no changeover time.
As you
customer requirements
Communication Infrastructure
Nippondenso
the different
built
It is
used to integrate
machine
networks
Any change
in data
by a team
mem-
ber
to all
members of
barriers
Product Development
The two most important elements upon which Nippondenso's approach
in the
product
development arena is based include developing the product and its manufacturing processes simultaneously and developing new product design methodologies. In fact,
this
approach
is
Nippondenso
to
32
Concurrent Engineering
In order to
first
step for
listening to
meet the challenge of high production volume and high variety, the Nippondenso was standardization after negotiating with customers and their concerns. The next step was to design the products intelligently so as employing complex and
expensive production methods. In other words, their philosophy was based on using
to
make
different models.
achieved by producing several versions of each component in the product and then as-
sembling the appropriate component's versions into any desired model. Thus, an extremely large number of combinations of component versions resulted in a large
number of possible models. Moreover, this approach also ensured quick changeover from one model to another. At this point, the basic concept of concurrent engineering has been thoroughly demonstrated. Interested readers are encouraged to consult more specialized books on
the subject (see the titles provided in the references at the
>w Questions
1. Define
the
What What
ment
on which concurrent
elaborate on
2.
meaning.
engineering rests?
is
In
the difference
in a
manufactur-
agement
and
that
conventional
serial
How
What
did
concurrent
engineering
come
into
manufacturing?
10.
being?
4.
How
from
dif-
fer in
engineering?
5.
manufacturing?
detail.
11. Explain
why new
concepts like
DFM, DFA,
and
QFD
are important
why
don't
all
it?
INTRODUCTION
Definition.
is
used both
for the
into a
mold
is
cavity,
process
is
iron-base) or non-
in-
in
it
pro-
duces hundreds of
fixtures,
shaped parts
machine
tool
classified
1. 2. 3.
one
By the method of
filling
the mold
itself
Historical
dawn
not
advanced enough
temperatures necessary
for smelting
was
9500
b.c.
33
34
in
Mesopotamia as
early as
3000
b.c.
The
art of casting
was then
who
in-
novated the "lost-wax" molding process. During the Bronze Age, foundry work
flourished
in
produced. The Chinese developed certain bronze alloys and mastered the
found
its
way
to
Japan with
signifi-
some
cant achievements
in
sun god Helios weighing 360 tons, was considered to be one of the seven wonders of the world. That bronze statue
bled
later,
was cast
in
assem-
and stood 105 feet high at the entrance of the harbor of Rhodes.
Although iron
cast iron
was known
in
Egypt as early as
4000
b.c, the
development of
achievable then and pottery vessels capable of containing molten iron were not
available.
1340 when
was erected
at
Marche-Les-Dames
iron.
Belgium.
It
was
developed further with the invention of the cupola furnace by John Wilkenson
England. This
1826
England. The relationship between the properties and the microstructure of alloys
became
feasi-
based on
this
because wrought
iron,
meet a wider
was introduced
in
the way for castings to compete more favorably with wrought alloys.
Molds can be
either
cast iron,
35
only.
It is
usually
made of
ma-
terials like
Natural deposits taken from water or riverbeds are used as moldis called green sand,
meaning unbaked or used as found. These deposits have the advantages of availability and low cost, and they provide smooth as-cast surfaces, especially for light, thin jobs. However, they contain 15 to 25 percent clay, which, in turn, includes some organic impurities that
binding strength, and require a high moisture content (6 to 8 percent). Therefore, synthetic molding sand has been developed by mixing a cleaned pure silica sand base, in which grain structure and grain-size distribution are controlled, with up
lower the
initial
combined fireclay and bentonite and only about 3 percent moisture. Because the amount of clay used as a binding material is minimal, synthetic molding sand has higher refractoriness, higher green (unbaked) strength, better permeability, and
to 18 percent
advantage results in the evolution of less steam during the casting process. Thus, control of the properties of the sand mixture is an important condition for obtaining good castings. For this reason, a sand laboratory is
latter
usually attached to the foundry to determine the properties of molding sands prior to casting. Following are some important properties of a green sand mixture:
1. Permeability. Permeability is the
of the molding sand to allow gases to pass through. This property depends not only on the shape and size of the particles of the sand base but also on the amount of the clay binding material present in the mixture and on the moisture content. The permeability of molds is usually low when casting
ability
when
casting steel.
Green compression strength of a sand mold. Green strength is mainly due to the clay (or bentonite) and the moisture content, which both bind the sand particles together. Molds must be strong enough not to collapse during handling and transfer
and must also be capable of withstanding pressure and erosion forces during pouring of the molten metal.
3.
is
is
important
because
it
cessive moisture content can result in entrapped steam bubbles in the casting.
4. Flowability. Flowability is the ability of sand to flow easily
and
fill
temperatures; that
is,
when
they
come
molten metal during the casting process. Molding sands with poor refractoriness may burn when the molten metal is poured into the mold. Usually, sand molds should be able to withstand up to 3000F (1650C).
in contact with the
36
Sand molding tools. Sand molds are made in flasks, which are bottomless containers. The function of a flask is to hold and reinforce the sand mold to allow handling and manipulation. A flask can be made of wood, sheet steel, or aluminum and consists of two parts: an upper half called the cope and a lower half called the drag. The standard
flask is rectangular, although special shapes are also in use.
the
two halves of the mold cavity when putting the cope onto the drag
When
is
is
high, a middle
added between the drag and the cope. Also, when a large
ground
substituted for the drag; the process
is
product
is
to
be
then
Other sand molding tools can be divided into two main groups:
1.
Tools (such as molders, sand shovels, bench rammers, and the like) used for
ing the flask and
fill-
ramming
the sand
spikes, trowels, slicks, spoons,
2. Tools (such as
and
lifters)
used
for releasing
and withdrawing the pattern from the mold and for making required
to the
repairs
mold surfaces
The mold
cavity
is
which
is
(which are usually used with sand molding) can be made of softwood
wood made
like
mahogany,
aluminum, cast
patterns
iron, or steel.
They
are
in special
Wood
seasoned
wood
wood
dries out.
They should
from the green molding sand. Thus, the surfaces of these patterns
coated with a waterproof varnish.
and
single-piece
wood
mak-
ing 20 to 30 molds, a plastic pattern can be used for 20,000 molds, and a metal pattern
to
They include
the
following:
1. Single or loose pattern. This pattern is actually a single
ing.
cast-
Loose patterns
when only
when
in a
3. Match-plate
patterns.
Such patterns
usually employed.
the pattern, with the line of separation conforming to the parting line, are perma-
nently
mounted on opposite sides of a wood or metal plate. This type of ways incorporates the gating system as a part of the pattern.
The function of
this
type of pattern
is
similar to that
of the match-plate patterns. Such a pattern consists of the cope and drag parts of the
37
pattern
mounted on separate plates. It is particularly advantageous for preparing molds for large and medium castings, where the cope and drag parts of the mold are
mold
is
necessary and
is
employed
in
must not be an exact replica of the part of allowances must be made on the dimensions of the pattern:
the desired dimensions,
it
be
cast.
A number
of about
percent that
is
added
pendicular to the parting line in order to facilitate removal of the pattern from the
mold without ruining the surfaces of the cavity. Higher values of employed in the case of pockets or deep cavities.
2.
Shrinkage allowance. Because molten metals shrink during solidification and contract
room
be made larger to compensate for that shrinkage and contraction. The value of the
shrinkage allowance depends upon the metal to be cast and, to some extent, on
the nature of the casting.
is
usually taken as
1.5 percent for
percent for
aluminum,
magnesium,
rule.
It is
.6
percent for brass, and 2 percent for bronze. In order to eliminate the need for
all
recalculating
Machine
finish
to obtain
Sometimes,
intricately
distort dur-
ing solidification, even though reproduced from a defect-free pattern. In such cases,
it is
necessary to distort the pattern intentionally to obtain a casting with the desired
that
form desired
internal
A core
is
usually
made of
is placed into position in the mold shows the pattern, mold, and core used for producing a short pipe with two flanges. As you can see, projections, called core prints, are added to both sides of the pattern to create impressions that allow the core to be supported and held
at
both ends.
When
is
poured,
it
fill
the rest
of the mold cavity. Cores are subjected to extremely severe conditions, and they must,
therefore, possess very high resistance to erosion, exceptionally high strength,
good
sur-
permeability,
good
refractoriness,
and adequate
collapsibility
(i.e.,
comes
in contact
all
sometimes
38
FIGURE 3.1
The pattern, mold, and
Core
Pattern
(before removal
from mold)
assisted
to
a casting that shrinks onto the core during solidification. If the core
made hard
enough
latter
would crack
as a result of being
cam
tunnel.
Core sand
is
is
mixed with
different
binders, depending
upon
which
it
is
binder used with various castings includes fireclay, bentonite, and sodium silicate (inorganic binders), as well as oils (cottonseed or linseed
oil),
in core boxes,
chining cavities into blocks of wood, metal, or plastic. The surfaces of each cavity
draft, to
is
rammed
baked
in
made of
even
FIGURE 3.2
Core
for
an automotive
cam
tunnel
39
FIGURE 3.3
A simple core and
its
40
2.
reservoir of molten metal that feeds the casting to compensate for the shrinkage
Let us
now
break
down
its
as
shown
in
down sprue should be made tapered (its cross-sectional area when going downward) to prevent the stream of molten metal from separating from its walls, which may occur because the stream gains velocity as it travels downward and, therefore, contracts (remember the continuity equation in fluid mechanics, A V, = A 2 V2 ). The important and critical element of the gating system is the in-gate, whose dimensions affect those of all other elements. Sometimes, the crossthe sprue. Next, the
should decrease
is
reduced
in the
zone adjacent
to the sprue
base to create
is
is
system
On
and the
like
number
is
laminar
when
also be
made of
flow
In
some
cases,
when
needed
to
casting during solidification. These molten-metal reservoirs are called risers and are
The
first.
locations of the feeding system and the risers should be determined based on the phe-
nomenon
that sections
most
distant
solidify
Risers are
molded
open
into the
molten metal and are usually open to the top surface of the mold. In
referred to as
risers.
When
they are not open to the top of the mold, they are then
called blind risers. Risers can also be classified as top risers and side risers, depend-
ing
upon
their location with respect to the casting. to achieve directional solidification is the use of chills; these involve
Another way
copper
Depending upon
the shape
Green sand can be molded by employing a variety of processes, including some that are carried out both by hand and with molding machines. Following is a brief survey of the different green sand molding methods:
Molding processes.
41
is
the
in
machine-molding
practices. Figure 3.5 illustrates the procedure for simple handpattern. First, the
is
placed
then
filled
with sand
rammed
The drag
is
turned upside
it
Sand
firmly, after using a sprue pin to provide for the feeding passage.
made in the cope part of the mold in the same way they were The pouring basin is cut around the head of the sprue pin using a trowel, and the sprue pin is pulled out of the cope. The cope is then carefully lifted off the drag and turned so that the parting plane is upward. The two halves of the pattern are removed from both the cope and the drag. The runner and/or gate are cut from the mold cavity to the sprue in the drag part of the mold.
Ventilation holes are
made
Then, any damages are repaired by slightly wetting the location and using a
slick.
The cope
is
then carefully placed on the drag to assemble the two halves of the
FIGURE 3.5
The procedure of flask
molding using a single
(loose) pattern
(1)
(2)
?zzzx;
P
(3)
(4)
42
mold. Finally, the cope and the drag are fastened together by means of shackles or
bolts to prevent the pressure created
(after pouring)
arating them.
cope as an alternative
shackles or bolts. In
p=
wx h
p
is
is
(3.1)
where:
w
h
is
The
force that
is
two halves of
the
mold
F=p
xA
(3.2)
is is
where:
F
A
the force
the cross-sectional area of the casting (including the runner, gates,
2.
is
seen in Figure 3.6a and b, there are two types of stack molding: upright and
stepped. In upright stack molding, 10 to 12 flask sections are stacked up.
They
all
have a
common
sprue that
is
employed
in
feeding
all cavities.
The drag
cavity
is al-
ways molded in the upper surface of the flask section, whereas the cope cavity is molded in the lower surface. In stepped stack molding, each section has its own
sprue and
is,
therefore, offset
it
to
mold
is
cast separately.
Sweep molding. Sweep molding is used to form the surfaces of the mold cavity when a large-size casting must be produced without the time and expenses involved
in
making
a pattern.
A sweep
that
is
pushed axially
while being guided by a frame to produce a surface having a constant section along
its
5).
casting
is
when
it
molding is usually employed for producing a single piece of a large would be difficult to handle patterns of that size in flasks. Molding
prepared pits in the ground of the foundry. The bottom of the
is
done
in specially
pit is
2 to 3 inches (50 to 75
mm)
thick.
rammed onto
and molds are almost always dried before pouring the molten metal. This drying
achieved by means of a portable mold
drier.
A cope
is
that
is
also dried
is
then placed
to
on the
pit,
it
prevent
from
floating
when
poured.
43
FIGURE 3.6
The two types of stack
molding:
(b)
(a) upright;
stepped
(b)
The employment of molding machines results in an increase in the production rate, a marked increase in productivity, and a higher and more consistent quality of molds. The function of these machines is to pack the sand onto the pattern and draw the pattern out from the mold. There are several types of molding machines, each with a different way of packing the sand to form the mold. The main types include squeezers, jolt machines, and sandslingers. There are also some maMolding machines.
chines, such as jolt-squeeze machines, that
employ a combination of
the
working
44
principles of
two of the main types. Following types of molding machines (see Figure 3.7):
1. Squeezers. Figure 3.7a illustrates the
is
main
molding machine. The pattern plate is clamped on the machine table, and a flask is put into position. A sand frame is placed on the flask, and both are then filled with
FIGURE 3.7
Molding machines:
(a)
squeezer;
Squeeze head
(b) jolt
(c)
machine;
sandslinger
Flask
(0
45
sand from a hopper. Next, the machine table travels upward to squeeze the sand between the pattern plate and a stationary head. The squeeze head enters into the sand frame and compacts the sand so that it is level with the edge of the flask.
2. Jolt
machines. Figure 3.7b illustrates the working principle of the jolt type of molding machine. As can be seen, compressed air is admitted through the hose to a pressure cylinder to lift the plunger (and the flask, which is full of sand) up to a certain height,
is
uncovered
to exhaust the
compressed
plunger then
resulting
down and
sand in the
shows
of any
machine
is
employed
molding sand
in flasks
molds. Sandslingers are characterized by their high output, which amounts to 2500
cubic feet (more than 60 cubic meters) per hour.
As can be
seen,
molding sand
is
fed into a housing containing an impeller that rotates rapidly around a horizontal
axis.
Sand
at
a high speed
No
to
is
draw
machines achieve
roll-over
that goal
employed by
down and
Sand conditioning.
fore being used.
The molding
used sand
sand, whether
is
new
When
to be recycled,
employed
in a ferrous
screened in shakers, rotary screens, or vibrating screens. Molding materials are then
molding properties
(like permeability
Mixing is carried out in either continuous-screw mixers or vertical-wheel mullers. The mixers mix the molding materials by means of two large screws or worm gears;
the mullers are usually used for batch-type mixing.
typical muller
is
illustrated in
Figure 3.8.
It
own
horizontal axis as well as about a stationary vertical shaft. Centrifugal mullers are also
in use, especially for
contain up to 8 percent water, depending and percentage of the binding material. Therefore, this type of mold can
be used only for small castings with thin walls; large castings with thick walls would heat the mold, resulting in vaporization of water, which would, in turn, lead to bubbles
46
FIGURE 3.8
A muller
for
sand
conditioning
Plow blade
Wheels
in the castings.
For
this reason,
after they
are
in
made
ovens
in the
at
same way
carried out
for 8
up
to
Core-Sand Molds
When
the
mold
is
too big to
fit
in
made by assembling
several
pieces of sand cores. Consequently, patterns are not required, and core boxes are
em-
ployed instead to make the different sand cores necessary for constructing the mold.
Because core-sand mixtures (which have superior molding properties) good quality and dimensional accuracy of the castings are obtained.
is
used.
When making
first
to
harden
dimensions, and
smooth surfaces are usually produced in time required for the molding process.
this
for
Molding
sodium silicate (water glass) rammed, carbon dioxide is blown through
mixed with
amounting
to
As
a result, the gel of silica binds the sand grains together, and no
47
drying
sition,
is
needed. Because the molds are allowed to harden while the pattern
is
is in
po-
obtained.
Plaster Molds
mold is appropriate for casting silver, gold, magnesium, copper, and aluThe molding material is a mixture of fine silica sand, asbestos, and plaster of paris as a binder. Water is added to the mixture until a creamy slurry is obtained, which is then employed in molding. The drying process should be very slow to avoid
plaster
minum
alloys.
Loam Molds
The loam mold
as a
is
used for very large jobs. The basic shape of the desired mold
is
con-
loam mixture
is
then used
molding material
like are
employed in the molding process. The loam mixture used in molding consists of 50 percent or more of loam, with the rest being mainly silica sand. Loam molds must be thoroughly dried before pouring the molten metal.
and the
Shell
Molds
mold
is
made around
silica
The mold-
ing material
to 8 percent
is
Conventional dry-mixing techniques are used for obtaining the molding mixture. Specially prepared resin-coated sands are also used.
When
the
plate,
which
is
heated to a tem-
perature of 350F to
700F (180C
to
mm)
thick
is
450F to 650F for about 1 to 3 minutes. The shell is then released from the pattern (230C to 350C) plate by ejector pins. To prevent sticking of the baked shell, sometimes called the bisformed. In order to cure the shell completely,
must be heated
at
cuit, to the
is
Figure 3.9
is
molding.
is
Shell molding
suitable for
mass production of thin-walled, gray cast-iron (and maximum weight between 35 and 45 pounds (15
and 20 kg). However, castings weighing up to 1000 pounds (450 kg) can be made by employing shell molding on an individual basis. The advantages of shell molding include good surface finish, few restrictions on casting design, and the fact that this
process renders itself suitable for automation.
Ceramic Molds
In the ceramic
is
of refractory grains, ceramic binder, water, alcohol, and an agent to adjust the
value (see discussion of slurry casting in Chapter
pH
The
slurry
is
48
FIGURE 3.9
A pattern of a
crankshaft used
in
m\
shell
If
rlt-LJ
II
^H
molding
is
is
withdrawn.
to dry for
ceramic molds are usually preheated before pouring the molten metal. For
son, they are suitable for casting high-pouring-temperature alloys. Excellent surface
finish
and very close tolerances of the castings are among the advantages of
to the elimination
this
when
making castings
The process
is
especially advantageous
It is
also
most
in-
suitable for producing small castings having intricate shapes, such as the
group of
in
Figure 3.10.
nonpermanent pattern
that is usually
made
fol-
is
sometimes referred
its
gating system,
is
prepared by injecting
wax
2.
A pattern
assembly
that is
composed of a number of identical patterns is made. Patmade of wax or plastic in much the same manner
A ceramic
pouring cup
is
is
sometimes referred
49
FIGURE 3.10
A group
of investment
castings (Courtesy of
4h
'^*M>\
3.
The
by separately dipping
in a solution
it
is
it
comwith
posed of
very fine
thick
is
suspended
mold about
1/4 inch (6
mm)
formed
ceramic precoating
slurry
is
is
poured around
as a
backup material.
4.
The pattern assembly is then baked in an oven or a steam autoclave to melt out the wax (or plastic). Therefore, the dimensions of the mold cavity precisely match
those of the desired product.
5.
The
resulting shell
to
mold
is
fired at a
(900C
6.
1000C)
of
wax and
is
hot,
and a cluster
used
in
like cylinder
known
then coated
it
is
molded around
by
vi-
When
is
finally
50
FIGURE 3.11
Steps involved
(c)
in
investment casting:
(a)
a cluster of
wax
Graphite Molds
making molds to receive alloys (such as titanium) that can be molds. The casting process must be performed in a vacuum to eliminate any possibility of contaminating the metal. Graphite molds can be made either by machining a block of graphite to create the desired mold cavity or by comGraphite
is
used
in
inert
pacting a graphite-base aggregate around the pattern and then sintering the obtained
mold
at a
in a
reducing atmos-
graphite
mold
liners
51
Permanent Molds
A permanent
mold can be used repeatedly
for producing castings of the
made of
steel or
steel for
mold
tours,
is
generally
made of two
or
more pieces
that are
and clamping. Although the different parts of the mold can be cast
possibility of the casting's sticking to the mold.
rough con-
fre-
quently used.
ter,
When complex
is
made of sand
or plas-
said to be semipermanent.
They
in-
magnesium
FIGURE 3.12
A permanent mold
made
(a)
cope
52
irons.
It
is
prior to casting. In fact, the operating temperature of the mold, the metal to be
cast, is a
Based on the preceding discussion, we can expect the mold life to be dependent upon a number of interrelated factors, including the mold material, the metal to be cast,
and the operating temperature of the mold. Nevertheless,
of a permanent mold
sium, or
is
it
life
cast irons.
aluminum alloys and not more than 20,000 pourings for copper alloys and However, mold life can be extended by spraying the surface of the mold
increases in protolerances, supe-
ductivity (a
The advantages of permanent-mold casting include substantial mold does not have to be made for each casting), close
is
further
advantage
economically
parts pro-
mass production only. There is also a limitation on the size of duced by permanent-mold casting. A further limitation is that not all alloys
to this process.
are suited
we have
are,
is
into the
mold only by
referred
to as gravity casting.
There
cavities.
at
fill
inating the internal defects experienced in conventional gravity casting processes. Fol-
lowing
is
a survey of the
commonly used
Die Casting
Die casting involves forcing the molten metal into the cavity of a
die,
steel
mold, called a
to
the
major difference
is
between die casting and permanent-mold casting, where the molten metal
fed into
mold
either
by gravity or
at
classified according
to the type
of machine used. The two principal types are hot-chamber machines and
cold-chamber machines.
Hot-chamber machines.
chine include a steel pot
ma-
up position, as shown
in
When
the plunger
is
Filling
the Mold
53
FIGURE 3.13
The hot-chamber die casting method:
Plunger
(a) filling
the chamber;
(b)
Movable
die
Stationary
die half
Hot pot
Inlets
(a)
Burner
(b)
pushed downward by the power cylinder (not shown in the figure), it shuts off the intake port. Then, with further downward movement, the molten metal is forced through
the
gooseneck passage and the nozzle into the die cavity, as shown in Figure 3.13b. Pressures ranging from 700 to 2000 pounds per square inch (50 to 150 atmospheres)
are quite
common
to guarantee
is
complete
filling
is full
apart,
and the
cast-
ing
is
The
die cavity
is
repeated.
die casting are numerous.
when
perior surface finish, very close tolerances, and the ability to produce intricate shapes
with thin walls. Nevertheless, the process has some limitations. For instance, only lowmelting-point alloys (such as zinc, tin, lead, and the like) can be cast because the com-
in direct contact
weigh
less than 10
pounds
(4.5 kg).
Cold-chamber machines. In the cold-chamber die casting machine, the molten-metal reservoir is separate from the casting machine, and just enough for one shot of molten metal is ladled every stroke. Consequently, the relatively short exposure of
the shot
chamber and the plunger to the molten metal allows die casting of aluminum, magnesium, brass, and other alloys having relatively high melting points. In
the sequence of operations in cold-chamber die casting, the molten metal
is
first la-
dled through the pouring hole of the shot chamber while the two halves of the die are closed and locked together, as shown in Figure 3.14. Next, the plunger moves for-
ward
ity.
pouring hole and then forces the molten metal into the die cavmay go over 30,000 pounds per square inch (2000
54
FIGURE 3.14
The cold-chamber die
casting
Ladle
method
Ejector
Plunger
atmospheres). After the casting has solidified, the two halves of the die are opened,
and the casting, together with the gate and the slug of excess metal, are ejected from
the die.
It is
not difficult to see that large parts weighing 50 pounds (23 kg) can be procasting.
The process
is
very successful
when
casting alu-
minum
this
alloys,
die casting.
A
As
further disadvantage
It
the need for an auxiliary system for pouring the molten metal.
is
mainly for
in
this
can be seen
tank by
the
submerged
to a
into
molten metal.
It is fed into the shot chamber by connecting the die cavity means of a special valve. The molten metal is forced into the die plunger moves upward.
cavity
vacuum when
Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting refers to a group of processes in which the forces used to distribute the molten metal in the
ation.
mold cavity
by centrifugal acceler-
FIGURE 3.15
A
vertical
cold-chamber
die casting
machine
Vacuum
Vacuum
Filling
the Mold
55
is
briefly
discussed next.
True centrifugal casting involves rotating a cylindrical mold minute high enough
to create
around
its
own
an effective
mold
cavity.
pushed
mold by
of gravity), where
casting
is is
solidifies in the
form of a hollow
cylinder.
given by the mold contour, while the diameter of the inner cylindrical surface
controlled by the
into the
mold
The machines
may have
are usually cast in vertical-axis machines, whereas longer pipes, like water supply and
trifugal casting
sewer pipes, are cast using horizontal-axis machines. The basic features of a true cenmachine with a horizontal axis are shown in Figure 3.16.
Centrifugal castings are characterized by their high density, refined fine-grained
structure,
re-
casting process
is
Semicentrifugal casting.
Semicentrifugal casting
is
mold
cavity
is
is
completely
is
where en-
trapped air and inclusions are present. For this reason, the semicentrifugal casting
process
is
machining
recommended for producing castings that are to be subjected to subsequent to remove their central cores. Examples include cast track wheels for tanks,
Motor
FIGURE 3.16
A
true centrifugal
casting machine
Ladle
Spacers
56
tractors,
and the
like.
sand core
is
sometimes used
to
down
molten metal
is
own
is
mold
usually used for producing castings with intricate shapes; the increased pressure on
mold
to
be obtained.
Continuous Casting
The continuous
stages.
casting process
is
high-quality alloy steel. In fact, the process itself passed through a few evolutionary
Although
is
it
was
date version
now
The continuous
form a continuous
lating
of molten metal that comes out from a water-cooled orifice in order to solidify and
strip (or rod).
this
process
is
usually referred to
mold
(orifice) is
always
oscilil-
and rotating
at
The
and
degassed and
its
is
The molten metal then enters the rotating mold tangent to the edge through the bent tube. The centrifugal force then forces the steel against the mold wall, while lighter inclusions and impurities remain in the center of the vortex, where they are removed by the operator. Solidification of the metal flowing out of the mold continues at a precalculated rate. The resulting bar is then cut by a circular saw that is traveling downward at the same speed as the bar. The bar is tilted and loaded onto a
into the caster (tundish).
conveyor
to transfer
it
to the cooling
mill.
The continuous casting process has the advantages of very high metal yield (about 98 percent, compared with 87 percent in conventional ingot-mold practice),
excellent quality of cast, controlled grain size, and the possibility of casting special
cross-sectional shapes.
The V-Process
The vacuum
two halves of employing vacuum forming (see chapter 8). The pattern is then removed, and the two formedplastic sheets are tightened together to form a mold cavity that is surrounded by a flask filled with sand (there is no need for a binder). This mold cavity is kept in a vacuum
casting process (V-process for short) involves covering the
the pattern with
two
mm)
thick by
as the
molten metal
is
poured
to assist
flow.
Filling
the Mold
57
FIGURE 3.17
The principles of rotary
continuous casting
Ceramic tube
Ladle
Tundish
Bent tube
Casting
Guiding
rolls
O O O
Extractor
Hot saw
(it
travels
downwards
while cutting)
Product
Conveyor to
rolling mill
in
Japan
many
advantages,
such as the elimination of the need for special molding sands with binders and the elimination of the problems associated with green sand molding (like gas bubbles
risers, vents,
in the efficiency
58
FIGURE 3.18
A
plastic
for the
Inc., Flint,
Michigan)
castings include cast steels and the family of cast irons, whereas the nonferrous cast-
ings include
their alloys.
all
melted
in a particular type
of foundry
furnace that
may
not be appropriate for melting other metals and alloys. Also, molding
fluxes, degassers,
this classification
method
lowing
is
Ferrous Metals
Cast steels.
Steels are smelted in open-hearth furnaces, convertors, electric-arc fur-
naces, and electric-induction furnaces. Cast steels can be either plain-carbon, lowalloy, or high-alloy steel.
However, plain-carbon
cast steel
is
the
most commonly
produced type.
erties
When compared
with cast iron, steel certainly has poorer casting proppoint, higher shrinkage,
and poorer
also
more susceptible
59
and
ganese
is
used as a deoxidizer.
its
ments because of
There
is
oxygen content of molten steels, aluminum, silicon, or manAluminum is the most commonly used of these eleavailability, low cost, and effectiveness.
volves the presence of a "skin," or thin layer, just below the surface of a casting, where
scales, oxides,
this layer
it
may
be chemically or
structurally different
of the conventionally
recommended
cast iron
is
Gray cast
iron.
Gray
when
is,
its
microstructure
is characterized by the presence of free graphite flakes examined under the microscope. This kind of microstructure
in-
stance, this dispersion of graphite flakes acts as a lubricant during cast iron, thus eliminating the
machining of gray
When comits
pared with any other ferrous cast alloy, gray cast iron certainly possesses superior
machinability.
is
ability to
its
this iron is
ten-
Thus, gray cast iron has found widespread application in machine tool
like.
its
On
low
some disadvantages
and the
and
limitations, such as
ertheless, gray cast iron has the lowest casting temperature, least shrinkage,
best castability of
all
gray cast
ties
The cupola is the most widely used foundry furnace for producing and melting iron. The chemical composition, microstructure, and, therefore, the proper-
of the obtained castings are determined by the constituents of the charge of the
cupola furnace. Thus, the composition and properties of gray cast iron are controlled
by changing the percentages of the charge constituents and also by adding inoculants and alloying elements. Commonly used inoculants include calcium silicide, ferrosilicon, and ferromanganese. An inoculant is added to the molten metal (either in the
cupola spout or ladle) and usually amounts to between 0.1 and 0.5 percent of the
It
acts as a deoxidizer
It is
of a gray cast-iron product are also dependent upon the dimensions (the
is
adversely affected
rate
is
with thin walls, sometimes yielding white cast iron. For this reason, gray cast iron
When
is
poured into the mold cavity, dissolved carbon does not have enough time to precipitate in the form of flakes. Instead, it remains chemically combined with iron in the
is
Cementite
is
60
this
kind of
to
components subjected
abrasion. Sometimes, gray cast iron can be chilled to produce a surface layer of white
cast iron in order to
iron. In this case, the
combine
two types of
cast
product metal
is
is
pure molten alloy of gray cast iron that has been subjected to desulfurization. Sometimes, a small quantity of cerium
purities like
is
also
added
to prevent the
lead.
causes the graphite to precipitate during solidification of the molten alloy in the form
of small spheroids, rather than flakes as in the case of gray cast iron. This microstructural
marked increase in ductility, strength, toughness, and compared with gray cast iron, because the stress concentration effect of a flake is far higher than that of a spheroid (remember what you learned in fracture mechanics). The disadvantages of ductile iron, as compared with gray cast iron, include lower damping capacity and thermal conductivity. Ductile iron is used for making machine parts like axles, brackets, levers, crankshafts, housings,
change
results in a
stiffness of ductile iron, as
die pads,
Compacted-graphite cast
falls
between gray
irons,
both in
The
free
graphite in this type of iron takes the form of short, blunt, and interconnected flakes.
The mechanical
ity
properties of
CG
of
CG cast
iron approach those of gray cast iron. Compacted-graphite cast iron has
some
Malleable cast
is
white cast iron having an appropriate chemical composition. The hard white cast
iron becomes malleable after the heat treatment due to microstructural changes. The combined carbon separates as free graphite, which takes the form of nodules. Because the raw material for producing malleable iron is actually white cast iron, there are always limitations on casting design. Large cross sections and thick walls are
it
is
difficult
to
geometric characteristics.
The two
heart).
basic types of malleable cast iron are the pearlitic and the ferritic (blackstarting alloy for both types
is
Although the
the
same (white
treatment cycle and the atmosphere of the heat-treating furnace are different in each
case. Furnaces with oxidizing
pearlitic
mal-
leable cast iron, whereas furnaces with neutral atmospheres are used for producing ferritic
When comparing
two
grades normally have higher ductility and better machinability but lower strength and
hardness. Pearlitic grades can, however, be subjected to further surface hardening
when
is
controlled.
61
FIGURE 3.19
The heat treatment
Temperature
,,
I
(CorF
sequence
for
producing
(850-950C) 1700F
(800C) 1400F
62
men-
A real
advantage of aluminum
is
that
it
all
casting processes.
Nevertheless, the
common methods
for casting
aluminum include
casting in sand and permanent molds, and investment casting (the lost-foam process).
results in
unsound
When
fuel,
carbon monoxide and hydrogen are generated and absorbed by the molten metal.
like moisture, oil, or grease,
liberated or expelled
may
hydrogen must
is
achieved by
using appropriate degassers. Chlorine and nitrogen are considered to be the traditional
is
blown through
is
the molten
aluminum
is
to
compounds (chlorinated hydrocarbons) are added to They are commercially available in different forms, such as blocks, powders, and tablets; the most commonly used fluxing degasser is perhaps hexachlorethane. Another source of problems when casting aluminum is iron,
organic chloride fluxing
generate chlorine within the melt.
in
to spray
and
all
come
molten
aluminum with
and also
results in
sound castings.
alloys are those containing silicon,
which
treat-
serves to improve the castability, reduce the thermal expansion, and increase the wear
making automobile
weight
by
their very
high tensile-strength-to-
aerospace parts. Nevertheless, these alloys have poorer castability than the aluminum-
amounts of the copper constituent in excess of 12 percent make Copper additions of up to 5 percent are usually used and result in improved high-temperature properties and machinability. Additions of magnesium to aluminum result in improved corrosion resistance and machinability, higher strength, and attractive appearance of the casting when anodized. However, aluminum-magnesium alloys are generally difficult to cast. Zinc is also used as an alloying element, and the aluminum-zinc alloys have good machinability and modsilicon alloys. Also,
to hot cracking
and have
aluminum
63
in
employed in such cases for proin use. They possess high loadtherefore, used for making bearings and
is
bushings.
Cast copper
alloys.
The melting temperatures of cast copper alloys are far higher magnesium alloys. Cast copper alloys can be grouped
3.
4.
element)
Cast copper alloys are melted in crucible furnaces, open-flame furnaces, induction
furnaces, or indirect-arc furnaces.
The
upon
the type of
alloy to be melted, as well as the purity and quantity required. In melting pure copper,
silver,
recommended
that the
atmosphere
of the furnace be slightly oxidizing and also that a covering flux be used. Prior to casting,
in the
form
of a phosphorous copper
On
is
As
a remedy, the
reducing. Also, a covering flux should be used to prevent vaporization of the zinc; a
is
The
The family of
zinc alloys
fluidity.
is
by submerged-hot-chamber die
employed include
alu-
Magnesium
lower than
alloys.
The main
characteristic of
magnesium
is its
low
density,
which
is
that of
it
many because
cast in
is
component of seawater and most of its disadMagnesium alloys usually are produced by hot-chamber die casting.
is
metal to be melted, the hourly output of molten metal required, and the purity desired.
Following
is
furnaces.
64
Cupola Furnaces
Structure.
cast iron.
The cupola
is
the
As can be
its is
seen, the
It is
cupola
is
a shaft-type furnace
whose height
is
diameter.
mm)
internally
bricks.
The whole
is is
structure
erected on legs, or
is
which
is
blown through
mm)
above the bottom of the furnace. Slightly above the botand spout
to allow
tom and
lected.
to
be col-
There
also a slag hole located at the rear and above the level of the tap hole
FIGURE 3.20
A cupola furnace
Steel sheet
Refractory
lining
Molten metal
Molten-metal hole
Molten-metal
passage
65
(because slag floats on the surface of molten iron). The bottom of the cupola
closed with drop doors to
is
dump
rammed on
is
mm)
is
or more.
is
A bed
next
blown
at a
lower-than-normal
Many
factors,
it can generally be stated that the charge is composed of 25 percent pig 50 percent gray cast-iron scrap, 10 percent steel scrap, 12 percent coke as fuel,
and 3 percent limestone as flux. These constituents form alternate layers of coke, limestone, and metal. Sometimes, ferromanganese briquettes and inoculants are added to
the charge to control and
(Reverberatory Furnaces)
The
direct fuel-fired furnace, or reverberatory furnace,
is
The burners of
verized coal or another liquid petroleum product. Figure 3.21 shows that the roof of
the reverberatory furnace reflects the flame onto the metal placed on the hearth, thus
it.
the furnace
When
iron
is
adjusted to
produce a completely white iron without free graphite flakes because they lower the
properties of the resulting malleable iron.
shows
furnace
FIGURE 3.21
A reverberatory furnace
Burner
Charging
door
66
FIGURE 3.22
A crucible furnace
Crucible
Refractory
brick
Flame
do not come
type
is
When
the stationary
lifted
On
tilting type.
Crucibles are
made of either
The
first
type
is
one
is
more popular
in industry.
bronze, or gray cast iron, whereas brasses are melted in alloy steel crucibles. Different
alloys
in the
same crucible
to
metal.
Electric
Furnaces
used when there
is
An
ity
stituent
element from the alloy and when high purity and consistency of casting qual-
are required.
An
is
The
electric-arc furnace
the
by an
by
direct radiation or
FIGURE 3.23
An
electric-arc furnace
Pouring spout
Gear system (for rotating rum at an adequate e for pouring the molten metal)
67
FIGURE 3.24
An electric-resistance
furnace
Pouring spout
Refractory
lining
Molten
metal
Insulating
material
The
graphite electrodes. In order to control the gap between the two electrodes and, accordingly, control the intensity of heat, one electrode
is
made
Resistance furnace.
The
is
resistance furnace
is
employed mainly
minum and
furnace.
its
The
solid metal
is
subjected
the metal
to heat radiation
above
it.
When
melts,
it
flows
down
the
spout by
tilting the
whole furnace.
Induction furnace.
dis-
tributed temperatures within the molten metal, flexibility, and the possibility of controlling
the
atmosphere
addition,
the
motor
effect
of the
stir
basically involves
alternating cur-
of the furnace.
An
FIGURE 3.25
An electric-induction
furnace
Pouring spout
Cover
Electric-induction
coil
(copper tubing)
68
flux.
in indus-
try to
Common
Defects
in
Castings
it is
In order to obtain a
sound casting,
a survey of the
among the factors affecting the soundness of commonly experienced defects in castings.
initiate
Hot tears.
Hot
tears
during
cooling of the casting. They usually are in locations where the metal
shrinking freely, such as a thin wall connecting two heavy sections.
restrained
from
Cold shut.
A cold
shut
is
It is
be-
lieved to be caused
by two
Sand wash.
(hills
is,
from erosion of
Sand blow.
sand blow
It
is
form of a very
smooth depression.
Scab.
A
it.
scab
is
usually encountered
when
A shrinkage
porosity
is
a microscopic or macroscopic
hole formed by the shrinkage of spots of molten metal that are encapsulated by solidified metal.
It is
Hard spots.
locations.
Hard spots
Deviation
may
be due
It
may
Design Considerations
product designer
who
make
a design not only to serve the function (by being capable of withstanding the
it is
its
69
service
life)
some
de-
Promote directional
are properly
solidification.
When
to
promote directional
ing toward the risers. In other words, the presence of large sections or heat masses in
good
chills to promote direcdo so may result in shrinkage cavities (porosity) or sections distant from the risers. It is also very important to re-
made of
member
lighter section.
Make
nonpermanent mold
(this
achieved through rational selection of the parting line as well as by providing appropriate pattern draft
do not
fall
Nevertheless,
remember
that undercuts
can be obtained,
if
Dendrites often start to form on mold and then grow to form a columnar casting structure. This almost always results in planes of weakness at sharp corners, as illustrated in Figure 3.26a. Therefore, rounding the edges is a must for eliminating the development of planes of weakness, as shown in Figure 3.26b. Rounded edges are also essential for smooth laminar flow of the molten metal.
Avoid hot spots.
Certain shapes, because of their effect on the rate of heat dissipation
is al-
ways
where the
at
rate
of solidification
is
slower than
that at the
surrounding regions of the casting. The rate of solidification (and the rate
start
of heat dissipation to
with)
is
slower
locations having a
low
ratio of surface
area to volume. Such locations are usually referred to as hot spots in foundry work.
Unless precautions are taken during the design phase, hot spots and, consequently,
shrinkage cavities are likely to occur
at the
L, T, V, Y, and
+ junctions,
as illustrated in
Figure 3.27a. Shrinkage cavities can be avoided by modifying the design, as shown in
FIGURE 3.26
Columnar
solidification
and planes of
weakness:
(a)
poor
rounded edges to
eliminate planes of
weakness
(a)
(b)
70
FIGURE 3.27
Hot spots:
(a)
poor
rcn
spots
<2X
Cored
holes
(b)
it
is
always advisable
to
in sections
and
to
recommended design
of a section to
that
would eliminate
masses
save material.
weaker
in
casting process offers the designer the flexibility of distributing the masses of a section
when
em-
when preparing
such a manner as to lower the magnitude of tensile stresses in highly loaded areas of
the cross section and to reduce material in lightly loaded areas.
As can be seen
just a
in Fig-
ure 3.30, a
section or an
beam
is
round or square
that is to
The
minimum
FIGURE 3.28
Avoiding abrupt
changes
in
sections
Poor
@=<o)
Poor
O
Better
o
Better
71
FIGURE 3.29
Hot tears:
(a)
a casting
recommended design
to eliminate hot tears
(a)
(b)
casting process
employed
(i.e.,
etc.). In
and
will
rigidity calculations
may prove
is
erations
fill
may
require adopting a higher value for the thickness so that the cast sections
a
consequence of the
fact that a to
very rapidly as
enters the
fill
from the
gate.
A minimum
mm)
mm)
is
when conventional
0.060 inch (1.5
the relationship
It
steel casting
are quite
between the
largest dimension.
should be pointed out that for a given thickness, steel flows best in a narrow rather than in a wide web. For cast-iron and nonferrous castings, the recommended values for
minimum
thicknesses are
much lower
make
small projections
in
As can be seen
in Fig-
may be
n
a large
FIGURE 3.30
Distribution of
to
bending
masses
reduce weight
Beam
r7
T
section
S
Stress distribution
I
beam
Stress distribution
Very low
stress area
(material not
fully utilized)
Square bar
Stress distribution
72
FIGURE 3.31
73
FIGURE 3.32
Large casting with a
small projection:
(a)
as
an integral part;
separate parts
(b)
two
Small projection
lie
shot-blasting machines.
The
latter
As you may
when
drum
cleaning
On
separator
that ro-
around
its
horizontal axis into which the castings are loaded together with jack
74
FIGURE 3.33
Restriction of surfaces
to
be machined
FIGURE 3.34
Use
ribs
of reinforcement
in.
(25
mm)
FIGURE 3.35
The design of a steam
ring: (a)
cast
weld construction
7777/AW////////A'.
/////////////////////// / TT7
(a)
3.7 Castability
(Fluidity)
75
stars
made of white
cast iron.
A further
is
in
through identifying the defects and tracing their sources. Following are some of the
commonly used
tests
in order to
make
conform
to the specifications.
fall
Dimensions must
template) are used to check that the dimensions conform to the blueprint.
Visual examination.
ever,
it
Visual inspection
is
How-
is still
commonly used
in foundries.
test is
age porosity. Various penetrants and testing methods are given in the American Society for Testing and Materials
tion
Nondestructive testing.
microscopic and
tion,
hair cracks.
testing,
They involve
eddy current
and radiography.
Several methods are employed to determine the chem-
composition accurately and to assure product quality. The classical method used to
(i.e.,
be "wet analysis"
However, because
this
employing acids and reagents in accurate chemical analysis). method is time-consuming, it is being replaced by methods like
CASTABILITY (FLUIDITY)
The
erty
ability of the
in
molten metal
premature solidification
is
major factor
is
mold and
fill-
mold
producing cast-
ings with thinner sections. Poor fluidity leads to casting defects such as incomplete
is
it
is
peratures improve the fluidity of molten metal and alloys, whereas the presence of impurities
affects
it.
76
FIGURE 3.36
Details of the test for
0.3 inch
measuring
fluidity
-i*A7I[a3
inch
Magnified
section
A-A
made
to quantify
fluidity
of metals.
A commonly
it
used standard test involves pouring the molten metal into a basin so that
shown
in
Figure 3.36.
is
Both the basin and the channel are molded in sand, and the fluidity value
indicated
it
Review Questions
1
1. 2.
What
is
8.
What
sand?
are
molding
9.
How
are they
made?
3. List
10.
tions does
is its
serve?
What
is
a flask?
What
flask.
11.
What
What
are the
parts that
5.
form a
12.
are risers?
What
6. List
some of
making
terns.
7.
14.
Why
pit
permanent patterns
molding?
used in foundries.
77
36.
What does
V-process.
37. List
some of
how
it
is
done.
38. Discuss
some of
casting steels.
18.
When
What
are
39.
What
What
mended?
19.
is
the
40.
is
41. Discuss
some of
20.
21.
What
When
tages?
What
are
its
advan-
42.
Why
are inoculants
added
23.
When
molds recommended?
cast iron.
why
it is
some-
44.
45.
What
What
is
is
meant by compacted-graphite
ductile cast iron?
cast iron.
it
How
can
be ob-
Name
mold.
tained?
46.
are the advantages of
What
ing
it?
is
How
can
it
be
26.
What
employing perma-
obtained?
What
on produc-
Why?
cast directly into cavities
Why?
48.
some
What
is
the
chamber and
casting?
What are the problems caused by hydrogen when melting and casting aluminum and how
can these problems be eliminated?
29. List
some metals
that
cast
by
49.
What
30. List
some metals
that
cast
by
aluminum?
50. List
some
cast
aluminum
alloys
and discuss
31.
What
their applications.
32. Differentiate
between the
51.
different
types
of
52.
How
What
ample.
53. List
What
some of
by continuous casting?
34.
What does
volve?
54. List
tions of cast
applica-
35. Discuss
some advantages of
the
continuous
casting process.
cupola furnace.
78
is
used?
58
List
some of
62. List
some of
the
common
defects of castings
crucible furnaces.
59.
What
are the
main differences
between
furnaces?
60. List the different types of electric furnaces and
methods used
in
each case.
castings.
Design Example
_z
PROBLEM
Your company has received an order
to
tight-
ening nuts and bolts of large machines. The plant of the company involves a foundry
tools.
details of the
Lot
size: size:
500 wrenches
2 inches (50 about 20 lb
Nut
mm)
(27.12
Required torque:
ft
N-m)
You are required to provide a design and a production plan (see word design in the design projects section that appears later).
Solution
Before
we
start
we
should
will
allow us to determine the length of the wrench using the following equation:
T=Fxt
where:
T is
F is
(,
is
As can be seen from the equation, a low value of F would make the length large and thus make the handling of the wrench impractical because of the weight. On the other
hand, a high value of
son. Let us take
F is
may
F=
15 pounds. Therefore,
Chapter 3 Design Example
79
= T7=
1-33 feet
fist,
and we have
to
add a couple of
8 inches
Let us
now
maximum
stress,
which
in Figure 3.37a.
The moment of
inertia
of the section
is
-j^(0.25)(0.75)
(0.375)(0.25)
minimum
was adhered
to.
Now, determine
the
stress:
max.
stress
= 20 x
2
12 x 1.25
= 2648
.,..
lb/in.
x 0.056655
That value
is
we should try to reduce the section and save material. It is make use of spreadsheets to change the dimensions and get the each case. Now, take the section as shown in Figure 3.37b:
2
= ^(0.25)(0.5) 3 +
(0.375)(0.25)
+ 0.375 x
0.25 x 0.375
lb/in.
0.038771188
2
inch,
As can be seen, we took the minimum thickness to be 0.25 mended value for conventional castings of steels.
The material should be low-carbon
material
is
which
is
the
recom-
steel
in
order to
recommended
ksi.
,
ASTM
When
is
would be 7500
let
lb/in.
which
stress.
Now,
stress
in
on the
20 x 12
0.75
= 320 F pounds
80
FIGURE 3.37
Cross section of the
wrench:
attempt;
(a) first (b)
second
0.25 inch
attempt
0.25 inch
0.75 inch
0.5 inch
0.25 inch
0.25 inch
This
is
is
bearing stress
320
0.75 x
t
= 7500
inch
= 0.056
Take
it
Because
in
Figure 3.38. Notice the surface finish marks indicating the surfaces to be machined.
FIGURE 3.38
A wrench manufactured by casting
'ncn
1.4 inch
0.5 inch
:c
81
As
is
to
be employed, using a
flask.
We
down
at the
The
parting
through the
web
of the
/ section.
Design Projects
Whenever
following:
the
word design
is
least, the
Two
to
(i.e.,
a blueprint ready
applicable),
be released
workshop
fits (if
and so on
quence
in detail to
Maximum
clamping force:
centerline of screw
22 pounds (100 N)
3 inches (7.5
cm)
2 inches (5 cm)
0.25 inch (6
is
mm)
volume
is
Assume
pieces.
2.
that
manufacturing
by casting and
that production
4000
Design a
flat
it
is
to
be
mounted on a shaft that is 2 /i inches (6.25 cm) (25 cm), and it has to transmit a torque of 3000
pieces are required. Will the design change
3.
if
width
is
10 inches
that
(4000
Nm). Assume
500
A connecting
lever has
one of
its
mm)
in diameter.
The
is
lever
straight,
and the
8 inches (200
mm). The
(67.8
subjected to a bending
moment
of 50 lb
ft
Nm)
it is
to
When When
82
4.
The gap of
the
micrometer
is
mm), and
is
1
the distance
.5
inches (37.5
mum
b.
is
22
is
lb
(100 N).
4.0 inches (100
mum
Assume
TIP:
is
22
lb
is
(100 N).
volume
that
processes
used.
rigidity.
A
it
ft
(813.6
Nm)
to a shaft that is
is
inches
(31
is
mm)
to
it
in diameter.
the pulley
10 inches (250
in width.
mm), and
this pul-
be driven by a
is to
2 inches (50
mm)
Design
ley if
6.
pump
that
pumps
oil
from a reservoir
two springis
pressure cylinder are also connected by a conduit, but the flow of oil
obstructed
by a screw
that,
when unscrewed,
by allowbe pushed
ing high-pressure oil to flow back into the reservoir and the
ram then
to
downward. Provide a workshop drawing for each component, as well as an assembly drawing for the jack. Steel balls and springs are to be purchased. Assume production volume is 5000 pieces.
7.
Design a table for the machine shop. That table should be 4 feet (1.2 m)
load of half a ton.
in height,
with a surface area of 3 by 3 feet (0.90 by 0.9 m), and should be able to carry a
is
2000
pieces.
8.
Design a
nut size
little
wrench
is
mm), and
is
about 1.0 lb
ft
(1.356
Nm). Assume
9.
production volume
10,000 pieces.
ft
(1627
Nm)
of torque to a
The pitch diameter of the gear is 8 inches (200 mm), its width is 3 inches (75 mm), and the base diameter is 7.5 inches (187.5 mm). Design this gear's blank. Assume production volume is 4000
steel shaft that is
2 inches (50
mm)
in diameter.
pieces.
10. Design a frame for an open-arch (C-type) screw press that can deliver a load of up
to 2 tons.
is
2 feet (600
placed
is
mm), and the bed on which workpieces mm). Assume that the base diameter of
are the
screw thread
inches (37.5
mm).
83
It
feet
maximum
is
generated only
when
moving
its
dou-
ton during
duction volume
is
2000
pieces,
oil rings,
to
mounted has a bore diameter of 2 inches (50 mm). The pressure 50 folds of the atmospheric pressure. Expected production volume is 5000 pieces, and the stems, springs, bolts, and gaskets are
which
it
will be
Chapter 4
Inlng of Metals
^s"*^&
INTRODUCTION
When two
parts of metal are to be attached together, the resulting joint can be
(using screws and the
like),
made dismountable
or
it
by employing riveting, welding, or brazing processes. The design of dismountable joints falls beyond the scope of this text and
sign.
It
is
covered
in
machine de-
is,
therefore,
are ap-
welding
cutting
is
also
sometimes emwill
ployed
the
in
cutting
of
plates,
thermal
processes
also
be
discussed
this chapter.
IVETING
The process of riveting involves inserting a ductile metal pin through holes in two or more sheet metals and then forming over (heading) the ends of the metal pin so as to
secure the sheet metals firmly together. This process can be performed either cold or
hot,
and each
rivet is usually
in-
dicates the sequence of operations in riveting, while Figure 4.2 illustrates different
ELDING
Welding
is
the joining of
must be reasonable
in
more
importantly, produce
84
4.2 Welding
85
FIGURE 4.1
Sequence
of operations flat-head
Hammering
in riveting: (a)
rivet; (b)
regular rivet
vzz&
w&.
m% ^m
,
Lower
V
(a) (b)
tool
comparable
to those
niques have been developed that are aimed matter what welding method
is
disappear
if
a strong joint
is
to
employed
to
make
Joint Design
and Preparation
to withstand the forces to
is
weld
joint
must be designed
its
which
it
is
going
to
be sub-
jected during
service
life.
that is
made
As Figure
T,
4.3a through e shows, there are five types of weld joints: butt, lap, corner,
is
The butt joint involves welding the edges or end faces of the two original parts, as shown in Figure 4.3a. Therefore, the two parts must be aligned in the same plane. Usually, when the thickness of the parts falls between 1/8 and 3/8 inch (about 3 and 9 mm), the two parts are welded without any edge preparation. This type of weld is referred to as a square weld and can be either single or double, depending upon the thickness of the metal, as shown in Figure 4.4a. As can be seen in Figure 4.4b through
Butt
e,
the edges of thicker parts should be prepared with single or double bevels or V-,
it
J-,
is
recomis
mended
to
when
more
mm).
in
Lap
joint.
We
can see
is
produced by
to
fillet
welding
normally taken
be about three to
FIGURE 4.2
Different
shapes
rivet
of
preformed
heads
^Z7
86
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.3
Types of weld
joints:
(a) butt joint; (b) lap joint; (c)
corner
joint;
edge
joint
(b)
(0
CZlAZZ]
(d)
(e)
five
fillet
be of the plug or
Corner
joint.
shown
in
Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.3c illustrates the corner joint, which can be welded with or
without edge preparation (see Figure 4.4 for the various possible edge preparations).
T-joint.
static
The
T-joint
is
shown
in
loads
may
On
(again see Figure 4.4) are often necessary for greater metal thicknesses or
joint
is
when
the
to
Edge
joint.
The edge
joint
is
usually used
when welding
is
mm). Notice
edges of the
mem-
carried out.
FIGURE 4.4
Different
(Single)
edge
square
Single Single
Single
Single
V-groove; (d)
(Double) square
Double
Double
Double
Double
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
FIGURE 4.5
Basic types of fusion
lap
welds
4.2 Welding
87
FIGURE 4.6
Weld symbols
j^y
Fillet
m
Plug or slot
v.
Back or backing
rry
Spot or projection
n^
Seam
Groove welds:
V
Square
7V
Vnv
Bevel
Identification
Figure 4.6 shows the different weld symbols, whereas Figure 4.7 shows the standard
welds employed
in
design drawings.
Each
method
is
employed
in
to
something
common. For
obvious that
electrical,
processes can also be classified by the degree of automation adopted, which yields
three
groups:
method of
classification
at the locations
being
FIGURE 4.7
Standard identification
of
Finish
welds
and
Basic weld symbol or detail reference
Size; size or strength
slot
welds
Pitch (center-to-center
Reference
Specification, process,
line
spacing) of welds
Arrow connecting
line to
reference
or other reference
(N)
Tail
Field weld
symbol
not used)
Number
of spots
all
Weld
around symbol
or detail reference
Elements remain
in this area
as
shown
when
tail
and arrow
are reversed
88
Joining of Metals
welded, thus splitting the welding processes into two main categories: pressure welding and fusion welding.
We now
two categories
in detail.
at
moved
there are
two obstacles
that
must be overcome so
welding can
be carried out and a sound weldment can be obtained. First, surfaces are not flat when viewed on a microscopic scale. Consequently, intimate contact can be achieved only
where peaks meet peaks, as can be seen in Figure 4.8, and the number of bonds would not be enough to produce a strong welded joint. Second, the surfaces of metals are usually covered with oxide films that inhibit direct contact between the two metal parts to be welded. Therefore, those oxide and nonmetallic films must be removed (cleaned
with a wire brush) before welding in order to ensure a strong welded joint. Pressure
to metals possessing
whose
two metallic members apart are leveled out under the action of mechanical stresses or the combined effect of high temperatures and mechanical stresses. In fact, a wide variety of pressure welding processes are used in industry. The comsurfaces of the
Cold-pressure welding.
for joining sheets, wires,
Cold-pressure welding
is
and small
electric
remove
in
and must
tool
is
a special
used
coalescence be-
usually followed by
FIGURE 4.8
A microscopic view
of
Surface
Surface 2
4.2 Welding
89
FIGURE 4.9
Classification of the
commonly used
pressure welding
Cold-pressure welding
*
Hot-pressure welding
processes
Cold-pressure welding
of sheets and wires
Ultrasonic welding
Explosive welding
Molten-metal bonding
*
Hot
* *
solid-state
Percussion
Resistance flash Resistance spot
pressure welding
*
*
Diffusion bonding
Friction welding
* * *
* Inertia *
welding
Induction welding
Resistance upset
(butt) welding
Thermit
annealing of the welded joint. Figure 4.10 also shows that recrystallization takes place
is
added
to diffusion,
which
finally results in
com-
parts.
As can be
seen, the
to
clamped and pressed repeatedly against each other in order adequate plastic deformation. The excess upset metal is then trimmed by
wires' ends are
ensure
the sharp
is
Explosive welding
is
based on
using high explosives to generate extremely high pressures that are, in turn, used to
combine
easily be
flat
and/or those that are extremely difficult to combine using conventional methods can
is
scopic scale) and breaks the oxide film barrier to bring the two metal parts into
wavy
interface
between
FIGURE 4.10
Cold-pressure welding
of sheets
Welds
Punch
Recrystallization
T?
Welded
joint after
Welded
joint after
r?i Punch
deformation
annealing
90
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.11
Cold-pressure welding
of wires
Clamps
Upset metal
J2,
S
After trimming
the
two metal
finally,
two
flat plates,
is
wavy
interface
between
FIGURE 4.12
An arrangement
for
Explosive
layer
Detonator
plates
L ^Ml^M^
plate
Plate
Plate 2
in the
manufacture of heat
the process cannot be used successfully for welding hard, brittle met-
Research
in this area,
introduced.
Ultrasonic welding.
The
ultrasonic welding
method of
solid-state
welding
is
comis
monly used
applied along the interfacial plane of the joint, while a nominal static stress
applied,
normal
to that interface, to
clamp
the
two components
FIGURE 4.13
A sketch
interface
of the
Interface
wavy
between
explosively welded
parts
4.2 Welding
91
timate contact between the two metals, and, consequently, producing a strong joint. Ultrasonic welding does not involve the application of high pressures or temperatures
and
is
this
process
is
especially suitable
for automation
in the electrical
and microelecin
It
wires. Nevertheless, this restriction applies only to thinner pieces, and the process
line,
sketch
ments
is
commonly used in welding microcircuit eleAs we can see, the machine consists basically of a
in
Europe)
electric
kHz), a transducer that converts the electrical power into elastic mechanical vibrations,
and a horn
and clamp-
compared with
propriate controls to set up optimal values for the process variables, such as vibratory
time.
In friction welding, a type of hot solid-state welding, the parts to
be
welded are tightly clamped, one in a stationary chuck and the other in a rotatable
chuck
that is
mounted on
a spindle. External
power
is
employed
two
parts in
contact under
energy
is
at the interface.
When
attain a suitable temperature (in the forging range) that permits easy plastic flow, the
spindle rotation
is
halted,
is
metal, obtain intimate contact, and produce a strong, solid weld. This is clearly shown in Figure 4.15, which indicates the stages involved in friction welding.
Several advantages have been claimed for the friction welding process. These in-
clude simplicity, high efficiency of energy utilization, and the ability to join similar as
FIGURE 4.14
A sketch
of an
Clamping
Hm
Transducer
*?*
ultrasonic spot-type
welding machine
Workpieces
92
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.15
Stages involved
friction
in
welding
IBEE3
Rotating
Low
thrust
-EEEEE3Heating stage
E--EE3OAT
Upsetting stage
methods (e.g., aluminum to steel or aluminum to copper). Also, since contaminants and oxide films are carried away from the weld area where grain refinement takes place, a sound bond is obtained and usually has the same strength as the base metal.
Nevertheless, a major limitation of the process
is
that at least
to
be joined must be a body of revolution around the axis of rotation (like a round bar or tube). A further limitation is that only forgeable metals that do not suffer from hot
shortness can successfully be friction welded. Also, care must be taken during welding
to ensure squareness of the
or tubes.
Inertia
welding.
Inertia
welding
is
is
recom-
mended
superalloys) are to
be joined together. Inertia welding, as the name suggests, efficiently utilizes the kinetic energy stored in a rotating flywheel as a source for heating and for much of the
forging of the weld.
As
is
two workpieces
to
be inertia welded are clamped tightly ence being that the rotatable chuck
inertia welding.
lar velocity
is
differ-
and then converting the kinetic energy of the freely rotating flywheel to weld interface by applying an axial load to join the abutting ends under controlled pressure. The process requires shorter welding time than that taken in conventional friction welding, especially for larger workpieces. Examples of
frictional heat at the
carbon
steel shafts
welded
to small forgings.
Induction welding.
As
nomenon of
induction.
name suggests, induction welding is based on the pheWe know from physics (electricity and magnetism) that when
the
in
an inductor
coil,
is
induced
in
any
conductor that
heat
is
the resistance, at the abutting workpieces' interface, to the flow of current inin the
duced
coil.
principles of induction welding. For efficient conversion of electrical energy into heat
is
is
usually referred to as
kHz
commonly used
joint.
in industry,
kHz
is
always important to remember the "skin effect" when designing an inductionnear the surface). In
welded
(i.e.,
This effect refers to the fact that the electric current flows superficially fact, the depth of the layer through which the current flows
is
dependent mainly upon the frequency and the electromagnetic properties of the
4.2 Welding
93
FIGURE 4.16
Principles of induction
^fiflflQflflV,
Workpiece-
welding
Workpiece
r^
Coil
^I Flux
workpiece metal. Industrial applications of induction welding include butt welding of pipes and continuous-seam welding for the manufacture of seamed pipes.
Thermit welding.
supply heat energy. That reaction involves the burning of thermit, which
mixed at a of fine aluminum powder and iron oxide in the form of rolling-mill scale, about 1 to 3 by weight. Although a temperature of 5400F (3000C) may be ratio of
mixture up to at attained as a result of the reaction, localized heating of the thermit 2400F (1300C) is essential in order to start the reaction, which can be given by least
the following chemical formula:
8A1 + 3Fe 3
heat
is
(4.1)
As we can
outcome
fact,
include other oxides are also used to produce pure molten metals; these
chromium,
manganese, or vanadium, depending upon the parent metals to be welded. in order Usually, the thermit welding process requires the application of pressure proper coalescence between the parts to be joined. However, fusion thermit to achieve
welding
is
also used;
it
is
means
for heating
the weld area. Thermit welding is used in joining railroad rails, pipes, and thick well as in repairing heavy castings. The procedure involves fitting a
steel sections, as
split-type refrac-
tory
mold around
a primer
using the abutting surfaces to be welded, igniting the thermit mixture metal (ignition powder) in a special crucible, and, finally, pouring the molten
temperature of the (obtained as a result of the reaction) into the mold. Because the enough to fuse molten metal is about twice the melting point of steel, the heat input is a sound weld. the abutting surfaces, which are usually pressed together to give
Diffusion bonding.
is a solid-state welding method in which the then maintained at elevated temperatures under surfaces to be welded are cleaned and is limappropriate pressure for a long period of time. No fusion occurs, deformation
Diffusion bonding
ited,
to diffusion.
time, and they should be lurgy, the process parameters are pressure, temperature, and
adjusted to achieve the desired results. Butt welding belongs to the resistance welding group, which also conwelding processes. All of these sists of the spot, seam, projection, percussion, and flash
Butt welding.
94
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.17
Upset-butt welding
Clamping dies
Movable
Workpieces
Ac power supply
operate on the same principle, which involves heating the workpieces as a result of
being a part of a high-amperage electric circuit and then applying external pressure to
all
sometimes called upset-butt welding or just upset welding, the clamped and brought in solid contact, and low-voltage (1 to 3 V) alternating current is switched on through the contact area, as illustrated in Figure 4.17. As a result of the heat generated, the metal in the weld zone assumes a plastic state (above the solidus) and is gradually squeezed and expelled from the contact area. When enough upset metal becomes evident, the current is switched off and the welded parts are reIn butt welding,
parts are
Note
that upset
welding
would not be successful for larger sections because these cannot be uniformly heated and require extremely high-amperage current. Therefore, the process is limited to welding wires and rods up to 3/8 inch (about 10 mm) in diameter. Also, a sound joint can be ensured only when the two surfaces being welded together have the same crosssectional area as well as negligible or no eccentricity.
Flash welding.
Flash welding
is
somewhat
The equipment
FIGURE 4.18
A
typical
upset welding
Pressure
force
cycle
Solid contact
Upset metal
4.2 Welding
95
FIGURE 4.19
Stages
in
a flash
JjL
welding cycle
Localized
2
bridges
Flashing
I
Upset metal
Flashing
Upsetting
Time
device, and a
mechanism
to
other. Figure
We
number of
contact points that act as localized bridges for the electric current. Consequently, metal
is
heated
at
those points
when
the current
it
is
New
bridges are
all
is
uniform heating
current
When
the
is
line, electric
switched
off,
Flash welding
is
rails,
its
ability to
in
the loss of
some metal
Percussion welding.
In percussion welding, a
is
method of
second and
enough
depth of a few thousandths of an inch. The two parts are then impacted against each
other at a high speed to obtain a sound joint.
the cross-sectional area of the
The major
It
is
welded
joint.
(300
mm
2
)
in
dustry, percussion
welding
is
otherwise.
Spot welding.
96
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.20
Resistance spot
welding: (a) principles
of operation; (b) a
Copper
electrode
Force
Ac power
Time
CXJ
supply
(a)
Dendrites
(featherlike-
structure)
-X,
Nugget
(b)
to flow
through the lapped sheets (workpieces) that are held together under pressure.
in
As
can be seen
the
Figure 4.20b, the metal fuses in the central area of the interface between
solidifies in the
Heat
Therefore,
some precautions must be taken to prevent excessive temperatures and fusing of the metal at those spots. The electrodes used must possess good electrical and thermal conductivities. They are usually hollow and are water-cooled. In addition, areas
Spot welding
is
in industry.
Car-
bon
steel sheets
having a thickness up to
25 inch (4
mm)
kVA
and use a
volt-
age of
to 12
Seam
welding.
seam welding, the lapped sheets are passed between rotating circular electrodes through which the high-amperage current flows, as shown in Figure 4.21. Electrodes vary in diameter from less than 2 up to 14 inches (40 to 350 mm), depending upon the curvature of the workpieces being welded. Welding current as high as 5000 A may be employed, and the pressing force acting upon the electrodes can go up to 6 kN (more than half a ton). A welding speed of about 12 feet per minute (4 m/min.) is quite coming. In
is
employed
and the
in the
like.
Advantages of
4.2 Welding
97
FIGURE 4.21
Principles of
Forces
seam
Sheet metal
welding
Sheet metal
Overlapping nuggets
Forces
production rates, and suitability for automation. Nevertheless, the thickness of the sheets to be seam welded is limited to 0.125 inch (4 mm) in the case of carbon steels
and much
less for
more conductive
alloys
due
to the
aluminum
A).
is
purposely pro-
vided with small projections so that current flow and heating are localized at those spots. The projections are usually produced by die pressing, and the process calls for
the use of a special upper electrode. Figure 4.22 illustrates an arrangement of two parts to be projection welded, as well as the resulting weld nugget. As you may expect, the
projections collapse under the externally applied force after sufficient heating, thus yielding a well-defined, fused weld nugget. When the current is switched off, the weld
cools
is
down and
under the applied force. The electrode force is removed. As is the case with spot weldspot welding. For in-
by spot welding can be welded using this or oxide films on the surface of the work-
pieces has less effect on the weld quality than in the case of spot welding.
further
FIGURE 4.22
An arrangement
for
Pressure
parts
*
I
k\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^^,,,.. r
ffir
7\
4zzzzJ
After welding
Pressure
98
Joining of Metals
is
wherein coalescence
ternal pressure
is
is
produced.
filler
metal
is
may
or
may
required.
weld pool.
In order to join two different metals together by fusion welding, they must possess some degree of mutual solubility in the solid state. In fact, metals that are completely
soluble in the solid state exhibit the highest degree of weldability. Metals with limited
solid solubility
that are
mutually insoluble
in the
that
employed.
An
alternative
solution
is
to
that
is
Metallurgy
processes,
of
let
welding.
Before
surveying
fusion
welding
after the
welding operation.
Such changes
in the microstructure
essential for
good de-
sign of welded joints, as well as for the optimization of the process parameters.
identified, as
shown
in
Figure 4.23,
rod
is
when
is
this
zone
generally has a
the
is
molten metal
brittle,
is
Also, the
FIGURE 4.23
The three zones
in
1500C
2700
welding
700C
1300F
Fusion zone
Parent metal
Heat-affected
zones
4.2 Welding
99
may
(HAZ),
is
that por-
its
chemical composition
microstructure
is al-
its
ways
fact, the
HAZ
is
subjected to
and subsequent cooling. In a normalizing operation during welding and may conse-
quently undergo phase transformations and precipitation reactions, depending upon the
nature (chemical composition and microstructure) of the base metal.
The
size of the
HAZ
dependent upon the welding method employed and the nature of the base metal. This can be exemplified by the fact that the HAZ is 0.1 inch (2.5 mm) when auis
is
mm)
for
may
reach
inch (25
mm)
in
generally fine-
grained.
The
weld
ing
gible effect
For instance, the structural changes have neglion the mechanical properties of low-carbon steel, regardless of the weldthe contrary,
method used. On
formed
HAZ
(Remember
diagram
to the
the ef-
on the
critical
TTT
that
you
is
studied in metallurgy.)
The
third
HAZ
that
AC
in
zone, no structural changes take place unless the base metal has been subjected to plastic
which case
recrystallization
would become
Arc welding.
Arc welding
is
that is act-
ing as a powerful heat source to produce localized melting of the base metal.
tric
The
the
elec-
arc
is,
and ions
in
opposite
(i.e.,
anode
re-
that the
can consequently be
(The voltage
quired depends upon the distance between the electrodes.) The ionization process results in the generation
impact on the anode, and the positively charged ions impact on the cathode. The collisions of these particles,
kiat
the center of the arc can reach as high as 11,000F (6000C). Actually, only a
com-
is
is
to
60
for an alternating current (ac) welder. Also, the voltage drops after the
in the
started,
range of 15
30
V. Generally, arc
The
100
Joining of Metals
filler
metal
is
separately provided.
As
can be used
in arc
distinct advantages.
While arc
stability is
much
better
with alternating current than with direct current, the ac welding equipment
expensive, more compact in size, and simpler to operate.
is far less
A further advantage of ac
arc
which goes up to 85 percent, whereas the efficiency of dc welding systems usually varies between only 30 and
welding
is
60 percent.
In
is
As can be seen
is
b, the
cathode
is
(DCSP),
whereas
it is
way around
When
using
DCSP,
(the
more heat
is
concentrated
at the
anode
workpiece). Therefore, melting and deposition rates (of consumable electrodes) are
high, but penetration in the workpiece
is
DCSP
is
DCRP,
heat
is
concentrated
at the
welding condition.
and
similar applications.
is
damage
to those elements.
There
is,
A
it
for arc
welding rated
at a
150-
when welding
150 A. The
idle or
unused time
at
duty cycle
-I
\
rated current
(4.2)
load current
FIGURE 4.24
Straight
and reversed
dc arc
Electrode
polarities in
(DCSP);
(b)
dc
reversed polarity
w
(a)
(cathode)
w
(b)
Electrode (anode)
(DCRP)
Workpiece
(anode)
Workpiece
(cathode)
4.2 Welding
101
Therefore, for this power supply, the percentage of the duty cycle at 100
follows:
is
as
duty cycle
at
100
A=
x 40% = 90%
There are various types of arc welding. They include the following methods:
1. Shielded-metal arc 2.
welding
(SMAW)
Carbon
arc welding
(CAW)
(FCAW)
(SAW)
usually called
3. Flux-cored arc
welding
4. Stud arc
5.
welding (SW)
arc welding
Submerged
6.
7.
(GMAW,
MIG)
TIG)
(GTAW,
usually called
8.
not
employs equipment
arc welding.
is
submerged
(SMAW)
manual
arc
welding process
for welding
is
that
is
sometimes referred
to as stick welding.
As can be seen
is
in
weld area
ering.
in the
base metal
blanket of molten slag also provides shielding for the molten-metal pool.
The
filler
metal
is
Shielded-metal arc welding can be used for joining thin and thick sheets of
plain-carbon steels, low-alloy steels, and even
some
is
is
actually the
process and has found widespread application in steel construction and shipbuilding. Nevertheless,
it
is
employ shielded-metal
and magnesium
alloys.
some
aluminum
102
Joining of Metals
is that
consumed
to allow
ferent compositions.
The core wires of electrodes used for shielded-metal arc welding have many difThe selection of a particular electrode material depends upon
which
it
is
welded. Consumable electrodes are usually coated with flux but can also be uncoated.
to
( 1
mm)
and a length
weld-
of about 18 inches (450 mm). Although various metals are used as wire materials, by
far the
steel (for
ing carbon steels) and low-alloy steel (for welding alloy steels). Electrodes can be
bare, lightly coated, or heavily coated.
better-quality welds as
it
The
improves arc
stability,
oxidation and nitrogen contamination, and also provides slag, which, in turn, retards the cooling rate of the weld's fusion zone. Therefore, electrode coatings are
composed of substances
composi-
tion of typical electrode coatings, together with the function of each constituent.
2.
made of carbon
and the
no shielding
is
A
1
filler
metal
may be
used,
especially
when welding
more than
to
1/8 inch (3
mm). The
and are
carbon electrodes have diameters ranging from 3/8 used with currents that range from 200 to 600 A.
inch (10 to 25
mm)
TABLE 4.1
The constituents of
typical electrode
Main Function
4.2 Welding
103
commonly used
Carbon
arc
welding
is
not
to the joining
(FCAW)
is
ing during the combustion and decomposition of the flux contained within the
tubular wire.
The process
is,
therefore,
self-
may
auxiliary shielding gas, such as carbon dioxide, argon, or both. In the latter case, the
process
is
is
to-thick steel plates and stainless steel sheets. Figure 4.26 illustrates the operating
is
and handling
drill-
of the components to which studs are joined and meanwhile eliminates the
ing and tapping operations that
goal.
to
are
use of a special welding gun that holds the stud during welding. Figure 4.27 shows
the stages involved in stud arc welding, a process that
is
entirely controlled
by the
As can be seen
use of a ceramic ferrule that surrounds the end of the stud during the process. Stud
arc welding requires a
skill,
Submerged arc welding. Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a fairly new automatic arc welding method in which the arc and the weld area are shielded by a blanket of
a fusible granular flux.
A bare
electrode
is
used and
is
mechanism during welding. Figure 4.28 shows the operating principles of submerged arc welding. As can be seen from the figure, the process is used to join flat
plates in the horizontal position only. This limitation
flux
is
it is
fed.
As
is
the case with previously discussed arc welding processes, gases evolve as
a result of combustion and decomposition of the flux, due to the high temperature
FIGURE 4.26
Operating principles of
Electrode (tube)
Flux core
Base metal
104
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.27
Stages involved
arc welding
in
Light
pressure
stud
Stud
in
IC^I
Flux
wm
arc.
Base metal
gas bubble
is
sealed from the arc by a layer of molten flux. This isolates the arc
from the surrounding atmosphere and, therefore, ensures proper shielding. The melting temperature of the flux must be lower than that of the base metal.
As
a result, the flux always solidifies after the metal, thus forming an insulating
layer over the solidifying molten metal pool. This retards the solidification of the
fused metal and, therefore, allows the slag and nonmetallic inclusions to float off
the molten pool.
The
final
outcome
is
is
flux should also be selected to ensure proper deoxidizing of the fused metal
FIGURE 4.28
Operating principles of
Direction of weld
submerged
arc welding
Base meta
Solidified
slag
FIGURE 4.29
The mechanics of
Granulated
shielding
in
submerged
flux
arc welding
Molten
flux
Solidified
weld metal
Base metal
Molten
Gas bubble
metal
4.2 Welding
105
make up
and
lost
during the
welding process.
Electric currents
arc
ca-
Other advantages of
this
process include
its
high welding
rate,
which
is
five to
ten times that produced by shielded-metal arc welding, and the high quality of the
welds obtained.
6.
GMAW
process
is
commonly
called
metal-inert-gas
(MIG) welding.
It
employs an
electric arc
between a
in
solid, continuous,
consumable
is
As can be seen
inert gas,
obtained
and no flux
is
employed
good
fact,
results.
it
can
by machine. In
MIG
The gas-metal
weld
is
particularly popular
alloys.
when The
also used for welding stainless steel and critical steel parts.
for gas-metal arc
The penetration
etration
is.
welding
is
controlled by adopting
is,
DCRP and
The higher
The kind of
some
effect
on the penetration.
maximum
it is
FIGURE 4.30
Operating principles of
gas-metal arc welding
Spool
for feeding
electrode wire
Inert gas cylinder
for providing
shielding gas
Base metal
106
Joining of Metals
employed
in
welding thick
plates,
for
MIG
tol-
erances and a consistent chemical composition appropriate for the desired applica-
varies
(0.5
and 3 mm).
Usually,
MIG
wire electrodes are coated with a very thin layer of copper to protect
them during storage. The electrode wire is available in the form of a spool weighing from 2V2 to 750 pounds (1 to 350 kg). As you may expect, the selection of the composition of the electrode wire for a given material depends upon other factors, such as the kind of shielding gas used, the conditions of the metal being welded
(i.e.,
whether there
is
is
usually
the
an arc welding
process that
employs
As
can be seen, a
filler
rod
may
(or
may
The
electrode, arc,
weld puddle, and adjacent areas of the base metal are shielded by a stream of either argon or helium to prevent any contamination from the atmosphere. TIG welding is normally applied manually and requires a relatively high degree of welder skill. It
can also be fully automated,
torch at
stops
it.
which case the equipment used drives the welding a preprogrammed path and speed, adjusts the arc voltage, and starts and
in
is
The
list
long and
als,
aluminum
steel
magnesium
and
recommended
for
FIGURE 4.31
Operating principles of
Tungsten
Torch
electrode Shielding
gas-tungsten arc
gas
welding
Filler
rod
Solidified
weld metal
Base metal
Electrode-protecting
cap
Handle
Tungsten
electrode
4.2 Welding
107
welding very thin sheets, as thin as 0.005 inch (about 0.125 mm), for the root and
hot pass on tubing and pipes, and wherever smooth, clean welds are required
in
(e.g.,
in the
nu-
clear, rocketry,
welding that
and submarine industries by employing a modified version of TIG involves placing carefully selected and prepared inserts in the gap beto
TIG
torch.
(i.e.,
ac,
gas-tungsten arc welding, depending upon the metal to be welded. Thin sheets of
aluminum or magnesium
sheets of
DCSP
is
DCRP
also helpful in
cleaning action (the impacting of ions onto the surface like a grit
is
employed
in
plasma arc
electric arc
to
when
employed
to join
almost
all
metals in
all
is is
skill;
sometimes automated
Electroslag welding.
sians, is not
Electroslag welding
the Rus-
an arc welding process but requires the use of equipment similar to that
FIGURE 4.32
The torch employed
Nozzle
in
Tungsten
electrode Shielding
gas
^J^E^J^
Workpiece
Joining of Metals
used
in arc welding.
Although an
electric arc is
used to
start the
process, heat
is
con-
tinuously generated as a result of the current flow between the electrode (or electrodes)
and the base metal through a pool of molten slag (flux). As we will see molten-slag pool also serves as a protective cover for the fused-metal pool.
later,
the
The
is
shown
in Figure 4.33.
As can be seen
gap of
in the fig-
ure, the parts to be joined are set in the vertical position, with a
1/2 to l!/2
inches (12 to 37
mm)
between
their edges.
(The gap
is
of the parts.) The welding electrode (or electrodes) and the flux are fed automatically
into the gap,
and an arc
is
electrical resistivity
of the molten slag continuously produces the heat necessary to fuse the flux and the
filler
and the base metals. Water-cooled copper plates travel upward along the
joint,
thus serving as
Electroslag welding
single pass without any need for beveling the edges of those parts. Therefore, the
process
ery,
is
widely used
Gas welding.
Gas welding
refers to a
in
which the
edges of the parts to be welded are fused together by heating them with a flame obtained from the combustion of a gas (such as acetylene) in a stream of oxygen.
filler
metal
the
is
often introduced into the flame to melt and, together with the base metal, form
is
good welding
skill.
Common
tions of steels
in repair
in all positions.
Gas welding
is
work and
The
gas,
fuel gases
used for producing the flame during the different gas welding
the
processes include acetylene, hydrogen, natural gas (94 percent methane), petroleum
is
most commonly
is
low
as
790F (420C)
in nature at pressures
exceeding
is
which
it
is
FIGURE 4.33
The electroslag welding
process
Guiding tubes
Base metal
Molten
slag
Molten metal
Base plate
4.2 Welding
109
filled
with a
porous
filler
welding process
is
by liquefying
shown
in
torch.
The
way throughout
two gases
is
con-
trolled,
serves to
the
tip,
which determines the characteristics of the flame. Next, the welding torch mix the oxygen and the acetylene together and discharges the mixture out at where combustion takes place.
ratio
As can be
inner luminous cone at the tip of the torch, the reducing zone, and the oxidizing zone.
The
first
decomposed acetylene
as a
C2H2
-> 2C +
H2
and are responsible for the white lumi-
The carbon
in the
nescence of that brightest part of the flame. Those carbon particles are partly oxidized
second zone, the reducing zone, yielding carbon monoxide and a large amount
of heat that brings the temperature up to about 5400F (3000C). Gases like hydrogen
and carbon monoxide are capable of reducing oxides. Next, complete combustion of
those gases yields carbon dioxide and water vapor that together with the excess oxy-
gen
(if
any) result in the third zone, the oxidizing zone. Those gases, however, form a
from coming
in contact
pool.
As can be expected,
is
When
the ratio
the flame
is
less than
is
1,
is
ob-
luminous cone
FIGURE 4.34
The equipment required
in
Hoses
gas welding
Oxygen
110
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.35
A sketch
flame
of a typical
oxyacetylene welding
is
is
employed
in
in hard-surfacing
The
when
is
the oxygen-to-acety-
lene ratio
higher than
the
1.
luminous cone
tained with
neutral
is
flame,
in
light
blue in color.
The
oxidizing flame
employed
Another method
a fuel gas
is
combustion of
is
known
as pressure-gas welding.
As
the
name
suggests, this
actually a
pressure welding process in which the abutting edges to be welded are heated with
state; then,
coalescence
is
achieved by ap-
plying the appropriately high pressure. In order to ensure uniform heating of the sections, a multiple-flame torch that
is
used.
The shape of
that
torch
is
is
dependent upon the outer contour of the sections to be welded, and the torch
usually
made
to oscillate
along
its
axis.
Upsetting
is
accomplished by a special
method
is
sometimes used
and the
like.
Electron-beam
welding.
Electron-beam
welding
Dr.
Jacques Stohr (CEA-France, the atomic energy commission) in 1957 to solve a prob-
lem
in the
is
based upon the conversion of the kinetic energy of a high-velocity, intense beam of
electrons into thermal energy as the accelerated electrons impact on the joint to be
welded. The generated heat then fuses the interfacing surfaces and produces the desired coalescence.
Figure 4.36 shows the basic elements and working principles of an electron-beam
earth-grounded.
A focus
coil
an electromagnetic lens)
is
electron
beam
into focus
the focus coil. Additional electromagnetic coils are provided to deflect the
its
beam from
travel at an ultra-
vacuum
any atmosphere =
760
torr) are
used. Nevertheless,
must be noted
more
(Energy
the
number of
4.2 Welding
111
FIGURE 4.36
The basic elements and
working principles of an
Filament
current control
~
+
Accelerating
voltage
control
electron-beam welding
system
Electron
beam
Electron-beam welding machines can be divided into two groups: low-voltage and
high-voltage machines. Low-voltage machines are those operating
at accelerating volt-
at
its
own
merits, the
beam-power
density,
which
is,
in turn,
(focused) spot size. In the early days of electron-beam welding, machines were usually
built to
kW and
is
less.
kW
is
quite
common, and
the trend
toward
still
to the
Because of the high intensity of the electron beam used, the welds obtained are narrower, and the penetration in a single pass is much greater than that obtained by conventional fusion welding processes.
much
2.
The high
beam can
hole in the workpiece, thus yielding a parallel-sided weld with a very narrow heat-
method have almost have minimum shrinkage, and are stronger than welds produced by conventional fusion welding processes.
affected zone.
As
no
distortion,
3.
welding.
this process.
in
Speeds up
to
higher productivity.
5.
is
usually performed in a
vacuum chamber
is
at
pressures on the
the resulting
weld
is
excellent,
112
Joining of Metals
welding
is
whose
properties are
and
aerospace industries. Nevertheless, the time required to vacuum the chamber before
in
equipment
beam welding
valves,
it was automated. Today, electronbecoming popular for joining automotive parts such as gear clusters, clutch plates, and transmission components.
is
Laser-beam welding.
of radiation.
It is,
The term
beam
is
beam proved
to
be
a unique source of high-intensity energy that can be used in fusing metals to produce
welded
(LBW).
In this
energy
is
pumped
into a laser
medium
is
to cause
it
medium
(laser
two mirrors. Consequently, it is reflected back and forth in an optical resonator path, resulting in more fluorescence, which amplifies the intensity of the
light
beam)
finds
its
way
The laser medium can be made of yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG). It can also be a gas, helium, or neon. In the latter case, the pumping energy input
which
called the output mirror.
Let us
a laser
now
is
beam
mm)
W/mm")
The impacting
laser energy is
FIGURE 4.37
The working principles
of a laser-beam welding
Laser media
Pumping
energy input
system
V
t
Totally
reflective
Output mirror
(partially transparent)
mirror
Random
fluorescence
(losses)
4.2 Welding
113
strikes the surface of a metal, causing instantaneous fusion of
it
known
as a keyhole, that
is full
is
formed and
to the
is
be-
hind the keyhole and subsequently cools and solidifies to form the weld.
is
worth
mentioning that a stream of a cooling (and shielding) gas should surround the laser
beam
is
used for
this
purpose because of
low
cost,
although helium
Among
Based on the preceding discussion of the mechanics of laser-beam welding, we would always expect to have a very narrow heat-affected zone with this welding
method. Consequently, the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of the
base metal are not altered, thus eliminating the need for any postwelding heat
treatment.
2.
The
beam
at the focal
mag-
The
laser
into a
thus rendering laser-beam welding suitable for joining radioactive materials and for
welding under
5.
sterilized conditions.
for
that
6.
common and
complex contour.
Since the Apollo project, laser-beam welding has become popular in the aerospace
industry. Today, the process
is
tita-
especially advan-
not
recommended
Welding Defects
In fusion welding processes, considerable thermal stresses develop during heating
and
in
subsequent cooling of the workpiece, especially with those processes that result
large heat-affected zones. Also, metallurgical changes
and
structural transformations
take place in the weld puddle as well as in the heat-affected zone, and these
may be
accompanied by changes
in the
volume. Therefore,
if
114
Joining of Metals
that are
damaging
It is
the
comsure
bined duty of the manufacturing engineer, the welder, and the inspector to
make
weldments are free from all kinds of common kinds of welding defects.
that all
Following
is
Distortion.
Distortion, warping,
They come
movement of some
parts or
mem-
They can
also result
shrinkage of the metal in the weld area as a consequence of uneven heating and cooling.
Although
it
is
some
simple cases
(e.g., butt
welding of two
magnitude
common
dimensional structure
is
extremely complicated. Nevertheless, here are some recomto follow to eliminate distortion:
Clamp
fixture.
this
ent internal
The
internal
stresses
Sometimes,
it is
also ad-
first in
order to
form a
weldments
(e.g.,
Porosity.
Porosity can take the form of elongated blowholes in the weld puddle,
which
is
known
is
as
wormhole
cases, porosity
due mainly
lease of gases during solidification as a result of their decreasing solubility in the solidifying metal.
in steels are
major contributors
to
porosity because they generate gases that are often entrapped in the molten metal.
Other causes of porosity include the presence of hydrogen (remember the problem
caused by hydrogen
flux.
in casting),
in the
on workpieces, and, most importantly, by avoiding the use of a base metal containing
sulfur or electrodes with traces of hydrogen.
Cracks.
into
cracks as well as cracks appearing at the root of the weld bead. This type of cracking
4.2 Welding
115
sometimes called hot cracking because it occurs at elevated temperatures just molten metal starts to solidify. It is especially prevalent in ferrous alloys with high percentages of sulfur and phosphorus and in alloys having large solidification
is
after the
ranges.
is
This defect
is
actually
due
to aggravation
by excessive
affected
zone
that
(Remember
on the
TTT curve;
they shift
it
to the
right, thus
minimum
welded joint
keep
it
at a
minimum
keep joints
prewelding or postwelding heat treatment. Each pass would provide a sort of preheating for the pass to follow. This technique
cracks.
is
Slag inclusions.
in
Slag entrapment
in the
in single-pass as well as
multipass welds. In single-pass arc welding, slag inclusions are caused by improper
manipulation of the electrode and/or factors such as too high a viscosity of the molten
metal or too rapid solidification.
Some
weld metal.
is drawn down by becomes entrapped in the solidifying inclusions are caused by improper removal of the
slag
Lack of fusion.
Lack of
fusion,
shown
in
causes. These include inadequate energy input, which leads to insufficient temperature
rise;
failure to
remove oxide
of penetration.
in
Figure 4.39,
is
due
to a
low en-
shown
in
Figure 4.40,
is
(excessive current in arc welding), which, in turn, causes the formation of a recess.
As
we know, such
premature
sharp changes in the weld contour act as stress raisers and often cause
failure.
FIGURE 4.38
Lack of fusion
FIGURE 4.39
Lack of penetration
mi
116
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.40
Undercutting
FIGURE 4.41
Underfilling
Underfilling.
Underfilling,
shown
in
More
filler
can be
di-
vided into two groups: destructive and nondestructive. Destructive testing always
results in destroying the
specimen
(the
welded
joint)
unsuitable for
its
We
by
this technique.
Mechanical tests.
Mechanical
conventional me-
chanical tests, the difference being the shape and size of the test specimen. Tensile,
tests are
conducted either on
only.
Metallurgical
microstructure and
depth of penetration, the extent of the heat-affected zone, and the weld bead shape, as
well as hidden cracks, porosity, and slag inclusions. Microstructure examination can
show
Chemical tests.
filler
Chemical
metal
is
tests,
must be carried
is
Radiographic inspection
X
is
nondestructive
test
does
not
destroy
the
welded
joint.
High-penetration
employed
for inspecting
weldments hav-
ing thicknesses up to
inches (37
mm).
4.2 Welding
117
Pressure test.
Hydraulic (or
air)
pressure
is
going
to
be subjected
to pressure
durability.
Ultrasonic testing.
kHz
are
employed
parts.
to
detect various kinds of flaws in the weld, such as the presence of nonmetallic inclusions, porosity,
is
reliable
Magnetic testing.
in
As we know from
be concentrated
This
test,
such a way as
to
b.
at the sides
iron-powder particles that were uniformly dispersed on the surface of the part to
reveal the concentration of the flux lines at the location of the flaw. This
cessful in detecting superficial hair cracks and pores in ferrous metal.
method
is
suc-
Ammonia penetrant
from welded
vessels.
test.
It
test is
used
to detect
any leakage
involves
ammonia and
then wrapping
Any
is
an indication of leakage.
The
immersed
an
oil
any
crack location.
Design Considerations
As soon
as the decision
is
made
to fabricate a product
is to
decide which welding process to use. This decision should be followed by selection of
the types of joints,
finally,
by determination of the locations and distribution of the welds, and, joint. Following is a brief discussion of the faceach design stage.
tors to
We
and realized
to
be welded.
In fact, there are other factors that should also affect the process of selecting a partic-
is
going
FIGURE 4.42
Magnetic testing of
welds:
weld;
(a)
defective
(b)
sound weld
(a)
(b)
118
Joining of Metals
to
be subjected during
is
its
service life
is
factor.
The manner
in
applied
(i.e.,
recommended
On
is
When
all
anticipated, other types of joints (e.g., the single-bevel-T, the double-bevel-T, and the
cases,
it is
is
whenever there
is
well.
It
an effect on
weld whose
in
linear direction
is
shown
Figure 4.43a,
is normal to the direction of the applied load, as 30 percent stronger than a lap weld whose linear direction
shown
in
first
case, the
maximum
force
F that
F=
0.707
Xhfx G
is is
allowable
(4.3)
where:
the
weld leg
weld
filler
^allowable is the
material (e.g.,
electrode)
In the
is
weld
is
and
equation:
F=
0.707 x x
is
Wx x
allowable
(4.4)
where:
the
weld leg
is
weld
^allowable
FIGURE 4.43
Location and
distribution of welds:
(a)
Force
Force
(b)
applied load
4.2 Welding
119
From
it is
in
both cases,
^allowable
^allowable
= 0.565 G
(4.5)
On
the other hand, the strength of a butt-welded joint can be given by the following
equation:
F=
where
t,
Wx a
(4.6)
W, and
a allowable
therefore,
make
when planning
of welds.
welded elements
us
to rotate
when
complete force
analysis must be carried out in order to determine the proper length of each weld. Let
now
consider a practical example to see the cause and the remedy for this tendency
shows an
its
L angle welded
to a plate.
Any
through the welds will not be equal; the force closer to the center of gravity of the
angle will always be
the
larger.
Consequently,
if
any tendency
to rotate is to
be prevented,
weld
that
is
closer to the center of gravity must be longer than the other one. Using
simple
statics,
it
W
It is
(4.7)
also
recommended
welds be avoided.
It
much more
common
design prac-
there are
some
FIGURE 4.44
Preventing the tendency
of the
w.
Angle
welded element
to rotate by appropriate
distribution of
yxxxx
><
welds
Center
of
gravity
7'
Center
of gravity
-of the
angle
120
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.45
Designs that promote
or eliminate distortion
in
welding:
(a) distortion
caused by
unbalanced weld;
(b)
and
(c)
methods
for
reducing distortion
(a)
(b)
(0
1. 2.
3.
Try
to
be applied.
Consider the heating effect on the base metal during the welding operation. Balance the welds to minimize distortion. Use short, intermittent welds. Figure 4.45a shows
distortion caused
in tanks as well as
like) that
would
welded
accumulate. Failure to do so
may
5.
Do Do
6.
not weld low-carbon steels to alloy steels by the conventional fusion welding methods because they have different critical cooling rates and hence cannot be successfully welded.
7.
When
(e.g.,
submerged
arc), the
conventional joint
Vs
is
For the
last
is
commonly known
as hard-facing.
Good
the deposit and the base metal and also at preventing the formation of cracks and other
defects in the deposited layer. Therefore, the deposited layer should not generally ex-
mm)
and
will rarely
121
should be heated to a temperature of 500F to 950F (350C to 500C) to ensure a to allow the deposited layer to cool down slowly.
Hard-facing permits the use of very hard wear- and corrosion-resisting com-
this process are complex. They involve hard compounds, like carbides and borides, that serve as the wear-resisting elements, and a tough matrix composed of air-hardening steel or iron-base alloys. Such deposited materials increase the service life
is
also
em-
ployed
in restoring
worn
parts.
equipment industry,
in
leum
industry.
The
list
pump
valve seats,
drive sprockets, ripper teeth, shovel teeth, chutes, and the edges of coal recovery
we
these processes
is
do
not,
by any
means,
ing), they
case.
same equipment
cutting processes are not alternatives to sawing but rather are used
1 to 10 inches (25 to 250 mm) thick, as well as for difficult-tomachine materials. Thermal cutting may be manual, using a hand-operated cutting
torch (or electrode), or the cutting element can be machine driven by a numerically
Oxyfuel Cutting
Oxyfuel cutting (OFC)
is
mm). During the process, red-hot iron, directly subjected to the flame, is oxidized by the extra oxygen in the flame; it then burns up, leaving just ashes or slag. Also, the stream of burning gases washes away any molten metal in the
region being cut. Generally, there
is
The higher
Although acetylene
is
commonly used
is
sometimes used as a
compressed
the ignition
The oxyfuel
lower than
its
the successful application of the process involves ensuring that the melting points of the
122
Joining of Metals
recommended for cast iron because its ignition temperature is higher than its melting point. The process is also not appropriate for cutting stainless steel, high-alloy chromium and chrome-nickel alloys, and nonferrous alloys because the melting points
of the oxides of these metals are higher than the melting points of the metals themselves.
Arc Cutting
There are several processes based upon
arc.
by an
electric
These arc cutting processes are generally employed for cutting nonferrous metals, medium-carbon steel, and stainless steel.
Conventional arc cutting
is
should always be remembered, however, that the electrode enters the gap
of the cut, so the coating must serve as an insulator to keep the electric arc from shorting out. Consequently, electrodes with coatings containing iron
powder
are not
recom-
mended
arc
The
arc-
blown.
Oxygen arc cutting. Oxygen arc cutting is similar to air arc cutting except that oxygen is blown instead of air. The process is capable of cutting cast irons and stainless
steels with thicknesses
up
to 2 inches (50
mm).
is
used.
if
The
contin-
carried out.
in
is
made of
tungsten
commonly employed
is
compressed
blow
Its
the
molten metal
all
has been fused by the arc) out of the kerf (groove). The process cuts almost
its
metals because
applications involve
steel structures.
Plasma arc
cutting.
plasma arc
is
employed
jet is
to cut metals in
obtained with oxyfuel), thus enabling high-speed cutting rates to be achieved. Also, as
is
mm). Plasma
limit
on the
123
FIGURE 4.46
Laser-beam cutting of
sheets and plates
Focusing
lens
Material
^^^ ^^^
Molten material
mm)
of the
cut.
The only
limitation
on
that the
workpiece must be
electrically conductive.
Laser-beam cutting.
of gas that
The basic
jet
shown
The function of
the
gas jet is to blow away the molten metal that has been fused by the laser beam. Laser beams can be employed in cutting almost any material, including nonconductive poly-
the process
is
beam
so that workpieces can be cut to any desired contour. Other advantages of the
laser-beam cutting process include the straight-edged kerfs obtained, the very narrow
heat-affected zone that results, and the elimination of the part distortion experienced
The
filler
alloy
must always have a melting point filler alloy must also possess
and adhere
to the surface
be able
to spread
of the
base metal).
As you may
is
obtained only
it.
if
aimed
me-
steels,
nonfer-
The
must be carefully
only under
to prevent
is
124
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.47
A sketch of the
micro-structure of two
Diffusion
brazed joints:
(a)
gold
base metal;
(b) low-
Au-Cu
solder
(a)
(b)
filler
The main
filler
is
metal in each case. Soft solders used in soldering have melting points below
joints with relatively
low mechanical
strength,
whereas
hard solders (brazing metals) have higher melting points, up to 1650F (900C), and
They
alloys.
On
consisting mainly of copper, silver, aluminum, magnesium, or nickel. Table 4.2 gives
recommended
field
filler
and the
commonly used
soft
Table 4.3.
TABLE 4.2
Recommended
filler
base metals
125
TABLE 4.3
Most commonly used
soft
filler
metals
126
Joining of Metals
is
When
it
forms the
Several other methods are also used for soldering. These include dip soldering and
induction soldering as well as the use of guns (blowtorches). Nevertheless, electric sol-
still
quite
common.
Brazing Techniques
The
selection of a preferred brazing
method has
to
the joined
joint, the
metal to be used,
suit-
When two
commonly used
in industry.
Torch brazing.
Torch brazing
is
still
the most
It
is
very
is
though
ing
this
flame
be
is
used
to
heat
the
joint
area
it
to
appropriate
filler
it
brazing
temperature.
ing alloy)
is
flux
melts, the
metal (braz-
hand-fed
When
the
filler
metal melts,
metal
should always be melted by the heat gained by the joint and not by directly applying the flame.
Furnace brazing.
of the furnace
Furnace brazing
is,
is
performed
in either a
ammonia,
nitrogen, argon,
Vacuum
ployed.
nace.
is often emThe filler metal must be placed in the joint before the parts go inside the furThe filler metal can, in this case, take the form of a ring, washer, wire, powder,
or paste.
Induction brazing.
In induction brazing, the
components
to
placing them in an alternating magnetic field that, in turn, induces an alternating current in the
components
employed
metal
is
often placed in the joint area before brazing but can also be hand-fed by the
which
is
joint to be brazed in a
molten
is
filler
The
latter is
in a special externally
covered
127
it
filler
is
Salt-bath brazing.
ride
and chloride
also
The source of heating in salt-bath brazing is a molten bath of fluoThe filler metal is placed in the joint area before brazing and is sometimes cladded. Next, the whole assembly is preheated to an appropriate temsalts.
1
erally, this
process
is
employed
for brazing
remove any remaining flux or salt. Genaluminum and its alloys. There is, however,
is
Resistance brazing.
is
this process,
is
justed so as to be just enough to secure the position of the contact where heat develops. The workpiece is held between the two electrodes, with the filler metal
preloaded
This process
is
two main
The
first
metal flows through the joint by capillary attraction. The second factor is that the strength of the filler metal is poorer than that of the base metals. The product designer
filler
metal
is
filler
brazing.
That clearance
less than
is
filler
can go up to
Ensuring that the distance to be traveled by the filler metal distant, as dictated by the physics of capillarity.
Providing enough
filler
is
4.
5.
metal.
filler
metal
is
weaker than
and
lap.
butt, scarf,
The
butt joint
the weakest,
is
when designing
lap joints,
more than 3f, where t is the thickness of the thinner parent metal. Examples of some good and poor practices in the design of brazed joints are shown in Figure 4.48 as guidelines for beginners in product design. Also, always remember that brazed joints are designed to carry shear stress and not tension.
make
128
Joining of Metals
FIGURE 4.48
Good and poor
practices
in
<
essssxzzzzzi
Poor
3t
the design
sssss^zzzza
Good
ESSSZZZZZ
Better
ggF
Best
23
Best
of brazed joints
w
Poor
77t\
Good
Poor
w*
Good
Jzzzzzzi
m
S
KS/////A
(SSS3E2ZZZ3 tsssizzzzzj
tzzzz ^vq SI
IzzzzS
SSSSS3
Poor
Poor
Good
Good
TICKING OF METALS
Sticking, or adhesive bonding, of metals
aircraft, offer.
is
in the
automotive,
can
Thanks
development
in the
now
cheap, can be applied easily and quickly, and can produce reasonably strong
joints.
als or
in
comIt is
As we know,
it
is
ing agent into the pores of the workpiece as occurs, for instance, with
Adhesives
Structural adhesives are normally systems including one or
In their
more polymeric
materials.
unhardened
can take the form of viscous liquids or solids with softening temperatures of about
212F (100C). The unhardened adhesive agents are often soluble in ketones, esters, and higher alcohols, as well as in aromatic and chlorine hydrocarbons. The hardened
129
all
solvents.
Adhesives
acrylics,
and polyin
urethanes. Following
industry.
commonly used
Epoxies are thermosetting polymers (see Chapter 8) that require the addition of a hardener or the application of heat so that they can be cured. Epoxies are considered to be the best sticking agents because of their versatility, their resistance to
Epoxies.
solvents,
and
their ability to
joints.
Phenolics are characterized by their low cost and heat resistance of up 930F (500C). They can be cured by a hardener or by heat or can be used about
Phenolics.
to
in
solvents that evaporate and thus allow setting to occur. Like epoxies, phenolics are
thermosetting polymers with good strength, but they generally suffer from brittleness.
Polyamide.
is
characterized by
its oil
and water
re-
sistance. Polyamides are usually applied in the form of hot melts but can also be used
by evaporation of solvents in which they have been dissolved. Polyamides are normally used as can-seam sealants and the like. They are also used as hot-melt for shoes.
Silicones.
strength are the major limitations. Therefore, silicones are usually used as high-
temperature sealants.
Joint Preparation
The
surfaces to be
amalgamate with fats, oils, or wax. Joint preparation involves grinding with sandpaper, grinding and filling, sand blasting, and pickling and degreasing with trichlorethylene. Oxide films, electroplating coats, and varnish films need not be removed (as long as they are fixed to the surface). Roughening of the surface is advantageous, provided that
it is
not overdone.
Joint Design
There are basically three types of adhesive-bonded joints. They are shown in Figure 4.49 and include tension, shear, and peel joints. Most of the adhesives are weaker in peel and tension than in shear. Therefore, when selecting an adhesive, you should always keep in mind the types of stresses to which the joint is going to be subjected. It
is
also
recommended
that
you avoid using tension and peel joints and change the dewhenever possible.
FIGURE 4.49
The three types
of
adhesive-bonded joints
Peel
Tension
Sheer
130
Joining of Metals
Review Questions
1.
2.
What does
fric-
What
made
of?
3. List 4.
some
applications of riveting.
riv-
fric-
some
What
is
How
and
dis-
22.
inertia
welding have
What
methods for
some
How
would you break all the manufacturing methods into groups according to each of these classifying methods?
Explain briefly the mechanics of solid-state
welding.
welding.
25. List
some of
the
common
industrial applica-
9.
26.
What
is
10.
What
are the
that
must be
welding
27.
28.
ing? Explain.
overcome so
How
What
is
can be achieved?
11.
are the
common
applications of thermit
What
is
welding?
29.
How
in
diffusion
bonding?
30. List the different processes that belong to resistance welding.
inter-
13. List
some
welding.
14. Discuss briefly the mechanics of ultrasonic
welding.
15.
resistance-butt
What What
welding.
welding?
16.
are
33. List
the
different
some of the
applications of resistance-butt
types
of ultrasonic
welding.
common
17.
to all these
machines.
What
ing
is
is
on which
weld-
35.
Draw
based?
131
36.
When
What
ing?
is
flash
welding?
37.
is
What
is
the
in
59.
What provides
welding?
38. Explain the basic idea of percussion welding. 39. Explain briefly the mechanics of spot welding. 40.
60.
What
is
How
is
it
perthis
Draw
Draw
welded
41.
a sketch to
show
61.
is
spot-welding machine.
42.
welding?
62.
How
welding?
43. List 44.
some of
the advantages of
seam welding.
seam
63.
submerged
arc
welding always
What
welding?
45. 46.
64. List
some of
the advantages of
submerged
arc
What
What
ing?
is
welding.
65.
66.
What provides
shielding in
MIG
welding?
it-
Why
How
What
does the
MIG
47.
What
is
two metals
automation?
be
67.
How many
welding be controlled?
in a joint
68.
is
the
MIG
some of
the applications of
TIG
welding.
HAZ
stand?
electric
70. In
phenomenon of the
when would you use an ac power supply and when would you use DCSP
welding,
TIG
and how
it
and
DCRP?
51.
What What
the difference
between
DCSP
and
72.
When
is
mended?
Do you
true arc
What
What
is
welding process?
in
molten
metal
during
74.
How
When
What
the elec-
What
is
the
75.
is
mended?
76.
is
some of
flame welding?
132
Joining of Metals
77.
How
is
94.
What
rules
operations?
78.
What does
component.
equipment required
in
gas
95. 96.
What What
ing?
is
meant by hard-facing ?
are the
79.
What
97. List
the
main
types
of
thermal
cutting
How
is
tained?
80.
What
98.
How
What
and
differ
from
the effect of the oxygen-to-acetylene ratio the nature of the flame obtained.
on
99.
those of welding?
is
the
81. Explain
briefly
the
operating
principles
of
soft soldering?
fillers
electron-beam welding.
82.
that
can be
83. List
soft solders.
the
84.
applications of electron-
in soft soldering.
how
a laser
beam
ca-
105. In
soft soldering,
how
fused?
ated.
in
and
limita-
welding.
tions of each.
88.
What
are the
welding?
89. List
you take
the applications of laser-beam
into consideration
when designing
some of
brazed joint?
welding.
re-
How
niques?
avoided?
91.
What
What
are the
main
of
common
appli-
Which one
is
93.
On what
of welds planned?
133
Pr oblem
3
1.
Two
steel slabs,
mm)
thick,
An
are to be joined by
two
fillet
welds
(i.e., at
both
inch (75 by 75 by 6
plate using an
mm)
2
is
to
be welded to a
is
2.5 inches
E7014
mm)
is
to withstand a load of
al-
strength
the joint
= 21,000
is
lb/in.
145,000
KN/m 2
).
If
pounds
(44.5
KN)
be used
2.
in welding.
make
weld
Two
steel plates,
mm)
thick,
is
distribution of the
any ten-
are to be joined by
to withstand a load
two
fillet
to rotate.
Two
(19
mild
steel pipes,
and
an
E7014
(allowable
tensile
is
mm)
strength
= 21,000
width
lb/in.
i.e.,
145,000
KN/m 2 )
gether by brazing.
Assuming
is
to
10 inches (254
mm), how
would you
3.
distribute the
of copper to be 6000
lb/in.
i.e.,
41,430
Two
steel plates,
Two
filler
mild
steel sheets,
sand-
thick, are to
wiched between them. The width of each of the first two plates is 4 inches (100 mm), whereas
the width of the third one
is
when
sults
manufactured according
to
Compare
The two plates overlap the third one by 6 inches (150 mm), and an E7014 electrode (allowable 2 tensile strength = 21,000 lb/in. 145,000
,
that gives
max-
imum
KN/m 2 )
is to
be used.
If the joint is to
withstand
power supply for arc welding is rated at a 150-A 30-percent duty cycle. What will be the power supply
welding
is
is
on
if
the cur-
calculations.
employed
in
only 125
A?
Design Example
PROBLEM
r-
W&4TA
You are required to design a flat-belt pulley so that it can be fabricated by welding. The pulley is to be mounted on a shaft that is 1 A inches (3 1 mm) in diameter, and the outside diameter of the rim is 10 inches (250 mm). The rim of the pulley is to provide
l
134
Joining of Metals
600 lb ft (816 Nm) from a 2-inch- wide (50-mm) The number of pulleys required is only 5.
flat
Solution
It
is
ness of rim). Information about the safe speeds of various sizes of pulleys should also
be collected. Key.
The
best strategy
is
to
it
will
in the
is
is
easy to replace.
key material
It
AISI 1020
CD
steel,
which
is
has
= 78,000
lb/in.
= 66,000
lb/in."
2
= 38,000
lb/in.
is
given by
T
r
600
lb
ft
x 12
in/ft
,, c n
1 1
,520 pounds
0.625 inch
to
its
length in inches:
xa
ii
wabie
Xallowable
38,000 ~~
= 19,000
,.
..
lb/in.~
FIGURE 4.50
Forces acting on the
key
0.
25 inch
135
Therefore,
11,520
= 19.000
!/4x
and
But,
mm)
bearing stress
=
!/4
11,520
stress
xVixi
<
= 33,000
Therefore,
lb/in.
(safety factor of 2)
mm)
We
take this value to ensure safety against both shearing and compressing loads.
it,
We
is
to
Hub.
wall.
A suitable
be less
Use a round seamless tube having a 2.25-inch outer diameter and 9/16-inch material is AISI 1020 CD steel. Again, the length of the hub must not than 2.8 inches to keep the bearing stress below the allowable value. Take it as
2.875 inches.
Rim.
Use a round seamless tube having a 10-inch outer diameter and 1/4-inch
is
wall.
AISI 1020
CD
steel
because of
its
availability
and
ability
moving
belt.
Spokes.
five
problem and necessitates the use of a complicated welding fixture. Therefore, the spokes are to be replaced in the design by a web. Use a 5/16-inch flat plate, machined
to
have an outer diameter of 9.43 inches and an inner diameter 2.31 inches. An appropriate material is AISI 1020 HR steel. Because weight can be a factor, it is good practice to provide six equally spaced holes in the web by machining. These can also serve
as an aid in the handling
Welding.
stress
Use conventional
2
arc
= 21,000
is
lb/in.
can be used.
A fillet
The
force
given by
torque
radius
p=
7200
1.125 inches
pounds
H
"'
t
UJ
.c
|
to
O
LL
136
137
the
weld
is
mm)
Ax 0.707x0.57x21,000
inches. Space four 90 apart around the circumference
Use 2.00 inches (50 mm) of weld on each side of the hub. The circumference of the hub equals n times 2.25, or 7.06
welds, each 0.5 inch (12.5
mm)
in length, equally,
web should be
staggered.
is
Adopt
the
same welds
is
They should be
all
much lower
(the radius
Once
the pulley as
shown
in the
to construct
jgn Projects
1.
feet
(1200
mm)
in
by 3 feet (900 by 900 mm), and should be able to Because only two tables are required, the design should
involve the use of steel angles and a plate that are to be joined together by welding.
2.
air. It
3
)
and
re-
3.
The capacity of the tank is 30 cubic feet (0.85 m ), and the maximum gage pressure is 70 ata, but the pressure is pulsating from zero to the maximum value about once every 5 minutes. The number of tanks required is 100.
4.
A straight-toothed
the gear
ter is 7.5
is
ft
(1632
Nm) to a
2-inch-diameter (50
mm)
steel shaft
(AISI 1045
8 inches (200
inches (187.5
The pitch diameter of inches (75 mm), and the base diamesteel).
CD
(i.e.,
be-
A
1
mobile winch
(little
crane) can be moved on casters. It has a capacity of lifting m) about ground. The lifting arm can be extended, and the 1/2 ton for up to 6 feet (1.8 m). Knowing that the production
that casters
to
be purof
full specifications
138
Joining of Metals
6.
The
It is
lifting
arm
for a crane is
to
be used
in construction
60 feet (about 20 m), and its lifting capacity is 1 ton. work and to be subjected to humidity, dirt, and so
arm using
be welded
Design a frame for a hydraulic press for fabrication by welding. The height of the
arm is 12 feet (about 4 m). The cross arm is mounted (by welding) on two columns that are, in turn, welded to the base. The press can produce a maximum load of 200 tons by means of a hydraulic cylinder attached to the cross arm (below it), and the stroke is 12 inches (300 mm).
cross
vertical
TIP:
The energy absorbed when the frame deforms should not exceed 2
per-
Chapter 5
Metal Forming
T
-+
INTRODUCTION
Metal forming processes have gained significant attention since World War
a result of the rapid increase
in
II
as
the form of
final
material
in
its
metal forming
uti-
raw material
an appreciable ma-
waste.
although metal forming techniques were employed
in in
In fact,
manufacturing
in
working
Among
productivity
in
still
being
used
all
for
is
metal products are subjected to forming, at least at one stage during their
production. This latter fact clearly manifests the importance of the metal forming
methods.
139
140
Metal Forming
two
In this
chap-
only bulk forming processes (e.g., forging, cold forming, and rolling) are
i6> LASTIC
DEFORMATION
Factors Affecting Plastic Deformation
During any forming process, the material
the
plastically flows while the total
volume of
changes
crystal lattice
of the metal, resulting in a corresponding change in the properties of the material. This
latter
plastic
deformation and flow of metal are caused by movement and transfer of dislo-
cations (defects in the crystal lattice) through the material with the final
ther piling
outcome of ei-
is
well
is that
known
The reason
components
and chemical compounds impedes the transfer and migration of dislocations, resulting
in
lower
plasticity.
As
The
higher the temperature, the higher the plasticity and the lower the yield point. Moreover,
ture.
no work-hardening occurs
at
growth of new grains of metal from the fragments of the deformed grains, together
with restoring any distortion in the crystal
to the level of a
lattice.
nonwork-hardened
fact, a
state,
whereas
forming process
termed hot
the tempera-
which deformation takes place is higher than the recrystallization temperature. Lead that is formed at room temperature in summer actually undergoes hot forming
because the recrystallization temperature for lead
is
39.2F (4C).
When
deforma-
below the
process
is
work-hardening due
up of dislocations. As a
result, strength
and hardness
increase while both ductility and notch toughness decrease. These changes can be
(annealing).
On
when
hot forming a
metal, the initial dendritic structure (the primary structure after casting) disintegrates
crystals elongate in the direction of the metal flow.
The
insoluble
141
impurities like nonmetallic inclusions (around the original grain boundaries) are drawn and squeezed between the elongated grains. This texture of flow lines is usually referred to as the fibrous macrostructure. This fibrous macrostructure is permanent and cannot be removed by heat treatment or further working. As a result, there is always
anisotropy of mechanical properties; strength and toughness are better in the longitugrain dinal direction of fibers. Also, during hot forming, any voids or cracks around
boundaries are closed, and the metal welds together, which, in turn, results in improvements in the mechanical properties of the metal.
Rate of deformation. It can generally be stated that the rate of deformation (strain metal working adversely affects the plasticity of the metal (i.e., an increase in the the deformation rate is accompanied by a decrease in plasticity). Because it takes process of recrystallization some time to be completed, that process will not have
rate) in
enough time
for completion when deformation occurs at high strain rates. Therefore, mean greater resistance of the metal to deformation should be expected. This does not
that the metal
becomes
brittle.
State of stress.
tudes and
state
of stress
at a
The
state
of stress
in fact, a precise
and
forces acting scientific expression for the magnitudes and the directions of the external of stress can be reduced to only nine main systems, as on the metal. All possible states
shown
in Figure 5.1.
in turn,
FIGURE 5.1
The nine main systems
of the state of stress 1
142
Metal Forming
group includes two systems that are characterized by the absence of stress (forces) along two directions, and the stress system is therefore called uniaxial. This is the case
first
when
its
width. In
is
absent.
is
form
may
approximately
two or more
directions.
The remaining
all
state
operations (forging, rolling, and wire drawing) cause states of stress that belong to this
latter
group.
dependent upon the degree of deformation, which is the absolute value of the natural logarithm of the ratio of the final length of the billet to its original length. On the other hand, the energy consumed throughout the forming
usual strain-rate levels)
is
process
is
equivalent to the area under the load-deformation curve for that forming
process. Therefore, that energy can be calculated if the relationship between the load
known. Figure 5.2 shows the degree of deformation and the energy consumed in an upsetting operation. It must be noted that in both hot and cold working, there is an upper limit for the degree of deformation (especially in cold workand the deformation
is
ing)
in the
workpiece
initiate.
This
is
particularly important
when forming
steels.
Attention must
bring them to a
is
FIGURE 5.2
The degree of
deformation and the
energy consumed
upsetting
in
I
.
Original
length
Final
length
Deformation
l4
143
deformed
part.
If the
temperature gradient
is
high, thermal
may
initiate
is
and can cause internal cracks. This usually happens when a porabove the critical temperature of metal (AC] or AC 3 ) while the rest
larger the cross section of the billet
of the
billet is not.
The
its
coefficient
li-
of thermal conductivity, the steeper the temperature gradient will be, and the more of heating should be kept fairly low (about 2 hours per inch of section of the
order not to allow a great difference to occur between the temperatures
able to internal cracking during heating the billet becomes. In the latter case, the rate
billet) in
at the surface
billet.
The metal must then be "soaked" at the maximum temperaenough to ensure uniformity of temperature.
to
which the
billet is
usually an
range may, on the contrary, result in a defective product. Burned metal and coarse
grain structure are heated.
some of
when
a metal
is
excessively
The
ingots
may
be heated
in
all
soaking
pits,
forge hearths,
chamber furnaces, or
lines,
is
re-
Friction
in
is
generally con-
at the
is not homogeneous, which leads to the outcome being an unsound product with inferior surface quality. Also, friction increases the pressure acting on the forming tool (as well as the power and energy consumed) and thus results in greater wear of the
initiation
tools.
is
drastically different
because extremely high pressure between the mating bodies (tool and workinvolved. Recent theories on friction in metal forming indicate that
it is
piece)
is
is
generated as a
result of relative
When
metal-to-metal contact, slipping and shear flow occur in a layer adjacent to the contact
interface. But, if a surface of contact
is
tance (a lubricant that can be solid or liquid), slipping takes place through that layer of
144
Metal Forming
low
magnitude of the
in shear)
friction force is
ing metals having relatively high yield strength in compression. Figure 5.3
shows
the
shear layer in three different cases: solid lubrication, dry sticking friction, and hydro-
dynamic
(liquid) lubrication.
its
harmful
lower load and energy requirement, prevention of galling or sticking of the workpiece
metal onto the tool, better surface finish of products, and longer tool
consideration
An
important
to
when
selecting a lubricant
is
its
activity
(i.e.,
its
ability
adhere
The
however, be en-
hanced by adding material with high capability of adsorption, such as fat acids. Among other factors to be considered are thermal stability, absence of poisonous fumes, and
complete burning during heat treatment of the products. In cold forming processes, vegetable and mineral oils as well as aqueous emulsions are
employed
as lubricants.
inating excessive heat and thus reducing the temperature of the tool. Solid polymers,
waxes, and solid soaps (sodium or calcium stearates) are also widely used
metal working.
For relatively high temperature applications, chlorinated organic compounds and sulfur compounds are used. Solid lubricants like molybdenum disulfide and graphite
possess low-friction properties up to elevated temperatures and are, therefore, used as
solid lubricants in hot forming. Graphite
is
sometimes dispersed
has been
in grease, especially
cant
when
alloy steels
low
FIGURE 5.3
The shear
different
layer
in
Pressure
three
Soft metal
cases
Dry
sticking
friction
Liquid
lubricant
5.2 Rolling
145
own
set
each renders
will
prove the quality of the surface, and provide good dimensional accuracy, but the
plastic properties of the metal (elongation percentage
age) and the impact strength drop. Therefore, the final properties of cold-formed
products are obtained as required by adjusting the degree of deformation and the
parameters of the postheating treatment process. Because the loads involved in cold
this
technique
is
generally
employed
in the
manufacture of small
parts of soft, ductile metals, such as low-carbon steel. Also, large quantities
must be
produced
working
is
results
in better machinability.
Therefore,
more
suitable for
machining purposes
On
are used
the other hand, the yield strength of a metal drops significantly at elevated
when forming
large
re-
ingots or billets because the loads and energies needed are far
quired in cold forming. Moreover, hot forming refines the grain structure, thus pro-
ducing softer and more ductile parts suitable for further processing by cold forming
processes. However, high temperatures affect the surface quality of products, giving
Decarburization
may
also
occur
in
steels,
especially
when
hot
forming
high-carbon
steel.
The
must be removed by
one or more machining processes. This slows down the production, adds machining costs, and yields waste material, resulting in lower efficiency of material utilization.
further
limitation
of hot
forming
is
reduced tool
life
due
to
the
softening of tool surfaces at elevated temperatures and the rubbing action of the hot metal while flowing. This actually subjects the tools to thermal fatigue, which
shortens their
life.
5.2 ROLLING
convert metal ingots to simple stock
most widely used metal forming process because it is employed to members called blooms and slabs. This process refines the structure of the cast ingot, improves its mechanical properties, and eliminates the hidden internal defects. The process is termed primary rolling and is fol-
Hot
rolling
is
the
Some
of
may be
sequence of
FIGURE 5.4
Sequence
of operations involved in manufacturing rolled products
Finished products
146
5.2 Rolling
147
Principles of Rolling
The process of
rolling consists of passing the metal through a
is
gap between
rolls rotat-
rolls
ward because of
compress the metal while simultaneously shifting it forWhen the workpiece comrolls,
it
is
As
its
Howin
and
is
usually neglected.
As can be seen
Figure 5.5, which shows the rolling of a plate, the decrease in thickness is called draft, whereas the increase in length and the increase in width are termed absolute elongation
Two
coefficient
relative draft e
Ah x 100
K- h{
=
x 100
(5.1)
coefficient of elongation
r\
is
(5.2)
constant,
it
follows that
(5.3)
hf x b
At
to the
Equation 5.3 indicates that the coefficient of elongation is adversely proportional ratio of the final to the original cross-sectional areas of the work.
As can be seen in Figure 5.6, the metal is deformed in the shaded area, or deformation zone. The metal remains unstrained before this area and does not undergo any further deformation after it. It can also be seen that the metal undergoing deformation
is in It
AB, which
is
of bite. From the geometry of the drawing and by employing simple trigonometry, can be shown that
cos
a=
K - hf
1
__
2R
_ Ah 2R
(5.4)
FIGURE 5.5
Simple
rolling of a plate
Neck
Body
Wobbler
148
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.6
The deformation zone,
state of stress, and
angle of contact
rolling
in
Equation 5.4 gives the relationship between the geometrical parameters of the rolling
process, the angle of contact, the draft, and the radius of the rolls. Note that in order to
ensure that the metal will be shifted by friction, the angle of contact must be less than
fi,
where tan P =
u,
between
roll
surface
and metal). In
maximum
upon other
factors,
the
rolling temperature
main
stress
system
in the
deformation zone in a
maximum
is
on each of the
when doing
It is
power consumption
in
TABLE 5.1
Maximum
rolling
allowable
Maximum
Rolling Process
Rolling of
Allowable
Angle of Contact
24-30 c 15-20 e
2-10 c
Hot
rolling of
5.2 Rolling
149
a rolling process. Unfortunately, the exact determination of that rolling load and power consumption is complicated and requires knowledge of theory of plasticity as well as
calculus. Nevertheless, a
first
approximation of the
roll
<
5 -5 )
is
is
equal to
where Y
the
mean
F= l.\5YxbxVRxAh
Equation 5.6 neglects the effect of friction
at the
(5-6)
gives lower estimates of the load. Based on experiments carried out on a wide range of rolling mills, this equation can be modified to account for friction by multiplying by
a factor of
1
.2.
is
F=
mate
1.2
x 1.157x6
xV/TxA/i
cannot be obtained easily; however, a rough
given by
(5.7)
esti-
in the process
in low-friction conditions is
hp =
xbxRx Ahxoi
angular velocity of rolls in radians per second, and Y,
b,
ce , (5.8,
,
where
all in
co is the
R and Ah
are
English
units.
Rolling Mills
A rolling
more
roll
The
roll
stand
is
the
main
rolls
where the
rolling process
is
actually performed.
It
basically consists of
housings in which antifriction bearings that are used for carrying (mounting) the
are
fitted.
Moreover, there
is
screw-down mechanism
to control the
rolls
and thus the required thickness of the product. Depending upon the profile of the rolled product, the body of the roll may be eishapes ther smooth for rolling sheets (plates or strips) or grooved for manufacturing each side), as structural members. A roll consists of a body, two necks (one on such and two wobblers (see Figure 5.5). The body is the part that contacts and deforms the
while the metal of the workpiece. The necks rotate in bearings that act as supports,
wobblers serve to couple the roll to the drive. Rolls are usually made from highvery severe serquality steel and sometimes from high-grade cast iron to withstand the such as vice conditions to which the rolls are subjected during the rolling process,
combined bending and torque, friction and wear, and thermal effects. Gray cast-iron or forged-steel rolls rolls are employed in roughing passes when hot rolling steel. Castcold-rolling mills. are used in blooming, slabbing, and section mills as well as in Forged rolls are stronger and tougher than cast rolls. Alloy-steel rolls made of chromenickel or
chrome-molybdenum
steels are
150
5
Metal Forming
main types of
number and arrangement of the rolls in a rolling mills, as shown in Figure 5.7a
through
e.
Two-high rolling
mills.
Two-high
rolls.
have a two-high
where the
rolls
arranged in a single vertical plane. This type of mill has a constant direction of
rotation,
and
it is
rolls
re-
quirement.
If
such small-diameter
rolls are
in
nonuniform thickness distribution along the width of the sheet, as shown in Figure 5.8. For this reason, another two backup rolls are used to minimize bending and increase the
rigidity
rolls are
Also, the backup rolls always have larger diameters than those of the working
Multihigh rolling mills (Sendzimir mills).
in
down
to
0.0005 inch
(0.01
mm)
and a width up
to
work-
ing rolls
mm)
up
mm).
FIGURE 5.7
The
five
main types of
high rolling
mill; (b)
^
(a)
(d)
multihigh rolling
mill;
(e)
(0
3!^
(d)
^y}.
(e)
5.2 Rolling
151
Distorted
roll
FIGURE 5.8
Rolling thin sheets with
Original
small-diameter
rolls
..y -y_.
shape
Such small-diameter working rolls make a drive practically impossible. They are, by friction through an intermediate row of driving rolls that are, in turn, supported by a row of backup rolls. This arrangement involves a cluster of either
therefore, driven
12 or 20
rolls, resulting in
roll
An
around a
beams (Gray's beams). In this type of mill, there are horizontal ones. The vertical rolls of universal mills (for
producing structural shapes) are idle and are arranged between the bearing chocks of
the horizontal rolls in the vertical plane.
The Range
The range of
cations
of Rolled Products
rolled products
is
shape, dimensions, tolerances, properties, and the like are given in a standard specifi-
handbook
that differs
from country
to country.
rolled prod-
The
first
like
in-
shapes) like
rails
construction
work and
roll
industry.
Figure 5.9 shows a variety of sections that belong to this group. These products are
rolled in either rail mills or section mills,
has grooves
made
is
in the
rolls in
such a man-
ner as to
lie in
the
same
vertical plane.
They
skill
the stock
is
partly
is
deformed
at
in succession).
The
of a rolling engineer
to plan
and con-
ilI
producing
rails;
beam.
152
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.9
Some
rolling
structural
shapes
or sections produced by
^
/
E^^
Slab
Square
Hexagonal
Round
VZZJVZZ2
bzzzzzzi
Equal-sided angle
>^
L-section
T-section
TZZZ7ZZD
/^77>
I
T
beam
is
I SSSSSi ^sss
Channel beam
^777^77*
Rail
Plates
in
in plate
and
where multihigh
products
A
is
flat
5/32 inch (4
ner
flat
mm)
up
to
4 inches (100
mm)
wheels, rings, balls, ribbed tubes, and die-rolled sections in which the cross section
its
length.
in the
a rolled wheel for railway cars; Figure 5.11b, the wheel during the final stage in the
Seamless tubes.
steps:
shell
1. Piercing an ingot or a
form a thick-walled
2. Rolling the obtained shell into a hollow thin-walled tube having the desired diam-
eter
center-drilled at
to the appropriate
temperature, and then placed in the piercing mill and forced into contact with the
working
rolls.
has barrel-shaped
two
skew
lines,
each deviating with a small angle from the direction of the blank
rol)s rotate in the
two same direction, forcing the blank to rotate and proceed against a mandrel. A hole is formed and becomes larger; finally, a rough tube is obtained. The milling stand is provided with side rollers for guiding the blank and the formed rough
axis. Also, the
is
tube during this operation. In the second step, the hollow shell (rough tube)
usually
is
5.2 Rolling
153
FIGURE 5.10
Roll
passes:
(a) for
producing
producing an
beam
Final
pass
few
sizing
THT
passes
i~
Final
(b)
pass
state
between grooved
rolls.
may
be performed, between
in order to
siz-
room temperature
improve the
Lubrication
in
Rolling Processes
and has some beneficial
ef-
provided that
rolls
it
is
it
is
work
a lu-
between the
and should
is
when choosing
154
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.11
The production of a
railway car wheel: (a)
sequence
wheel
mill
of stages; (b)
in final
stage
in
incj^
(b)
paraffin
is
aluminum or copper
On
often car-
the scales that are formed. Sometimes, an emulsion of graphite or graphited grease
used.
Defects
in
Rolled Products
A
is
particular defect
usually associated with a particular process and does not arise in other processes.
common
Edge cracking.
to
and
is
believed
be caused by either limited ductility of the work metal or uneven deformation, es-
FIGURE 5.12
The production
of
seamless tubes by
rolling
155
FIGURE 5.13
156
Metal Forming
usu-
washed
to
remove
is
The
final
dry-
washed blanks
at a
moisture and a great deal of the hydrogen dissolved in the metal, thus helping to avoid
pickling brittleness.
If steel is to
its
surface should
is
then be conditioned for receiving and retaining the drawing lubricant. Conditioning
performed directly
after pickling
plying a film of iron, manganese, or zinc phosphates to which lubricants stick very
Liming neutralizes
is
pering
and forms a vehicle for the lubricant. Copachieved by immersing the steel rods (or
Wire Drawing
body and the die holder. whereas die holders are made of good-quality tool steel that possesses high toughness. The constructional details of a die are shown in Figure 5.14. It can be seen from the figure that the die opening involves four zones: entry, working zone, die bearing, and exit. The entry zone
dies.
Drawing
die
is
common
steel,
allows the lubricant to reach the working zone easily and also protects the wire (or rod)
against scoring by sharp edges.
is
FIGURE 5.14
The constructional
details of a drawing die
*~ Drawing force
157
angle that ranges between 6 and 24, depending upon the type of work and the metal
is
is
performed
to
exit
is pointed by swaging and then fed freely into the die hole so that it appears behind the die. This pointed end is gripped by the jaws of a carriage that pull the wire through the die opening, where it undergoes reduction in cross-sectional area and elongation in length.
Draw benches.
coil
first
drawing
die.
Then,
it is
wound two
A typical draw
may
bench of
this
type
is
shown
include from 2 up
22 draw
plates,
may
it
attain a velocity of
9800
feet per
Lubrication reduces the required drawing force and the energy conthe process, increases the service life of the die,
sumed during
wire surface to be obtained. Various kinds of soap are used as lubricants in wire-
stearate,
which
is
picked up
apply
to the die.
difficult to
in severe conditions,
etable oils containing fatty or chlorinated additives are also used as drawing lubricants.
Mechanics
of wire drawing.
The
state
Figure 5.14) involves compressive forces along two of the directions and tension along
the third one.
An
F=
a{
xYxn(^
(5.9)
FIGURE 5.15
A
typical multidie
draw
Draw
plates (dies)
bench
Capstan
Original
drum
wire coil
158
Metal Forming
where: a
is is is
af Y
mean
aja
is
drawing
equation:
1.3.
Another conju-
used
in
drawing processes
reduction r
a ~ a{ a
x 100
(5.10)
The
theoretically obtained
maximum
is
64 percent; however,
it
Defects
different
in
wire drawing.
in
Structural
damage
in the
in
forms
some of
form of repeating
internal
frac-
when drawing
under conditions of
2. Similar centerline
light draft
die angle
arrowhead fractures occur if the blank is a sheet and when the and reduction produce severe tension on the centerline.
may occur
Tube Drawing
Diameter and thickness of pipes can be reduced by drawing. Figure 5.16 illustrates the simplest type of tube drawing. The final tube thickness is affected by two contradicting factors.
The
make
If a large die
angle
dominate.
in
the limitation
However, a disadvantage of this type of tube drawing is by the length of the mandrel. When tubes having longer length are to be drawn, a floating mandrel like that shown in Figure 5.18 is then employed. Another method that has gained widespread application is
and controls
its
thickness.
imposed on
shown
in
Figure 5.19.
5.4 EXTRUSION
Extrusion involves forcing a
ing
billet that is
whose cross-sectional area and dimensions billet. The cross section of the extruded metal
conform
to that
FIGURE 5.16
Simplest type of tube
drawing
FIGURE 5.17
Tube drawing using a
fixed plug
Pull
FIGURE 5.18
Tube drawing using a
floating
mandrel
\\\V\V\\\\V-
^^w
Pull
was
first
It
later
aluminum,
zinc,
such as
for extrusion
Any
removed by saw-
160
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.19
Tube drawing using a
removable mandrel
trusion process
state is
is
when
known
as cold extrusion;
when
is
known
must be heated
cycle.
to a temperature of
Types of Extrusion
Direct extrusion.
Direct extrusion
is
used
in the
slender products and for structural shapes that cannot be obtained by any other metal
illustrates the
working principles of
this
ure 5.21 shows the details of an extrusion die arrangement for producing channel sections.
As can be
is
a plunger the
and then
At
end of the
container.
FIGURE 5.20
Principles of direct
Plunger
Container
5.4 Extrusion
161
is
is
product does not undergo enough deformation. It is, therefore, poorly shaped and must be removed as well. Obviously, the efficiency of material utilization in this case is low, and the waste can amount to 10 or even 15 percent, as opposed to rolling, where the
waste
is
only
to 3 percent.
in-
FIGURE 5.21
Typical extrusion die
arrangement
for
producing channel
sections
Container
162
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.22
Direct extrusion for
producing hollow
objects
Figure 5.22 illustrates the technique used for producing hollow sections and tubes.
As can be
seen, a mandrel or a needle passes freely through a hole in the blank and the
is
circular,
When
the metal
forms a tube.
extruded.
Based on
this discussion,
it is
On
its
disadvantages
inis
clude low
life,
complex shapes with high-dimensional accuusually employed especially when the material of the product has a low plasticity. Figures 5.23 and racy, 5.24 show some extruded sections and parts, and Figure 5.25 shows some final prodfor the manufacture of
ucts assembled
from extruded
sections.
FIGURE 5.23
Some
extruded
sections (Courtesy of
Midwest Aluminum,
Inc.,
Kalamazoo,
Michigan)
5.4 Extrusion
163
FIGURE 5.24
Some
extruded parts
(Courtesy of Midwest
Aluminum,
Inc.,
Kalamazoo, Michigan)
Indirect extrusion.
is
mounted on a hollow
ram
let,
that is
pushed
into the container. Consequently, the die applies pressure to the bil-
which undergoes plastic deformation. As shown in Figure 5.26, the metal flows out of the die opening in a direction opposite to the ram motion. There is almost no sliding motion between the billet and the container walls. This eliminates friction, and the extrusion load will be lower than that required in forward direct extrusion by about 30
percent. Also, the
reduced to only 5 percent. Nevertheless, inof direct extrusion finds only limited application due to the complexity and the cost
is
Another indirect extrusion method, usually called backward or reverse extrusion, used in manufacturing hollow sections is shown in Figure 5.27. In this case, the metal As in indirect extrusion is extruded through the gap between the ram and the container.
for solid objects, the
ram and
164
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.25
Some
products assembled from extruded sections (Courtesy of Midwest Aluminum,
Inc.
Kalamazoo, Michigan)
Hydrostatic extrusion.
radical
development
cold extrusion (like higher loads) involves hydrostatic extrusion. Figure 5.28
trates the basic principles
billet is
shaped
to
fit
the die
and
is
in a container.
When
the plunger
increases the pressure inside the container, and the resulting high pressure
forces the billet to flow through the die. Friction between the billet and the container
is
thus eliminated, whereas friction between the billet and the die
is
markedly
re-
FIGURE 5.26
Indirect extrusion for
5.4 Extrusion
165
FIGURE 5.27
Indirect (backward)
hollow objects
FIGURE 5.28
Principles of
Billet
hydrostatic extrusion
Fluid
duced. Also, the buckling effect of longer billets is eliminated because virtually the possible entire length of the billet is subjected to hydrostatic pressure. This makes it
to extrude very long billets.
Impact extrusion.
aluminum)
that is
Impact extrusion involves striking a cold slug of soft metal (like held in a shallow die cavity with a rapidly moving punch, thus caus-
The slug ing the metal to flow plastically around the punch or through the die opening. and located in the die itself is a closely controlled volume of metal that is lubricated
cavity.
then activated, and the high-speed punch strikes the slug. A finare ished impacted product is extruded with each stroke of the press. These products the range of shapes not necessarily cylindrical with a circular cross section. In fact, shown in Figpossible is very broad, including even irregular symmetrical shapes, as
The
press
is
processes: forward, ures 5.29 and 5.30. There are three types of the impact extrusion of motion of the dereverse, and combination (the names referring to the direction
to that of the punch). used Figure 5.31 illustrates the basic principles of reverse impact extrusion. It is sidewalls. The flowing for manufacturing hollow parts with forged bases and extruded results in the metal is guided only initially; thereafter, it goes by its own inertia. This in the load and energy elimination of friction and, therefore, an appreciable reduction walls. required. A further advantage is the possibility of producing thinner
The principles of forward impact extrusion are illustrated in Figure 5.32. It is flanges and mainly employed in producing hollow or semihollow products with heavy
tolerances, larger multiple diameters formed on the inside and outside. Closer wall thinner sections are among the adslenderness ratios, better concentricities, and sound
166
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.29
Some shapes produced
by impact extrusion
(Courtesy of Metal
Impact Corporation,
Rosemont,
Illinois)
same
single stroke, as
shown
in
Figure 5.33. Like the other impact extrusion methods, this process has the advantage
Mechanics
We
extruded
is
of Extrusion
can clearly see (from Figure 5.20) that an element of the deforming metal being
subjected to a state of stress involving triaxial compression. This all-around
high pressure results in a marked improvement in the plasticity of the metal. Consequently, extrusion can be
plasticity, as
op-
posed to rolling or wire drawing, where only ductile metals can be formed (worked).
5.4 Extrusion
167
FIGURE 5.30
Some components
produced by impacting
(Courtesy of Metal
Impact Corporation,
Rosemont,
Illinois)
Load requirement.
it
is
sometimes assumed
that
the
processes involve ideal deformation without any friction. The extrusion pressure can
then be given by the following equation:
Pextrus.on
= YX
n^ =YX
(,lR
(5.11)
FIGURE 5.31
Principles of reverse
PQ
impact extrusion
&
168
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.32
Principles of forward
impact extrusion
FIGURE 5.33
Combination impacting
T
Y/
5.4 Extrusion
169
In Equation 5.13, r
is
by
(5.14)
reduction r
^
To study metal
is
involving two identical halves, with a rectangular grid engraved on the meridional
split billet,
We
which were
became parallelograms,
also be observed:
The
is
2.
3. 4.
The
almost undeformed.
The metal adjacent to the die does not flow easily, leading to the initiation of zones where little deformation occurs. These zones are called dead-metal zones.
method for studying the metal flow is usually used with models made of wax, plasticine, and lead to predict any defect that may occur during the acIn fact, the preceding
tual process so that appropriate precautions
can be taken
in
advance.
Lubrication
in
Extrusion
Friction at the billet-die and billet-container interfaces increases the load and the
As
ally
in
graphite are used as lubricants in cold extrusion of most metals, whereas lanolin
usu-
used for the softer ones. For hot extrusion of mild steel, graphite is an adequate lubricant. It is not, however, recommended for high-temperature extrusions, such as
extruding
lubricant.
molybdenum
at
3250F (1800C);
most successful
Defects
in
Extruded Products
fall
into
secondary tensile stresses acting within a material having low plasticity. Cracking can brittle material during the extrusion process, and it
FIGURE 5.34
Distorted grid indicating
metal flow
in
extrusion
170
Metal Forming
may
and
brittle
usually encountered
billets are rela-
toward the end of the extrusion stroke, especially when the original
tively short. Skin-inclusion defects
may
upon
the de-
gree of lubrication and the hardness of the surface layer of the original stock.
When
extruding lubricated billets of high-copper alloys, the surface skin will slide over the
container wall and then penetrate the
billet,
where the
FIGURE 5.35
Three different defects
occurring
in
an
extrusion process
A
Central
burst
Piping
Skin-inclusion
Design Considerations
Conventional extrusions.
extrusion process
is
When making
parts that
usually
fabricating the shapes by welding (or riveting). Also, the designer of the extruded section is relatively free to put the metal
some design
when designing an
ex-
truded section:
1.
The
circle size
(i.e.,
the diameter of the smallest circle that will enclose the ex-
mm) when
extruding light
metals.
2. Solid shapes are the easiest to extrude.
difficult to extrude, especially if
wall thickness.
3.
must be streamlined
by generous
4.
Sharp corners
hollow sections.
5.
A complicated section
sembled
gether.
hook, or snap
to-
Screw
such as plastic,
may
also be provided.
5.4 Extrusion
171
recommended designs for assembling extruded aluand summarizes some recommended designs as
minum
In order to accomplish
account. Examples are alloy selection, tool design, lubrication, and, of course, the general consideration of
sign examples:
1.
2.
Use
alloys that apply in the desired case and have the lowest strength.
An
and the
like are
made by
ratio
of
maximum
5.
small outer-corner radius must be provided for a reverse extrusion, but the
The thickness of
the
thickness of the wall itself to prevent shear failure (see Figure 5.38b).
7.
The
flat.
skidding on the
only 80 percent of
it
at
most can be
FIGURE 5.36
Some recommended
designs
for
Lap joints
Lap-lock joints
V\
assembling
extruded aluminum
sections (Courtesy of
the
Aluminum
Inc.,
Association,
Washington, D.C.)
Single
Double
self
Held by threading
Side entry
Edge entry
Dovetail
sliding fit
fastener
Cylindrical sliding
fits
Fixed
Adjustable
As adapted to
stair riser
172
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.37
Some
design
considerations for
conventional extrusions
Poor
Good
Reason
^^ \w\w
kmmmvKas
sssssssssgssgg
fcmmmvMs^ a
SYMMETRY PREFERRED
When
IN
SEMI-HOLLOW AREAS
(Courtesy of the
Aluminum Association,
Inc.,
^^ ^^
^mmvmw
I
;
necessary to produce a semi-hollow shape. By keeping the void symmetrical you lessen the chances that the die
Washington, D.C.)
Li
^^
^^
The preceding cross section has been further improved. The die tongue is now less likely to snap off.
m\
\s\ s\ \ \\ \s \\
^\VV\VVVVVVVV\W
JWs> g^^i
much more
costly than the simple solid shape. Also metal has been used.
less
?//;w
The hollow condition of the "redesigned" part can be avoided by making the component in two pieces as shown by the dotted line.
^^vvvv^\\\\v\v^
In
addition to using
more
on the extrusion.
ggggssas^BssaassSfl
5.4 Extrusion
173
FIGURE 5.38
Some
design
Preferably small
considerations for
as possible
(a)
impact extrusions:
corner
radii for
reverse
ftfr77777f
diameter parts
(Courtesy of the
Aluminum Association,
Inc.,
Washington, D.C.)
Ar-Jf
r- as
Appro x.
15
"^ 3_
small as
*^
possible
xgzzzzzzzzZSz
[* 0.8D-*]
approx.
Bottom = 1.151V
32
approx.
(c)
Good
(d)
(e)
Poor
8. External
part.
and
internal bosses are permitted, provided that they are coaxial with the
more than
1/4 of the
whether external or
internal,
on the
full
symmetrical distrib-
However,
ness to the walls of shells. They are also sometimes used for other reasons, such
as to provide locations for drilling and tapping (to assemble the part), to
enhance
174
Metal Forming
10.
An
it
its
length
(i.e.,
can be a multiple-diameter
However,
product should be avoided because they cause excessive loading and wear of the
Remember
that
it
is
sometimes impossible
impacting. However, an impact extrusion can be considered as an intermediate product that can be subjected to further
like
flange upsetting, nosing and necking, or ironing (see Figure 5.39a through
Again,
as well as
in addition to the
common
would also be
designs of similar parts and to consult with experienced people before starting the design process. Given in Figure 5.40 are sketches reflecting
for
some impact-extruded
FIGURE 5.39
Some secondary
operations after impact
extruding: (a) flange
ironing (Courtesy of
the
Aluminum
Inc.,
Association,
Washington, D.C.)
(b)
(c)
5.4 Extrusion
175
FIGURE 5.40
Sketches
reflecting
Tubular Parts
^A^yyyyM^^^_ <^yyyyyyyyyyyy
vzzzzzzzzzzzzzz
>
/SSS/SSSSS///////////// 77Z.
some
impact^v^^^^^^^Mw^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^y
'/ss;;;s>;;;;ss/////w/777;
Aluminum Association,
Inc.,
Washington, D.C.)
////////// ////
&&
V////////////////J&
Partially
with
'///////////////S^z/A
ysss;ss;y>y's;/s;;;s>;s;;sss//sS;/;, r
Such an
^ssssssssssss//////;;/;.
Shells
with flanged
Outside longitudinal
ribs
can be
in
bottom can be
spaced equally or
patterns. Ribs
to
in
symmetrical
used
may be extended
fins.
become
cooling
>///>// //>//>//*/?,
,', 1 J > > > 1 > 1 > > /
S J J / l-7-TTs
r-T-j i
>/>>>! ///>//
m
Inside
An
combined
integral center tube can be formed so that assembly and machining are not needed.
An
as integral parts
end.
closed
The
Combination impact.
176
Metal Forming
ORGING
The term forging
dies by
is
at
elevated tem-
peratures into predetermined shapes using compressive forces that are exerted through
means of a hammer, a
ing processes, forging refines the microstructure of the metal, eliminates the hidden defects
such as hair cracks and voids, and rearranges the fibrous macrostructure to
flow.
It is
mainly the
gives forging
its
merits
dies, the
metal flow during the process can be employed to promote the alignment of the fibers
maximum
stress.
typical
example
is
shown
in Fig-
two
duced by machining from a bar stock and by forging. As can be seen, the direction
of the fibers in the second case
is
webs
when
the crankshaft
is
is
in service coincide
strength
maximum.
worked by
forging.
A
steels,
alloys, as well as
many
Each metal or alloy has its own plastic forging temperature range. Some alloys can be forged in a wide temperature range, whereas others have narrow ranges, depending upon the constituents and the chemical composition. Usually, the forging temperatures recommended for nonferrous alloys and metals are much lower
and
stainless steels.
than those required for ferrous materials. Table 5.2 indicates the range of forging temperatures for the
commonly used
alloys.
in size ranging
(less than a
kilogram)
forgings.
up
to
300 tons
(3
MN)
and can be
FIGURE 5.41
The fibrous
macrostructure
in
two
crankshafts produced
by machining and by
forging
Produced by forging
TABLE 5.2
Forging temperature
Metal
metals
5.5 Forging
177
illustrated by small tools such as chisels and tools used in cutting and carving wood. Medium forgings include railway-car axles, connecting rods, small
Among
Small and medium forgings are forged from rolled sections (bar stocks and slabs) and blooms, whereas heavier parts are worked from ingots.
All forging processes
is
is
fall under two main types: open-die forging processes, worked between two flat dies, and closed-die forging processes, formed while being confined in a closed impression of a die set.
in
in
Open-Die Forging
Open-die forging
is
sometimes referred
to as smith forging
and
is
actually a developthat
ment or
ticed
modern version of a very old type of forging, blacksmithing, by armor makers and crafts people. Blacksmithing required hand
a
tools
was
finally obtained.
is
by a hammer on an anvil until the deNowadays, blacksmith forging is used only when low required, which is mainly in repair shops. Complicated
this process.
The modern version of blacksmithing, open-die forging, involves the substitution of a power-actuated hammer or press for the arm, hand hammer, and anvil of the smith. This process is used for producing heavy forgings weighing up to more than 300 tons,
as well as for producing small batches of
medium
important role in achieving the desired shape of the part by manipulating the heated
metal during the period between successive working strokes. Accordingly, the shape
obtained
is
is al-
ways used
Among
the operations
employed
in
drawing
considerably from one operation to another, depending upon the degree of "confine-
is
some of
these
squeezing the
billet
between two
flat
surfaces, thus
in
reducing
its
As can be seen
surfaces in contact with the die are subjected to substantial friction forces
the flow of the neighboring layers of metal. This finally results in a hetin barreling
that
impede
of the deformed
billet.
To obtain uniform
out, the
workpiece
is
its
length
178
5
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.42
Various smith-forging
operations: (a)
upsetting; (b) drawing
out; (c) piercing a short
billet; (d)
piercing a
cutting
(b)
(a)
long
off;
billet; (e)
(f)
bending
__l
_j
(c)
(d)
Thinning
><
Upsetting
(f)
its
length, as
at the
shown
in
middle or
end of the
by reduc-
workpiece.
The
bite
(i.e.,
working
Piercing operation.
piercing operation
is
performed
through holes
in the billet.
in a single stroke
ring, as
shown
in Fig-
ure 5.42c.
On
pierced while located directly on the die with the help of a piercer and possibly
For larger
5.5 Forging
179
is
usually done in
two
Figure 5.42e.
at the
point
It is,
therefore,
recom-
mended
in
bending
is
performed, as shown
Examples
As mentioned
before, a part
may
require a series
of operations so that
in-
manufacture of each
First,
square blooms, each having a 12-inch (30-cm) side. The blooms are then heated
and hammered successively across the corners until the workpiece is rounded to a diameter of 10 inches (25 cm). These steps are illustrated
ure 5.43.
2.
finally
in Fig-
is
There are
two operations or stages involved, upsetting and heading. In heading, the flow of metal of most of the billet is restricted by using a ring-shaped tool. This process allows excellent grain flow to be obtained, which is particularly advantageous in carrying tangential loads.
FIGURE 5.43
The production of a
large
Rotate
motor shaft by
smith forging
C?
l^^^
J
a
L/
Rotate
L^
>.
FIGURE 5.44
The production of
flange coupling by
smith forging
180
Metal Forming
3. Rings.
billet is first
upset and
is
is
Equipment
for
smith forging.
Smaller
in
hammers), whereas very large and heavy parts are produced by emis
Steam-power hammers.
which
is
can be either an arch or an open type; and the anvil. Figure 5.46
moving
by ad-
mitting steam into the lower side of the cylinder (under the piston) through the
FIGURE 5.45
The production of large
rings by smith forging
5.5 Forging
181
When
blow
that
sliding valve.
is
is
is
ac-
cordingly shifted to admit steam to the upper side of the cylinder (above the piston)
was
in the
lower
side, thus
downward
up
at a
mass of
the
moving
parts can be
is,
fore,
(5000 kg). The amount of energy delivered per blow extremely large and can be expressed by the equation:
'/2
there-
E=
mV
m
V
(5.15)
where:
E is
is is
mass of
the
moving
parts
Nevertheless, not
piece.
of that energy
is
consumed
in the
The moving
The
ratio
parts
rebound
after impact,
move
in the
opposite direction, thus consuming or actually wasting a fraction of the blow energy.
in
to that deliv-
be given by the
following equation:
J{\-K T\=M
7 2
)
M+m where: M
(5.16)
is
the
hammer
efficiency depends
upon
the
MI{M +
m), or actually the ratio between the masses of the anvil and the
is
mov-
On
value of
2.
K ranges
The
first
is
limited.
pneumatic hammer
to 8 times the
is
hammer
construction
steam
is
As
some of
hammers, such
billet.
This
may
result in cracking
when
forging steel.
Heavy forgings are worked in hydraulic presses. The press incomposed of the press itself and the hydraulic drive. Presses capable of providing a force of 75,000 tons (750 MN) are quite common. Still, hydraulic presses that are commonly used in the forging industry have capacities ranging between 1000 tons (10 MN) and 10,000 tons (100 MN). These presses can success-
182
Metal Forming
tons.
The
large-capacity presses
pump
oil
process
is
usually
and intensifies
that
magnify the
oil
40 or even
60.
part,
of the design details, calculation of the dimensions and the weight of the stock and
of the product, choosing the forging operations as well as their sequence, choosing
tools
and devices
that will
cooling cycles.
The
first
is
to
part
the increase in
any dimension
to provide excess
metal that
removed by machining. This subsequent machining is required to remove The forging allowance is added mainly simplify the shape of the as-forged part. It is always recommended to make the
is
this
an end.
The next
step
is
to
Two
and the
rate
in
of deformation (strain
Usually, forgings
made of
At
this
some nonferrous
is in
a position to decide
upon operations,
tools, de-
and the
like
needed
to
Closed-Die Forging
Closed-die forging involves shaping the hot forging stock in counterpart cavities or impressions that have been machined into two mating halves of a die
(or squeezing), the hot metal plastically flows to
fill
set.
Under impact
metal
to the
is
restricted
of the cavity
is
Among
minimum
surplus material to be
finish
with
strength at
of parts
is
usually
two
of closed-die forg-
(compared with
patterns, for
example)
main shortcoming of
recommended
to
for
mass or
5.5 Forging
183
Generally, there are two types of closed-die forging: conventional (or flash) die
forging and flashless die forging. In conventional flash die forging, the volume of the slug has to be slightly larger than that of the die cavity. The surplus metal forms a flash
(fin)
no
fin is
sequently calls for accurate control of the volume of the slug. If the slug
the required final product, proper filling of the die cavity
is
smaller than
not achieved.
On
the other
hand,
when
is
load buildup will eventually result in the breaking of the tooling and/or equipment. Accordingly, flashless-forging dies are fitted with load-limiting devices to keep the gen-
erated load below a certain safe value in order to avoid breakage of the tooling.
In addition to shaping the metal in die cavities, the manufacturing cycle for a die-
some other
rolled stock into slugs or billets, adequately heating the slugs, forging the slugs, trim-
ming
nally,
the flash (in conventional forging), heat treating the forgings, descaling, and,
fi-
The forging
specifications differ
from one
country to another; however, in order to ensure the product quality, one or more of the following acceptance tests must be passed:
1.
2. 3.
Closed-die forging processes can be carried out using drop forging hammers, mechanical crank presses, and forging machines. Factors such as product shape and
tol-
erances, quantities required, and forged alloys play an important role in determining
the best
to
be employed
in forging a desired
is
product
a brief
own
Drop forging.
by the
hammer is caused by gravitational attraction resulting from the free fall of the ram. The ram may be lifted by a single-acting steam (or air) cylinder or by friction rollers that engage a board
the
tightly fastened to the ram. In this latter type, called a
ram reaches
is
Whether a board hammer or single-acting steam hammer is used, accurate matching of the two halves of the die (i.e., the impressions) must be ensured. Therefore, the hammers employed in drop forging are usually of the double-housing (or arch) type and are provided with adequate ram guidance. The desired alignment of the two halves of the die is then achieved by wedging the upper half of the die onto the ram and securing the lower half onto a bolster plate that is, in turn, tightly mounted on the
working
principles.
anvil. Also, the ratio of the
30
to
to ensure
maximum
184
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.47
The working principles
of a board
hammer
Wooden
board
Friction
roller
^
/-^Z^\
/-^^\
Drop-forging dies can have one, two, or several impressions, depending upon the
complexity of the required product. Simple shapes like gears, small flywheels, and
straight levers are usually forged in dies with
worked
it is
making
it
forged into
its final
drawing out,
fullering,
impression that has exactly the same shape as the desired product;
slightly larger
dimensions are
down must be
As
When
properly designed, the gutter provides resistance to the flow of metal into
FIGURE 5.48
A gutter providing a
space
for
Gutter
excess metal
forging in
Upper
die half
Lower
die half
Flash
5.5 Forging
185
it,
thus preventing further flow from the impression and forcing the metal to
fill
all
the
details,
most
difficult portions to
fill).
shape of the forged part can be obtained. Lubricants are applied to ensure easy flow of
and
to reduce friction
is in
may be needed
lifted slightly
gas pressure forces the part out of the die. The number of blows delivered
part
is in
is
Vi to 2 times the
As can be seen in Figure 5.49, the heated stock is first placed in the fullering impression and then hammered once or twice to obtain local spreading of the metal on the expanse of its cross section. The stock is then
shown when forging
a connecting rod.
transferred to the edging impression,
in order to properly
fill
is
redistributed along
is
its
length
(i.e.,
metal
"gathered"
is
at certain
some
usually achieved
through a series of blows, together with turnovers of the metal, as required. The next operation in this sequence is bending, which may or may not be needed, depending
upon
The stock
finally
is
impression.
We
can see that the blocking operation contributes to reducing the tool
impression by giving the part
is
its
wear
in the finishing
general shape.
is
Press forging.
carried
at relatively
slow ram
of impacting pressure.
FIGURE 5.49
A multiple-impression
die
Initial
forging stock
sequence
connecting rod
Blocking
Finishing
186
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.50
Flash and flashless hot
Forging
Forging
pressing
Flash
Ejector
Ejector
The nature of metal deformation during hot pressing is, therefore, substantially different from that of drop forging. Under impact loading, the energy is transmitted into only
the surface layers of the workpiece, whereas, under squeezing (steadily applied pressure),
deformation penetrates deeper so that the entire volume of the workpiece simul-
in a
die. It is also
Figure 5.50. Examples of some hot-pressed parts are shown in Figure 5.51, which also
shows
life,
and the
approximate production
A characterizing
two halves
of a die due to the efficient guidance of the ram. Also, the number of working strokes
per minute can be as high as 40 or even 50. There
is
It
can,
therefore, clearly be seen that hot pressing has higher productivity than drop forging
in
up
to 0.5
mm),
less draft,
is
economi-
when
the
equipment
efficiently utilized.
blanks
is
inated by using hydraulic descaling (using a high-pressure water jet) or can be originally avoided
inert
atmosphere.
Die forging
in
ing operations, the purpose of this machine has been broadened to produce a variety of
all
5.5 Forging
187
FIGURE 5.51
Examples
of hot-pressed parts
Break lever
188
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.52
Die forging
in
Grip die
a
Upsetting
horizontal forging
machine
.tool
Ejector
Grip die
elimination of the flash and the forging draft and the high efficiency of material utilization
little
or no waste.
Recent Developments
Warm
among
the important
in
Forging
and forming of metals
in their
mushy
state are
developments
in forging
processes are usually carried out to obtain intricate shapes or unique structures that
is
a brief description
Warm
forging.
Warm
what below the recrystallization temperature. This process combines some advantages
of both the hot and the cold forming processes while eliminating their shortcomings.
On one
hand, increased plasticity and lower load requirements are caused by the rela-
On
are
life
due
to the
takes
some
time, during
As
is
this
does not occur with high-energy-rate forging (HERF), where the whole process
per-
few thousandths of a second, the hot metal does not have enough time
not dissipated into the surroundings. Therefore,
intricate
special
at the
In fact, the
Mechanical En-
gineering Department of
Birmingham University in England for this reason, and a name Dynapak was developed in the United States. In the first
The IC cylinder
is
re-
lease valve that allows the platen attached to the piston to be fired instantaneously
when
The four
5.5 Forging
189
Forging of alloys
plastically
mushy
state.
forming alloys
Because
an alloy
at that
The process
also has
some
other merits,
such as the high processing rate and the high quality of products compared with castings. Moreover, the friction at the billet-container interface has been found to be
almost negligible. Nevertheless, the process
is
still
considered to be in
its
experi-
mental stage because of the instability of alloys having low solid fractions. Recently,
it
was reported
this
problem
at the In-
stitute
FIGURE 5.53
The working cycle of the
Petro-Forge
Injection
Charging
Working stroke
Return stroke
Oil
sump
<*>
Working stroke
il
mist
Injection
At the beginning of the firing cycle the ram/piston assembly (A) is held at the top of its stroke by low pressure air in the back pressure chamber (B) closing the combustion chamber porting by the seal (C), this being a cylindrical projection on the top face of the piston (A). The exhaust valve (D) is open
and pressure
in
is
atmospheric.
Upon
starts;
is
As soon as the force due to the combustion pressure acting on the small area (I) on top of the seal (C) is sufficiently large to overcome the opposed force due to the low back pressure in the space (B) acting on the annular lower face of the piston, the piston (A) starts to move. As a result the porting between the combustion chamber (E) and the cylinder is opened and the gases are permitted to expand to act over
the whole piston area. This results
in a large
is
the exhaust valve (D) is closed and the gaseous fuel admitted into the combustion chamber (E) via the gas
valve (F).
accelerated
downwards
Charging
After closing the gas valve (F) the combustion
Return stroke
chamber
is
in
space (B)
is
charged by admitting compressed air through the inlet valve (G). As soon as charging is completed, the inlet valve (G) is closed and the air/gas mixture is ignited by the spark plug
(H). This results in a seven to eightfold rise of the pressure
in
intensified and consequently acts as a return spring as soon as the forming operation is completed, thus rapidly separating
the combustion
chamber
(E).
The return of the ram/piston assembly to its initial is completed by the opening of the exhaust valve (D) permits gases to leave through the duct (J). The cycle which of operation is normally completed in one second.
the dies.
position
190
Metal Forming
by dispersing a very
properties of forgings.
fine
Forgeability
For the proper planning of a forging process,
ticipated adverse effects, such as cracking.
it is
important to
know
havior of the metal to be forged with regard to the resistance to deformation and any an-
For
introduced and can be defined as the tolerance of a metal for deformation without failure.
Although there
is
test,
forgeability of a metal (or an alloy) can be obtained through one of the following tests.
Upsetting test.
The
The maximum
cracks)
is
The notched-bar
upsetting test
is
made
attachment
is
employed.
is
A conventional impact-testing machine fitted with a tensionA hot bar of the metal to be studied is tested, and the imis
recommended
when studying
Hot twist test.
The hot
number of
ability is
The
greater the
number of
this test
can be performed
at
which the
forgeability of a metal
is
maximum.
Alloys
tests are affected
Forgeability of
It is
Some
by factors
like
the composition of an alloy, the presence of impurities, the grain size, and the
number
of phases present. These are added to the effect of temperature, which generally im-
limit,
start to
appear or where
in
becomes excessive. At
this point,
temperature
is
accompanied by a decrease
forgeability of
in forgeability.
list
some
mentioned
1. 2.
3.
first):
Aluminum
alloys
Magnesium
Copper
alloys
alloys
4. Plain-carbon steels
5.5 Forging
191
5.
Low-alloy
steels
8. 9.
Nickel alloys
Titanium alloys
Molybdenum
alloys
Lubrication
in
Forging
is
from sticking to meanwhile prevents the surface layers of the hot metal from being chilled
actually prevents the hot metal
oil
A lubricant
by the
relatively cold die. Therefore, water spray, sawdust, or liners of relatively soft
molybdenum
and
and titanium.
Defects
in
Forged Products
may be observed in forgings. The kind of defect desuch as the forging process, the forged metal, the tool depends upon many factors, sign, and the temperature at which the process is carried out. Cracking, folds, and
Various surface and body defects
improper sections are generally the defects observed a brief description of each defect and its causes.
Cracking.
process.
in
is
Cracking
is
due
Examples
in upsetting processes at
high degrees of deformation, and center cavities, which occur cases in the primary forging of low-ductility steels. Thermal cracks may also initiate in
distribution prevails.
is
common
defect that
is
obvi-
may
by smith forging
if
too small.
Improper sections.
lent
(i.e.,
Improper sections include dead-metal zones, piping, and turbuirregular or violent) metal flow. They are basically related to and caused by
192
Metal Forming
such as high
withstand the severe conditions. Special tool steels (hot-work steels including one or
more of
chromium,
nickel,
dium) are employed as die materials. Die blocks are annealed, machined
make
the
shanks, hardened, and tempered; then, impression cavities are sunk by toolmakers.
is
very wide
is
manufacturing new
products.
is
its
of the material being processed but also by the kind, capabilities, and shortcomings of
the production
equipment available
all
in the
manufacturing
facilities.
Therefore,
it is
im-
some general
is
guidelines apply in
to
all
cases and
should be
strictly
adhered to
if
a sound forging
principles.
The plane of separation between the upper and lower halves of a closed The parting line can be straight, whether horizontal or inclined, or can be irregular, including more than one plane. The parting line must be designated on all forging drawings as it affects the initial cost and wear of the forging
die set
is
flow
some considerations
and position
of the parting
1.
line:
The
maximum
mainly because
is
always easier
to spread the
to
fill
FIGURE 5.54
Recommended
location
of the parting line
(Courtesy of the
Aluminum Association,
Inc.,
Washington, D.C.)
Preferred
Less desirable
5.5 Forging
193
Plane surface formed by flat upper die
FIGURE 5.55
Flat-sided forging for
T
Parting line
Aluminum
Inc.,
Association,
Washington, D.C.)
FIGURE 5.56
Using the parting
to
line
promote the
(Courtesy of the
Aluminum Association,
Inc.,
Parting line
Washington, D.C.)
Undesirable
These parting
lines result in
Most economical
the impression
is
as
all
of
in
one die
This parting line should not be above the center of the bottom web
r
Parting at the ends
of ribs results
in
lines are
smooth
lines
at stressed sections
194
Metal Forming
2.
It is
if
the design
to
end up with
eliminated.
to limit the in-
it is
generally
is
recommended
clination so that
ate 4.
may
cre-
problems
in
macrostructure to
Because excess
metal flows out of the die cavity into the gutter as the process proceeds, mislocating the parting line will probably result in irregularities, as can be seen in Figure
5.56,
different locations
of the parting
5.
When
web enclosed by
ribs, as illustrated in
Figure 5.57,
It is
the parting line should preferably pass through the centerline of the web.
desirable, with respect to the alignment of fibers, to
also
line either at
fibrous
must
exist,
Figure 5.58 illustrates the problem of side thrust accompanying irregular parting
lines, together
Draft.
Draft refers to the taper given to internal and external sides of a closed-die forgis
ing and
is
required
achieving desired
It is
metal flow, and to allow easy removal of the forging from the die cavity.
obvious that
FIGURE 5.57
Parting line
respect to a
of the
web (Courtesy
Inc..
Aluminum Association,
Washington, D.C.)
Section
AA
Section
BB
5.5 Forging
195
FIGURE 5.58
The problem of side
thrust accompanying
irregular parting lines
Upper die
Forging
plane
the
Aluminum
Inc.,
- Forging
Association,
Washington, D.C.)
Bottom die
Impractical
it
difficult to
match accurately
Upper die
Forging
plane
Die lock
Counterlock
Forging
Bottom die
Not recommended
and troublesome
to maintain
Upper
die
Forging
Die lock
plane
Forging
Bottom die
Preferred
is
difficult
it
is
to
remove
if
to
be produced by
1 , and 0. A draft angle of 3 is usually used for metal having good forgesuch as aluminum and magnesium, whereas 5 and 7 angles are used for steels,
It is
recommended practice
It is
also
common to apply
is
away
from the surface of the die cavity as a result of the part's cooling down, thus facilitating the removal of the forging. Following are some useful examples and guidelines:
1.
When
make use of
some
In
some
may
thus eliminating the need for any draft on the surfaces (see Figure 5.60).
196
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.59
5.5 Forging
197
The second method is based on keeping the draft whose height varies between 0.06 inch (1.5 mm) and 0.5 inch (12.5 mm), depending upon the size of the forging. The third method, which is more common, is to provide greater draft on the shallower
tion
is
is
normal to (or
forging plane.
ing the thickness of long ribs. However, note that the narrower and longer the rib
the higher the forging pressure
is
difficult
it
is
to obtain a
sound
rib. It is
actually a
common
below
6,
preferably at 4.
The choice of
and the
upon many factors, such forging geometry (i.e., the location of the
Figure 5.62 indicates the dealternatives.
fillet radii).
imposed on possible
is
Webs.
of a
web
is
is
always desirable
web
at the
minimum,
perature range), the size of forging (expressed as the net area of metal at the parting
and on the average width. Table 5.3 indicates recommended web thickness values applicable to precision and conventional aluminum forgings. For blocking cavities, the values given in Table 5.3 must be increased by 50 percent. Also, for steels
line),
it is
advisable to increase
web
thickness.
unfilled sections,
may warp
in
may
faster than the rest of the forging after the forging process, resulting in shrinkage,
FIGURE 5.62
198
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.63
The shape of a web
in
Aluminum Association,
Inc.,
Washington. D.C.)
Corner
radii.
that
must be taken
into consideration
when
selecting a small value for a corner radius. First, a small corner radius requires a sharp
fillet in
which
some
other
to
factors affect the choice of the corner radius, such as the distance
the parting line and the forgeability of the metal being worked.
The
mm)
is
aluminum
forging,
mm)
is
shape and
consistent as possible and avoid blending different values for a given shape in order to
many
tool
Corner
radii at the
end of high,
thumb
states
5.5 Forging
199
TABLE 5.3
Recommended minimum web
thickness
size of
Up
to Average Width
in.
(m)
200
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.65
Defects caused by
Large
fillets
MS
Forging stock
Die motion
employing smaller
radii
fillet
(Courtesy of the
Aluminum Association
Inc.,
hug
i
Washington, D.C.)
sharp corner
Metal reaches
bottom of
cavity before ing section
the
forging
Punchout holes.
Punchout holes
web
that are
produced
during, but not after, the forging process. Punchouts reduce the net projected area of
the forging, thus reducing the forging load required. If properly located and designed,
they can be of great assistance in producing forgings with thin webs. In addition to the
are
some
Try
to locate a
frictional
maximum.
Whenever
is
generally
that
more advantageous than many smaller ones reduce the number of punchouts unless
more
by functional requirements.
201
problems associated with the
4.
in eliminating the
may prove
imposed
into account
when designing
try to
avoid irregular contours with sharp corners). Pockets and recesses are used to save material, promote the
desirable alignment of the fibrous macrostructure, and improve the mechanical properties
ing are
1. 2.
some
guidelines:
to the direction
minimum
transverse di-
mension
3.
should be
tried.
are
employed mainly
to obtain
Among
Sizing
Sizing (see Figure 5.66a)
is
is
squeezed
in the
is
forming
di-
used primar-
straightening forged parts, improving the surface quality, and obtaining accurate
dimensions.
up
to
0.010 inch
(0.1
up
to 0.25
mm). Meanwhile,
on the
tools can
go
up
to
MN/m 2
).
Swaging
Swaging (see Figure 5.66b) involves imparting the required shape and accurate dimensions to the entire forging (or most of it). Usually, swaging is carried out in a die where a flash is formed and subsequently removed by abrasive wheels or a trimming operation. Note that the flow of metal in the swaging process is more restricted than in sizing. Accordingly, higher forming pressures are experienced and can go up to 2 250,000 pounds per square inch (1800 MN/m ).
Coining
Coining (see Figure 5.66c)
original forging
in that
is
pletely confined within the die cavity (by the die and the punch).
must be very close to that of the finished part. Any tangible increase volume may result in excessive pressures and the breakage of tools. Still, com-
202
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.66
Cold forming
processes:
(b)
(a) sizing;
(c)
swaging;
coining
(b)
mon
pressures (even
when no problems
and swaging) are carried out on special presses called knuckle presses. The main
mechanism of
ity to
a knuckle press
is
shown
in
Figure 5.67.
It is
Cold Heading
Cold heading
is
used to manufacture
A group
production equipment involves a multistage automatic cold header that operates on the
203
FIGURE 5.67
The working principles
of a knuckle press for
.\\\\\K\\\\N
same
are
among
produced
at
a rate of 30 to
made of
fer,
plain-carbon steel
300 pieces per minute. Starting from coiled wires or rods and nonferrous metals with diameters ranging from 0.025
at different stations.
Feeding, trans-
and
ejection of the products are also automated. Figure 5.69 illustrates the differ-
Lubrication
in
Cold Forming
successful with steels, whereas
Lubricants employed in cold forming are similar to those used in heavy wire-drawing
processes. Phosphating followed by soap dipping
is
only soap
is
FIGURE 5.68
Some
products
manufactured using an
automatic cold header
204
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.69
Different stages of a
Review Questions ,v
3-
3-
1.
Why
War
15.
Can
when forming
World
16.
copper?
Why?
at
When
forming lead
it
room
temperature, do
2.
What
are the
you consider
cold forming?
Why?
metal forming
ing processes?
3.
Why
are
lubricants
used
in
processes? List
18. List
some
useful effects.
how each
influences de-
some some
lubricants
used
in
cold forming
processes.
Why
are cold
19. List
lubricants
used
in
hot
forming
processes.
What
is
Why?
state
21.
Is
7.
What
is
meant by the
forming process?
22. List
Why?
some of
are
24.
9. List
What
is
are
recommend
Why?
10.
heated
at a
rapid rate?
Why?
heating large
26.
What
is
11.
forming?
What
What
is
12. 13.
Where does
What
on the
29
Explain
why Sendzimir
forming process?
14.
Is friction
30 What
in all
always harmful
metal forming
processes?
205
how
seamless tubes
57.
Compare
33.
What
is
alligatoring?
What causes
it?
58.
When
is
Which mechanical
possess
if
it
mended
is
to
be used
in
a drawing
process?
36.
Why?
the state of stress in drawing?
60.
Why
What
If
is
the leading
What
is
some advantages of
drawing die?
section
circular)
will
of an extruded part,
val-
what locations
ues?
Can you
41.
What
in
you recommend
be used
63.
What
What material do you recommend as a cant when hot extruding stainless steel?
What
defect
at
What
extruding mag-
processes?
44.
nesium
drawing ratio?
66.
low extrusion
ratios?
it
What
the
What
size?
is
piping and
occur?
the circle
meant by
Why
What What
do
68. List
some
processes?
47.
are
into account
trusion.
when designing
occur?
48.
is
Why
neat sketches.
niques used
in tube
drawing.
70.
As
a product designer,
inIs
production by extrusion.
51.
Why
there any
way around
problem without
relatively
poor plasticity?
process.
How?
for the design of im-
What
some considerations
pact extrusions.
the extrusion process?
72.
54. Using sketches, differentiate between the direct
How
at the
bottom
is
not
commonly used
in industry.
Why?
206
Metal Forming
74.
Is
it
just a matter of
economy
to
produce a
89.
hot pressing
mean?
90.
91.
the advantage of
HERF?
warm
forging?
Why?
at
75.
Can
a metal such as
aluminum be forged
any temperature?
Why?
suited for the production of
92.
How
can
it
be quantita-
Which process
is
94. 95.
What
is is
the the
What
ing?
main
96.
As
a product designer,
how
What What
that
late the
is
the
process?
using a power-actu-
97. List
some
80.
hammer
halves of a die
as a forging
machine? Mention
98.
is
What
Can
part
is
in forging?
a drop
hammer
99.
employed?
82. For which type of forging
is
to forge a similar
made of
Why?
draft,
a crank press
employed?
83. Using sketches, illustrate the different stages
in
using
84
ing
when producing
large
102. What
is
the difference
and a
fillet
radius?
Why
don't they
86. List
some of
105.
Why
are recesses
sometimes included
in
be performed on forgings.
87. 88.
forging design?
for?
What
Is
it
is
a board
hammer used
how
they differ.
207
o, PiohLems
I
1. In hot rolling,
roll
of
3.
2,
assuming
be
Diameter of the
roll:
Stock width:
Initial thickness:
4. Calculate the
maximum
achievable reduction in
Final thickness:
0.04 inch (1
mm) mm)
2
Flow
stress
of 14,200
lb/in.
lb/in.
(150
MN/m 2
if
the
rolled material:
(100
MN/m
2
)
48 inches
6. Plot a curve indicating the efficiency of a
200
mm)
mm),
),
in width,
given the
roll
diameter as 20
drop
inches (500
(37.5
mm),
final
hammer
initial
mm),
2
moving
K
it
taken
stress
of steel as 28,400
lb/in.
(200
as 0.
if
1
.
MN/m 2
the
to
calculate the
What
ratio
do you suggest?
Why
should
maximum
load on the
not be
each pass
is
not
Design Example
PROBLEM
Design a simple wrench
is
that
mm)
across bolt-head
flats
and
(or a nut)
lb
ft
(6.8
The torque required to loosen (or tighten) a bolt Nm). The production volume is 25,000 pieces per year. Forg-
ing
is
recommended
as a manufacturing process.
Solution
Because the wrench
is
going to be short,
it
full
The
to
be taken, therefore, as
equal to
(1
12)/4, or 3 inches
(75mm). Add on
in Fig-
allowance for the holding fingers. The shape of the wrench will be as shown
Now,
let
A suitable
material
CD
steel
to facilitate
billets
208
Metal Forming
FIGURE 5.70
A wrench manufactured
by forging
Section
AA
1875 inch
0.6 inch
R= 0.95
inch
0.375 inch
;3e
Parting
line
N*
employing drop-forging hammers. To
0.25 inch
is
recommended,
as well as
facilitate
withdrawal
of the part, the cross section of the handle should be elliptical (see Figure 5.70).
parting line should coincide with the major axis of the ellipse.
The
-n
4
a b
- (7t)(0.375)
4
(0.1875)
7.7
10"
4
in.
where: a
is
is
stress
My
/
Ma
/ 1
x 12 x 0.375
7.7
x 10" 3
= 2922
lb/in.
It is
1045
CD
steel,
which
is
= 30,000 1M.'
check the bearing
stress, let
In order to
form a couple
we draw
the nut
to scale):
each force =
60
0.25
= 240 pounds
is
is,
240
0.375 x 0.25
It is
= 2560
lb/in/
of the 1045
CD
steel.
209
be trimmed and then machined on the surfaces
finally has to
An
nut.
is
to
be released
ssign Projects
BcL
1.
mm)
is
manufactured by machining an
it
aluminum-alloy stock.
Make
A motor
(250
frame
long
(150-mm)
is
internal diameter
and
that is 10 inches
mm)
Knowing
it
A pulley
mm)
ft
(816
flat if
Nm)
to a shaft that
is
is
in diameter.
to
be driven by a
belt that
2 inches (50
mm)
in width.
the production
volume
is
10,000 pieces
manufactured by forging.
A connecting
ume
is
lever
is to
50,000 pieces per year. The lever has two short bosses, each
one of
its
The horizontal distance between the centers of the two holes is 12 inches (300 mm), and the vertical difference in levels is 3 inches (75 mm). The lever during its functioning is subjected to a bending moment of 200 lb ft (272 Nm). Make a detailed design for this
ends, and each has a vertical hole 3/4 inch (19
in diameter.
lever.
mm)
5. If the lever in
Problem 4
is
to
be used
in a
material?
this
What
changes?
Make
new
situation.
6.
200
lb ft
(272
Nm)
is
to a shaft that is
mm)
in diameter.
The
8 inches (200
mm),
to
Assume
ume
7.
is
(1632
Nm)
to
CD
steel) that is
2 inches (50
mm)
in diameter.
The
pitch
210
Metal Forming
is
16 inches (400
15 inches (375
blank
(i.e.,
mm), its width is 4 inches (100 mm), and mm). Make a complete design for this gear's when it is to be manufactured by forging. Assume
the production
volume
is
A
to
shaft has a
minimum
in
diameter of
inch (25
mm)
at
both
its
ends, where
is
it
is
be mounted
two
is
ball bearings.
The
total length
of the shaft
12 inches
to
have a gear
at its
2 inches (50
mm).
Make
volume
is
Chapter 6
eet Metal
orking
INTRODUCTION
The processes
trial
widespread indus-
application. Their
tolerances and excellent surface finish of the products (which usually require
all
made from
a variety of
metals
alloys,
(e.g.,
some
of
its
alloys)
into
at-
becoming more
aerospace,
electrical,
in
casting and forging have been redesigned so that they can be produced by
like pulleys,
now
when
mm) and
are referred
employed
in
is
then hot-worked
and the
like
By
far,
the most
in
in
those performed
211
212
press working, or simply stamping, operations. Other techniques involve highenergy-rate forming (HERF), like using explosives or impulsive discharges of
electrical
energy to form the blank, and spinning of the sheet metal on a form
will
in
cut-
deforma-
which
causes relative
to
and notching.
and stretch-forming.
Cutting Operations
The mechanics of separating
cutting takes place.
same
in all sheet
Therefore, the operations are identified according to the shape of the curve along which
When
is
is
is
order to reduce the force required (see Figure 6.1). Cutting takes place gradually, not
at
once, over the width of the sheet metal because the upper blade is inclined. The angle of inclination of the upper blade usually falls between 4 and 8 and must not exceed 15
component of the reaction. When cutting takes place along an open curve (or on an open corrugated line), the operation is referred to as cutoff, provided that the blanks match each other or can be fully nested, as shown in Figure 6.2. The cutoff operation results in almost no waste of
so that the sheet metal
is
stock and
tion.
is,
This operation
is
mounted on a crank
is
press. If the
two open
It
called parting.
FIGURE 6.1
Shearing operation with
inclined blades
Upper
>ZL
blade
213
FIGURE 6.2
Examples of cutoff
operations
Strip
Strip
lyi*
Cutting takes place along these
two
lines,
each
stroke
Blank
Final
blank shape
FIGURE 6.3
An example
operation
of a parting
Blank
is
clear
from the
is,
ations less efficient than other cutting operations. Nevertheless, this process
for
used
that
operations.
An
efficient layout
of blanks on the
An example
of a good layout
in-line
shown
in in
Figure
arrangement shown
Figure
6.4b
is
less efficient in
performed
cent blanks.
always advantageous
to
keep
percent of the thickness of the sheet metal. In blanking, the part separated from the
sheet metal
is
the product,
and
it
is
the remaining
FIGURE 6.4
Two methods
for laying
Blank
Strip
staggered layout;
3%
(a)
Narrower
strip
(b) in-line
arrangement
214
FIGURE 6.5
Different patterns of
o o o
o o o o o
holes produced by
perforating operations
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o
o o o o o
FIGURE 6.6
Progressive working
Seminotching
(2)
operations
imw m
\
(3)
o
Final
product
Punching
pilot holes
Notching
this line
is
is
Sometimes,
it
is
then referred to as
some
A
part
is
notching operation
is
tained by carrying out several notching operations. For this reason, notching
usually
employed
in
progressive dies.
is
which the
separated part
we can
how
they
Mechanics
Let us
now
look further
at the
process of cutting
sheet metal. For simplicity, consider the simple case where a circular punch, together
with a matching die, are employed to punch a hole. Figure 6.7 shows the punch, die,
When
a load
is
bent over the edge of the die. With further increase in the
punch
becomes permanent or
plastic
and
is
referred to as the
rollover.
into the
upper surface of the sheet, while the lower surin direction, subjecting the
face sinks into the die hole. This stage involves mainly plastic flow of metal by shearing as there are
in
The
result will
be a cylinit
smooth surface
sinks
called a burnish.
The
extent
of a burnish depends upon the metal of the sheet as well as on the design features of
215
FIGURE 6.7
Stages of a blanking
operation
Punch
Crack
Final hole
Burr
Fracture surface
Burnish
Rollover
Final blank
the die.
the stock
thickness, the higher values being for soft ductile materials like lead and aluminum.
this stage,
At
at the
edge of the
finally
at the
edge of the
meet
allow separation of the blank from the sheet metal. This zone has a rough
called the fracture surface (break area). Finally,
surface and
is
is
when
is
the
newly formed
all around upper edge. Thus, the profile of the edge of a blank involves four zones: a rollover,
formed
a burnish, a fracture surface, and a burr. In fact, the profile of the edge of the gener-
in reverse order.
We
ance
is is
are
now
clear-
excessive and
is
metal
bent onto the round edges of the punch and the die, and
wall connecting the
flat
lar
sheet.
in
the applied load, the wall elongates under the tensile stress, and tearing eventually occurs.
As can be seen
all
is
in
Figure 6.8a, the blank resulting in this case has a bent, torn
edge
ance
On
if
shown
in
initiate
of the operation do not meet, and another shearing must take place so that the blank
is
As can be
seen,
the obtained blank has an extremely rough side. In addition, the elastically recovering
FIGURE 6.8
Blanking operations
excessive;
(b)
too
tight
ES
f(a)
S3
Edge of
blank
(b)
216
FIGURE 6.9
Elastic recovery of the
FIGURE 6.10
Elastic recovery of the
shown
in
punch wear and shorter tool life. On the other hand, the blank undergoes elastic recovery, and it is, therefore, necessary to provide relief by enlarging the lower part of the die hole, as shown in Figure 6.10.
optimum
value that reduces or minimizes the stripping force and the tool wear and also gives a
blank with a larger burnish and smaller fracture surface. This recommended value for the punch-die clearance is usually taken as about 10 to 15 percent of the thickness of
the sheet metal, depending
upon
Forces required.
sheet metal
is
equal to the area subjected to shear stress (the product of the perimeter
of the blank multiplied by the thickness of the sheet metal) multiplied by the ultimate
shear strength of the metal being cut.
The blanking
lowing equation:
F=KxQxtx x
where:
ultimate
(6.1)
Q
/
is
the perimeter
is
the thickness
^ultimate is trie
Note
that
K is
stress state
from
and
is
taken as about
1.3.
The
mate
same
metal.
We can now see that one of the tasks of a manufacturing engineer is to calculate the
required force for blanking (or punching) and to
make
sure that
it is
is
There
force
is
ing (or shearing) the punch face in punching operations and the upper surface of the die
steel in
blanking operations. Shearing the punch results in a perfect hole but a distorted
once, along the contour of the hole
in the required
blank, whereas shearing the die yields a perfect blank but a distorted hole. Nevertheless,
in
all at
blanking force.
is
217
avoid the possibility of horizontal displacement of sheet metals during punching. Fig6. 1 1 illustrates the basic concept of punch and die shearing. It also provides a sketch of a double-sheared punch.
to
ure
force
Another important aspect of the punching (or blanking) operation is the stripping (i.e., the force required to pull the punch out of the hole). It is usually taken as
10 percent of the cutting force, although it depends upon some process parameters, such as the elasticity and plasticity of the sheet metals, the punch-die clearance, and the kind of lubricant used.
is similar to sheet metal cutting. Although bars, not mechanics of the process are similar to those of sheet metal cutting, and separation of the cropped part is due to plastic flow caused by intense shear stress.
Bar cropping.
Bar cropping
The process is used for mass production of billets for hot forging and cold forming processes. Nevertheless, the distortion and work-hardening at the sheared cross section limit the application of bar cropping when the billets are to be cold formed. Therefore,
a modified version of the cropping operation has to be used. It involves completely confining the cropped billet and applying an axial stress of approximately 20 percent of the tensile strength of the bar material. This bar-cropping technique, which is shown
in
billets.
Fine blanking. As we saw previously, the profile of the edge of a blank is not smooth but consists of four zones: the rollover, the burnish, the fracture surface (break area),
and the
burr.
straight,
smooth side
is
for
some
employed, as
FIGURE 6.11
Shearing of the punch
and the
(a)
die:
sheared punch
in
resulting
distorted
blanks;
(b)
in
sheared die
distorted
resulting
holes
FIGURE 6.12
Bar cropping with
Movable
Fixed
blade
workpiece
confined
totally
218
FIGURE 6.13
Fine-blanking operation
Upper punch
Pressure pad
Sheet metal
Die
steel
Figure 6.13 shows. This operation necessitates the use of a triple-action press and a
special die with a very small punch-die clearance.
As can be seen
metal
is
order to con-
trol the
duced by
holes as well.
method. They can have any irregular outer contour and a number of The fine-blanking operation has found widespread application in preci-
sion industries.
that is
in
blanking
to
is
80 inches (800
obtained
2000 mm),
to
be
employs two
circular
Sometimes,
slitting is carried
A
inate
is
to elim-
to adjust in the
The excess
removed
is
punch-die clearance
of
its
very small. For this reason, the die must be rigid, and matching
mecan
chanics of sheet metal cutting in the two operations are completely different.
We
We
FIGURE 6.14
The shaving operation
Sheet
meta
219
FIGURE 6.15
The piercing operation
Punch
ie
steel
shape of the punch. Neither blanks nor metal waste result from the piercing operation.
Instead, a short sleeve
is
The construction of
cutting dies
is
may
is
which
shown
to the punch and die steels, the die includes the upper and lower shoes, the guideposts, and some other auxiliary components for guiding and holding the metal strip. The
first
and holds
it
it
until the
fall
punch
is totally
in
the strip.
this rea-
Consequently,
hole.
if the
On
a drop-through die
may
As shown
manner
becomes
die.
flat.
The answer
to this
problem
lies in
employing a return-type
FIGURE 6.16
Die construction for
simple drop-through
blanking die
Spring
Stripper
plate
Die
steel
Lower
die shoe
220
FIGURE 6.17
A
vertical section
Figure 6.18 shows that in this type of die construction, the blank
is
supported through-
out the operation by a spring-actuated block that finally pushes the blank upward
strip,
where
it
is
automatically collected.
A more
complicated
shown
in Figure 6.19,
usually referred to as a
compound
die.
As can be seen
is
in Fig-
punch
is
and punching
to
removed by
return blocks.
Bending Operations
Bending
is
It
As opposed
always
between the forces acting during a bending operation. The generforces a part of the sheet to be bent with respect to the rest of
all
it
ated bending
moment
straight
jected to bending stresses and do not undergo any deformation. Figure 6.20 illustrates
the
We
maximum
FIGURE 6.18
A return-type die
Punch
Stripper
plate
FIGURE 6.19
A compound
die for
Punch
steel
producing a washer
Stripper
plate
Required washer
Die
steel
221
FIGURE 6.20
The three
common
die; (c)
channel (U-type)
die
mzzzzzszEEzmtz
(a)
(b)
case of the V-type die, and, therefore, lower forces are required to bend sheet metal
when using
Mechanics
elastic
this
kind of
die.
of bending.
the case of a
beam with
When
the load
is
applied, the
deformation; then plastic deformation occurs with a further increase in the apthe internal fibers are subjected to compression.
is
plied load. During the elastic deformation phase, the external fibers in the
are subjected to tension, whereas
distribution of stresses
is is
The
axis remains constant and does not undergo either elongation or contraction. Next,
when
the plastic phase starts, the neutral plane approaches the inner surface of the
is
bend, as can be seen in Figure 6.21b. The location of the neutral plane
dependent
upon many
the
of bend. Nevertheless, the distance between the neutral plane and the inner surface of
bend
is
first
proximation for
Let us
is
blank-development calculations.
consider a very important
now
phenomenon
namely, springback,
which
Fig-
an elastic recovery of the sheet metal after the removal of the bending load.
As
ure 6.22 indicates, for bending by an angle of 90, the springback amounts to a few degrees. Consequently, the obtained angle of
bend
is
Even
FIGURE 6.21
Distribution of stress
Bending
Neutral plane
moment
Tension
the
bending operation
YSheet metal
(a)
Compression
(b)
222
FIGURE 6.22
The springback
Position of the sheet metal
after partial elastic recovery
phenomenon
Springback
toward the end of the bending operation, the zone around the neutral plane
to elastic stresses and, therefore,
is
subjected
undergoes
elastic
removed.
When
is,
doing
so,
it is
impeded by
the plastically
final
outcome
tion.
to eliminate
this elastic
This can be achieved through either of the techniques shown in Figure 6.23a and
punch
is
made
in the
is
stress is
third solution
amount of overbending
is
Blank development.
We
plane
does not undergo any deformation during the bending operation and that
be obtained by determining the length of the neutral plane within the
length,
therefore, remains unchanged. Accordingly, the length of the blank before bending can
final product.
lengths of the straight sections remain unchanged and are added together.
ing equation can be applied to any general bending product, such as the
Figure 6.24:
L=
total length
180
'
180
180
FIGURE 6.23
Methods used
to
eliminate springback:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Bending
moment
bottoming;
The
overbending;
stretch-forming
final
required
position
(0
223
FIGURE 6.24
A bending product
divided into straight
and
for
circular sections
blank development
where:
is
equal to r
0.4/
of a bend
is
its
own
industrial
quite similar to conventional bending, except that the ratio of the lengths of the bent part to that of the sheet metal is small. Flanging is usually employed to avoid a sharp
It is
for
assembly purposes.
Among
that is bent
hemming used
to
by 180;
it
is
welding and can-forming technologies. A hem is a flange used now to get rid of a sharp edge and to add stiffness to
for
sheet metal.
als.
similar operation
wiring,
which
shown
in
Figure 6.26. True wiring involves bending the edge of the sheet
is
it
is
Corrugating
shapes, like those
is
shown
moments normal
to the
corrugated cross
FIGURE 6.25
Different kinds of
hems
Flat
J
hem
Open hem
Teardrop hem
224
FIGURE 6.26
Wiring operation
True wiring
False wiring
FIGURE 6.27
Different
shapes
of
JU%*
section mainly because of the increase in the
moment of
due
to
on a press brake. However, with the developments in metal forming theories and machine tool design and construction, new techniques have evolved that are employed in bending not only sheet metal but also iron angles, structural beams, and tubes. Figure 6.28 illustrates the working principles and the stages involved in roll
bending.
rolls are
As can be seen
b).
Two
(see
B) gradually bends
it
The
direction of feed
d).
is
A now
gradually
that recently
emerged and
rotary bending. Figure 6.29 illustrates the working principles of this oper-
FIGURE 6.28
Stages involved
in roll
bending a structural
beam:
(a)
feeding;
(b) initial
(c)
bending;
Roll
A
Roll B
further bending;
(d)
reversing the
(b) (d)
direction of feed
FIGURE 6.29
Working principles of
rotary bending
Saddle
Rocker
Anvil
225
ation.
As can be
main components:
(i.e.,
the saddle,
its
The rocker
is
The rocker
is
The
mounted on a
The rocker
Among
the
advantages claimed for rotary bending are the elimination of the pressure pad and its springs (or nitrogen cylinders), lower required tonnage, and the possibility of over-
bending without the need for any horizontal cams. This new method has been patented by the Accurate Manufacturing Association and is nicknamed by industrial personnel
as the
"Pac
Man" bending
operation.
is
bending process
that
usually
mistakenly mentioned
among
the
rolling
processes is the manufacture of thin-walled welded pipes. Although rolls are the forming tools, the operation is actually a gradual and continuous bending of a strip that is
not accompanied by any variation in the thickness of that
the basic principles of this
to take the
strip.
gradually bent
form of a
is is
circle.
performed
weld the edges together after the required circular cross section is obtained. This process is more economical and more productive than seamless tube rolling. Poor strength and corrosion resistance of seams are considered
employed
to
as
its
main disadvantages.
punch with a
is
When
load
applied
form a cup. This is an oversimplification of a rather complex problem. For the proper design of deep-drawn products as well as the tooling required, we have to gain a deeper insight into the process and understand its mechanics.
Mechanics
of
deep drawing.
Consider what happens during the early stages of apthe blank is first bent onto the round edge of
in the applied load, the part
bent
is
straightened in order to sink into the annular clearance between the punch and
FIGURE 6.30
Roll
r~\
bending as
in
employed
tubes
the
manufacture of seamed
r"-M
m
-ii
ntn
frfi
KlS
f-
*
rf!t
1WJ
11441
226
FIGURE 6.31
Basic concept of deep
drawing
Blank holder
Die
the die, thus forming a short, straight, vertical wall. Next, the rest of the blank starts to
flow radially and to sink into the die hole, but because the lower surface of the blank
is
upper
flat
that flow.
metal
starts to
move.
Now
shown
in
Figure 6.32b,
when
It is
sector shrinks so that the large peripheral perimeter of the blank can
is
ing within the plane of the blank. With further increase in the applied load, most of the
blank sinks into the die hole, forming a long vertical wall, while the remaining part of
the blank takes the
is
6.31).
whose magnitude
is
increasing
We
can see from the preceding discussion that the deep drawing process involves
compression, and tension. Different parts
stress.
As
formation
is
is
which shows an
is
exaggerated longitudinal section of a drawn cup. While the flange gets thicker because
of the circumferential compressive
stress, the vertical
FIGURE 6.32
Mechanics
drawing:
of
of
deep
stage
(i.e.,
(a) first
deep drawing
bending);
(b)
in
compression stage
deep drawing
(a)
(b)
227
FIGURE 6.33
An exaggerated
longitudinal section of a
Biaxial
compression,
thickening
Uniaxial tension,
thinning
Maximum
thinning
occurs here
maximum
if
at the
is
the
cup
lowest part of the wall adjacent to the bottom of the cup. Accordingly, failure is expected to occur at the lo-
cation of
maximum
x (d +
An
maximum drawing
force can,
therefore, be given
F=K
where:
t)tC T
F
d
t
is is
is
the
maximum
punch
the thickness of the blank the ultimate tensile strength of the blank material
<3 T is
The blank
to
holder.
As
its
is
subjected to compres-
column subjected
(i.e.,
expected to occur
if
length/thickness)
ratio of the
if
the
curs. Actually, if
eter,
(D -d)lt>
18,
where
is
is
the
punch diamis
and
is
the thickness, the annular flange will buckle and crimple. This
a product
One way
its
blank
is
to support
it
over
die steel and the lower surface of an annular ring that exerts pressure
as
done by sandwiching the blank between the upper surface of the upon the blank,
is
shown
in
it
exerted on
can be generated by die springs or a compressed gas like nitrogen. On the other hand, higher frictional forces will initiate at both the upper and lower surfaces of the blank as a result of the blank-holding force. For this reason, lubricants like soap in
water, waxes, mineral
oil,
More-
over, the upper surface of the die steel as well as the lower surface of the blank holder must be very smooth (ground and lapped). As a rule of thumb, the blank-holding force
is
228
Now
that
we understand
the
mechanics of the
ample,
we we can
can identify
and predict the effect of each of the process variables. For exrequired. In fact, in
see that poor lubrication results in higher friction forces, and, accordis
lubrication, the
cup cross section does not withstand the high tensile force, and failure of the wall at
the
A small
would increase
the
bending and straightening forces, thus increasing the drawing force, and the
final out-
come would be
fect not
ef-
An
appro-
priate quantitative
way of
is
the
number
indicating the
percentage
(e.g., 0.5),
is
is
holding force
higher than
3,
blank holder
not necessary.
is
R=
4 a
R
is
is is
<
6-4>
where:
D
d
It
punch
has been experimentally found that the deep drawing operation does not yield a
ratio is higher than 2
(i.e.,
R must
is
Another number
percentage reduction.
that is
It
commonly used
to characterize
drawing operations
the
^^xl00 D
is
(6.5)
where: r
D
d
It is
is is
punch
50 percent
is
common
in
order
to
When
sitates a value
as
shown
in
Figure 6.34. The intermediate cup must have dimensions that keep the perIt
once or
is
redraws, respectively. If several redrawing operations are required, the product should
229
FIGURE 6.34
The use of an
intermediate cup
the total required
reduction ratio
is
when
high
t
T
'
'I
?
/
&ZZZZZZZZZZZ2)
r =
D ~d X
100
>
50
^zzzzzz^
FIGURE 6.35
Redrawing an
intermediate cup
Force
then be annealed after every two operations in order to eliminate work-hardening and
thus avoid cracking and failure of the product.
Blank-development calculations.
the thickness of the blank remains
total
it is
always assumed
that
unchanged
it
after the
volume of
the metal
is
is
constant,
equal to the surface area of the original blank. This rule forms the
example shown
in
is
the area of
its
d +
4
ndh
FIGURE 6.36
A simple example
of
blank development
VZZZ2Z -3 ZZZ0
-D 2
4
-d 2 +
4
ndh,
i.e.,
230
This
is
we can
state that
Dr = d+ ndh
4 4
or
D2 = d
+ 4dh
is
the
following equation:
D
which
Vd
+ 4dh
it
(6.6)
not the case in industrial practice. However, this equation can be modified to
take round corners into account by adding the area of the surface of revolution resulting from the rotation of the round corner around the centerline of the cup,
when
equat-
ing the area of the product to that of the original blank. Note that the area of any
first
theorem, which
gives that area as the product of the path of the center of gravity of the curve around
the axis of rotation multiplied
by the length of
that curve.
blueprint of the
to
sions of intermediate cups, so that the tool designer can start designing the blanking
tween the product designer and the process engineer. The following steps can be of
great help to beginners:
1.
Allow
is
cup
This flange
trimmed
at a later stage
and
is
equate
it
x 100,
in order to
get a rough idea of the degree of wrinkling to be expected (see the preceding dis-
is less
the required r
is
greater
than 50, then a few redrawing operations are required; the procedure to be followed
is
given
in the
first
next steps.
5.
For the
redraw. If r
<
30, only a
required.
231
6. If r
> 30
for the
first
redraw, take
it
as equal to
a second intermediate cup. The percentage reduction for the second redraw should
be
redraw
is
Ironing.
We
can see from the mechanics of the deep drawing operation that there
in the
reasonable variation
variation does not have any negative effect on the proper functioning of the product,
as
is.
the dimensions
of the cups
eration, in
is
sometimes necessary. In
the wall of the
die.
this case,
an ironing op-
which
squeezed
and
its
corresponding
As can be seen
is
punch-die clearance
is
good
between 30
and 80 percent of the thickness of the cup. Also, the percentage reduction in thickness, which is given next, should fall between 40 and 60 in a single ironing operation. This is a safeguard against fracture of the product during the operation. Following is the
equation to be applied:
percentage reduction
in thickness
= tp-tf x 100
(6.7)
where:
tQ
is
the original thickness of the cup the final thickness of the cup after ironing
tf is
They
two
(or
more)
stages.
have the large diameter, and, second, a redrawing operation is performed on only the lower portion of the cup. Tapered or conical cups (see Figure
a cup
is
drawn
to
FIGURE 6.37
The ironing operation
FIGURE 6.38
Deep-drawn cups:
(a)
(c)
stepped;
(b) conical;
domed
*ZZZZ\
&Z2Z&
(a)
Tvtv;
=f
(b)
(O
232
first
have
to
A complex
So
deep
drawing operation
domed cups
that the
are re-
variables
When
all
reviewed, there would be almost no doubt that the box drawing process
the
most
complex and
we can
divide a box into four round corners and four straight sides. Each of these round corners represents 1/4 of a circular cup, and, therefore, the previous analysis holds true for it. On the other hand, no lateral compression is needed to allow the blank
at
zones
is
not drawing at
all; it is
this rea-
son, the metal in these zones flows faster than in the round corners, and a square blank
shown
in
is
excess metal
at
at
each of the four round corners, which impedes the drawing operations
tions. It also results in localized
those locaat
one (or more) of the corners during box drawing, as can be seen
obtained.
Several variables affect this complex operation as well as the quality of the products
the die bending radius, the die corner radius, and the shape of the These process variables have been investigated by research workers, and it has been found that in order to obtain sound box-shaped cups, it is very important to ensure easy, unobstructed flow of metal during the drawing operation. The absence of
They include
original blank.
this
condition results in the initiation of high tensile stresses in the vertical walls of the
at the
box, especially
which
is fol-
lowed by
added
fracture.
Among
the factors that can cause obstruction to the metal flow are
(at the corners),
with-
A simple
method
shown
in
involves printing a square grid on the surface of the blank and determin-
ing the borders of the undeformed zone on the flanges at each corner (by observing the
FIGURE 6.39
Final
shape
of a box-
square blank
233
FIGURE 6.40
Tears occurring
in
box
drawing
FIGURE 6.41
Optimized blank shape
for
drawing box-shaped
cups
it
It
optimum shape
is
a circle with four cuts corresponding to the four corners. Also, the
blank-holding force has been found to play a very important role. Better products are obtained by using a rubber-actuated blank holder that exerts low forces during the first
third of the
in those forces
of the drawing stroke to eliminate wrinkling and stretch out the product.
234
FIGURE 6.42
Optimized blank shape
for
Line
Original
an irregular cross
section
blank
deep-drawn part
to include the
an irregular cross section. This can be achieved by dividing the perimeter into straight
Lange and
his
coworkers
Fur
Um-
formstechnik, Stuttgart Universitate) have developed a technique for obtaining the op-
in this
The technique
is
interactive
An
Recent developments
deep drawing.
volves cup drawing without a blank holder. Cupping of a thick blank has been ac-
profile, as
shown
in
Figure 6.43, without any need for a blank holder. This process has the advantages of
reducing the number of processing stages, eliminating the blank holder, and using
considerably simpler tool construction.
further advantage
in
is that
is
the
The function of
the ultrasonic
to aid the
deep draw-
leave
it
in a pulsating
manner. This
re-
marked reduction in the required drawing force and in a clear improvement of the quality of the drawn cup. In many cases, the cup can be drawn by the force exerted by the human hand without the need
duces the friction forces appreciably, resulting
FIGURE 6.43
Drawing cups without a
blank holder
Blank
3-
235
for
It is,
Defects
in
deep-drawn parts.
These defects
differ in shape
initial
upon
on the
lowing
most
common
defects,
some of which
shown
in
Figure 6.44:
1. Wrinkling.
Wrinkling
it
is
undrawn
a
comb). If
pressive stresses;
it
may
and
when drawing
domed
cup,
it is
referred to as
puckering.
2. Tearing. Tearing,
connecting the
Earing
is
deep-drawn cylindri-
cal
are
4.
trimmed
after a
waste of material.
Surface
irregularities.
Luder's
lines.
Surface marks. Surface marks are caused by improper punch-die clearance or poor
lubrication.
rings,
and burnishing.
Forming Operations
In this section,
als
we
not
Forming of sheets.
by sandwiching
is
it
die.
The
strain is not
upon
error
the nature
and
were employed
obtain an
to avoid thin-
FIGURE 6.44
Some
in
defects occurring
deep drawing
(a)
operations:
in
wrinkling
the flange;
wrinkling
in
(b)
(c)
the wall;
(b)
(c)
earing
236
printed grid on the original blank helps to detect the locations of overstraining
where tearing is expected. It also helps in optimizing the shape of the original blank. With recent advances in computer graphics and simulation of metal deformation, rational design of the blank
trial
and
Embossing operations.
oil
deflection of a
is
flat
sometimes called
canning. Beads and offsets are usually employed to add stiffness to thin sheets,
flat
whether
cal
or tubular
(e.g., barrels), as
is
typi-
example of
a part that
subjected to embossing
mobile.
The
shown
in
Figure 6.45. Because this operation involves stretching the sheet, the achieved localized percentage elongation within the bead cross section must be lower than that al-
On
is
common
maximum
new and
permissible depth as
Rubber forming
of flat sheets.
Rubber forming
is
not
when
was
It
patented by Adolph Delkescamp in 1872. Another rubber forming technique, called the
II
in-
volved employing a confined rubber pad on the upper platen of the press and a
steel
platen, as
shown
in Figure 6.47a.
This method
is still
some-
As can be seen
is
in the figure,
when
way
it
punch sinks
into
it
is
whole
also
common
box
in
avoid the initiation of high localized strains in the blank area directly be-
when
the
number of
parts required
die.
relatively small
justify designing
modified version of
ploying a pressurized fluid above the rubber membrane, as shown in Figure 6.47b.
FIGURE 6.45
Different kinds of
beads
n
Vbead
Flat
c
Round bead
bead
FIGURE 6.46
Offsetting operations
u
Interior offset
Edge offset
237
FIGURE 6.47
Rubber forming of flat
sheets:
(a)
conventional
rubber forming;
(b)
hydroform process
Rubber
Rubber
Container
Sheet metal
Forming punch
(a)
(b)
This
is
Tube bulging
its
is
middle
part, is
and forced
to
conform
to the details of the internal surface of the die. This can be achieved
by
internal hy-
draulic pressure or by
transmitting
schematic of
this
operation
is
FIGURE 6.48
Different tubular parts
after forming
operations:
(a)
beading;
(b) flattening;
(c)
expanding;
(d)
necking
(a)
(b)
-^7777
\\\\\K
(d)
238
6
Sheet Metal Working
FIGURE 6.49
The tube-bulging
operation with an
.Punch
elastomer rod
Die holder
(ring)
Punch
given in Figure 6.49. At the beginning of the operation, the elastomer rod
fits
freely
inside the tube and has the same length. Compressive forces are then applied to both the rod and the tube simultaneously so that the tube bulges outward in the middle
and the
thus decreasing the length of the tube. The method of using a polyurethane rod
is
no need
that
it
HERF,
is
HERF
ommended
the
employed when short-run products or large parts are required. HERF is also recfor manufacturing prototype components and new shapes in order to avoid unjustifiable cost of dies. Rocket domes and other aerospace structural panels are
During a
typical examples.
HERF
is
consuming
own
Explosive Forming
Explosive forming of sheet metal received some attention during the past decade. The
various explosive forming techniques
fall
shown
in
Figure 6.50a, a
is
thus forcing the sheet metal to take the desired shape. This system
239
FIGURE 6.50
Explosive forming of
Cartridge
Water
sheet metal:
(a)
confined system;
(b)
standoff system
Die
steel
Tube
(b)
Its
main disadvantage
is
is
which
shown
charge
is
maintained at a distance from the sheet blank (the standoff distance), and both the blank
in water.
When
the charge
is
are generated, thus forming a large blank into the desired shape.
is
ef-
waves act is utilized (actually, shock waves However, the standoff system has the adact in all level and of largely reducing the hazard of damaging the vantages of a lower noise workpiece by particles resulting from the explosion. In a simple standoff system, the disportion of the surface over which the shock
directions, forming a spherical
front).
is
The
latter
is taken as equal to D (the D less than 2 feet (60 cm) and is taken as equal to 0.5D for D greater
when
the blank
is
clamped
lightly
around
its
periph-
when
modulus of
used as a die
ver-
A modified
sion of this
method
is illustrated in
Figure 6.5
1,
where a
reflector
is
FIGURE 6.51
Increasing the
efficiency of explosive
Explosive
forming by using a
reflector
Metal blank
Reflector
To vacuum
240
reflect the
fall directly
to improved efficiency over the standoff system because a smaller amount of charge
needed
for the
same job.
Electrohydraulic Forming
The basic idea for the process of electrohydraulic forming, which has been known for some time, is based on discharging a large amount of electrical energy across a small gap between two electrodes immersed in water, as shown in Figure 6.52. The highamperage current resulting from suddenly discharging the electrical energy from the
condensers melts the thin wire between the electrodes and generates a shock wave.
lasts for a
it
few microseconds;
it
to take the
and guiding the path of the spark, enalso safer than explosive forming
abling the use of nonconductive liquids; also, the wire can be shaped to suit the
is
like piercing
is
not suitable for continuous production runs because the wire has to be replaced
after
is
plosive forming. Therefore, the products are generally smaller than those produced
by explosive forming.
Electromagnetic Forming
Electromagnetic forming
trical
is
energy.
As we know from
it
and magnetism
magnetic
induced
field
in physics,
when an
is
electric
whose magnitude
is
a func-
We
also
know
that
when
is
a magnetic field
interrupted by a con-
change of the
opposes the
flux.
This
is
own magcoil
initial
one.
As
to
between the
conform
can
As can be seen
It
Figure 6.53,
it is
em-
when forming
FIGURE 6.52
Electrohydraulic forming
Switch
IN-h.
Charger
Electrodes
,
HH HH HH
Capacitor
bank
241
FIGURE 6.53
Examples of
electromagnetic
forming of tubes
Mandrel
using special rollers. Generally, the shapes produced by spinning can also be manufactured by drawing, compressing, or flanging. However, spinning is usually used for
is
a diversity
products
is
(i.e.,
when
shape
required).
is
A
the
shown
in Figure 6.54.
At the beginning,
is pushed by the tail form mandrel (usually a wooden one) that is fixed on the rotating faceplate of the spinning machine (like a lathe). A pressing tool is pushed by the operator onto the external surface of the blank. The blank slips under the pressing devices, which causes
localized deformation. Finally, the blank takes the exact shape of the
form mandrel.
This technique can also be used to obtain hollow products with a diameter at the end (neck) smaller than that at the middle. In this case, it is necessary to use a collapsible-
form mandrel, which is composed of individual smaller parts that can be extracted from the neck of the final product after the process is completed. Figure 6.55 shows a group of parts produced by spinning.
FIGURE 6.54
A schematic of the
spinning operation
242
FIGURE 6.55
A group
of parts
produced by spinning
modified version of
cally controlled
also carried
this method involves replacing the operator by a numeri(NC) tool. Auxiliary operations, like removing the excess metal, are out on the same machine. Better surface quality and more uniform thick-
NC
)V Review Questions
1.
7.
Use sketches
to differentiate
between the
cutoff,
fol-
lowing operations:
shearing,
parting,
2.
some of
working
8.
sheet metals.
3.
Why
must
When
state?
are
sheet metals
formed
in
their
hot
9.
Give examples.
are the
4.
What
10.
operations?
5.
What main
11. 12.
cutting of sheet metal (and not any other operation) takes place? 6.
when
when
too large?
Use sketches
to explain
why
13.
too tight?
15.
243
14. 15.
When
are
When
and why?
blanking different from
37.
Where
conventional blanking?
17. Use sketches to explain each of the following
operations: shaving, piercing, and cropping.
thinning
maximum? To
what would
39.
this lead?
Why
is
a blank holder
sometimes needed?
deep
18.
Can
on any press?
40. List
some of
Why
19.
not?
is
drawing operation.
41.
What
What
is
wrinkling?
Why
does
it
occur?
on ironing?
21.
How
What
Why
drawn
directly?
stroke?
22.
taking place
when drawing
box
common
24.
Which die requires the minimum same thickness of sheet metal? Where
is
is
Why?
What What
ing?
25.
where
48.
straight-sides areas?
is
when
a sheet
metal
26.
subjected to bending?
What
springback?
Why
does
it
occur?
49.
How
holder?
50. List
28.
On what
based?
assumption
is
blank development
51.
in
deep-
As
a product designer,
use
29. List
some operations that can be classified as bending. Use sketches and explain design functions of the products.
when designing
using
52.
rubber
30.
How
53. 54.
What
is
some of
32. Explain
how
continuous bending.
33.
What
seamed tubes?
made of
56.
Why?
the hydraulic
What
deep drawing a
What happens
if
you make
head
circular
244
What
57.
When
a
is it
recommended?
at
forming? What
58.
60.
diameter
the
neck
Use a sketch
forming operation.
How?
Problems o.
1.
in
Figure 6.56
strip
is
is
to
be pro-
ameter
is
inch (25
mm). Estimate
the maxi-
mum
is
mm)
2.
in thickness.
Material
low-carbon
steel
A cup
mm)
is
and
be
in
in
Figure 6.57a,
b,
and c are
an inner diameter of
inch (25
mm)
( 1
to
drawn from a
ing out
steel strip
0.0625 inch
.6
mm)
inch (0.25
by carrythe
the
mm). Take
3.
mm).
steel.
blank
development,
determining
at
cup
is
The
draw
thickness
mm), and
FIGURE 6.56
The blank shape
required
in
1.5
in.
(37.5
mm)
= 0.25
(6
in.
mm)
Problem 1
245
R
= 0.5
FIGURE 6.57
Products produced by
in.
(12.5
mm)
in.
bending
in
Problem 2
R =0.75
18.75
mm)
(c)
Design Example
m
to loosen (or tighten) a 1/2-inch
PROBLEM
Design a simple wrench
(12.5-mm) nut
The
mm)
Solution
A suitable
ther
method
for production
is fine
machining operations.
it
We
cannot select a
cause
is
will create
An
appropriate choice
as those given in
AISI 1035
CD
steel.
The dimensions of
in
the
wrench are
the
same
the examples on forging and casting, although the tolerances can be kept
much
tighter.
detailed design
is
given
Figure 6.58.
246
FIGURE 6.58
Detailed design of a
wrench produced by
stamping
0.75 inch
Now
/
it is
maximum
3
tensile stress
due
4
to bending:
= --bh 3 =
Afr
/
l
^(0.25)(0.75)
= 0.10546 x
10" 2
in.
q=
It is
x 12 x 0.375
42851b/in2
2 0.10546 x 10"
1035
steel,
which
is
about 20,000
lb/in.
wm
Design Projects
1.
A pulley
is
mounted on
a shaft that
mm)
in
process was slow, and the rejects formed a noticeable percentage of the production.
As
it
can be pro-
that
it
metal working, given that the diameter of each of the two holes
mm)
is
to
be used
how would
the design
change?
feet in height, with a to carry a load
4.
247
of half a ton.
parts will be
Assume
that
4000 pieces
and
that different
and
5.
bolts.
1
3
)
is
to
be designed
Assume
that
it is
required to withstand
rate is
an axial compression load of 200 pounds (890 N) and that the production 50,000 pieces per year. Provide a detailed design for this trash container.
6.
A connecting
one of
its
lever
is
at
mm)
in diameter.
The
to a
12 inches (300
is
mm), and
subjected
re-
mm). The
(271
Nm).
be produced by sheet metal jects and low production rate, this connecting produced by this manufacturworking. Provide a detailed design so that it can be
ing method.
Chapter 7
wder
tallurgy
INTRODUCTION
Powder metallurgy
is
is
usually performed
in
a con-
used.
compacted powder
state. This,
particles to
in fact, is
Historical background.
is
becoming increasingly
im-
portant
in
modern
indeed. The ancient Egyptians used a crude form of powder metallurgy as early
as 3000
b.c. to
manufacture
iron
mass
of metal that
was formed by
fre-
quent heating and hammering to eject the slag and consolidate the
cles together into a
primitive
iron parti-
mass
the
nique
was used
smiths
in
India
about
a.d.
300
to
manufacture the
known
England,
details of the
248
249
in
technique was superseded by melting. However, the need for the powder metallurgy
for high-melting-
of ductile tungsten
1909
for
Why powder
As a
result of the
now
is
usually used
when
it
melting metal
is
not suitable
when
is
bearings,
filters,
it
has been found that powder metallurgy can produce certain complicated
As the
price of labor
rise,
the
beefin
powder-consolidation technique
cause
ficient
it
utilization
ETAL
POWDERS
The Manufacture
of
Metal Powders
They include reduction of
metal oxides, atomization of molten metals, electrolytic deposition, thermal decomposition of carbonyls,
metals.
Reduction.
In reduction, the
raw material
is
is
subjected to a se-
bon monoxide, and hydrogen are used as reducing agents. Following formula indicating the reaction between carbon and iron oxide:
2Fe,0, + 3C
the chemical
>
4Fe +
3C0 2 T
(7.1)
at a
and form sponges that are subsequently crushed and milled to a powder suitable for consolidation. Such powders have low apparent densities and often contain
impurities and inclusions, but they are cheap. Metal powders produced by this
method
molybdenum.
250
Powder Metallurgy
Atomization.
Atomization
tin,
is
lead, zinc,
When
compressed gas
is
that
during which surface tension forces have the chance to spheroidize the molten metal
droplets.
is
atomization technique.
deposition.
powders
from solutions by
concentration are controlled to give a loose deposit instead of the coherent layer ac-
quired in electroplating.
The
electrolytically deposited
powders
FIGURE 7.1
Production of metal
powders by atomization
Atomized powder
7.1 Metal Powders
251
washed, dried, and annealed. Such powders are relatively expensive, but
tant
their
impor-
advantage
is
having low boiling points of 110F and 227F (43C and 107C), respectively. They
decompose at temperatures below 572F (300C), and form of a very fine powder.
Condensation of metal vapor.
of the zinc vapor.
the metal
is
precipitated in the
Condensation
Mechanical processing of
tion of solid metals
is
solid metals.
mag-
particular
method used
powder
controls
its
particle
and bulk
properties, which, in turn, affect the processing characteristics of that powder. There-
comprehensive testing of
all
essential prior to use in order to avoid variations in the final properties of the
pacts.
powders is com-
Chemical composition.
chemical analysis
is
used
some
metal powders, such as weight loss after reduction in a stream of hydrogen, which
in the
case of iron
is
used:
iron oxide
% %
weight loss x
159 7
(7.2)
48
weight loss x 3.33
(7.3)
is
it,
or (Fe 2
3 )/(0 3 ),
which can be
and
calculated by
summing up
denominator.
It is
affect the
maximum
3,
(i.e.,
retical density).
For example,
is
7.87 g/cnv
consists
of a percent Fe 2
be applied:
100
(a
+b+
c)
a
Poxide
b
Pcarbon
c
Psulfur
^'^
'o/
252
Powder Metallurgy
Psuifur
and
sulfur, respec-
maximum
achievable density
Particle shape.
The
particle shape
is
powder production
sintering ability.
Particle size.
The flow
which can be
directly determined
tests.
The
the standard
used involves a shaking machine on which a series of standard sieves are stacked with
the coarsest at the top and the finest at the bottom.
The
that passes
retained on the next finer sieve. These sieves are defined by the
mesh
size,
which
in-
dicates the
number
is
are stated in a suitable form, such as a table of weight percentages, graphs of frequency
distribution, or cumulative oversize
size is
the total
Specific surface.
in
spespe-
higher the activity during sintering because the driving force for
is
Flowability
orifice.
is
is
which a powder
will flow
under gravity
is its
through an
rate,
A quantitative
flow
which
made of
to
determined, the
flow rate being expressed in seconds. The flow properties are dependent mainly upon
and particle-size
distribution.
They
by
Good
high prowith
is filled
The bulk
is
a container of
known volume
is
with the powder and then determining the weight of the powder. The bulk density
the quotient of the
powder mass divided by its volume and is usually expressed in 3 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm ). The apparent density is influenced by the same
253
FIGURE 7.2
A sketch
of the Hall
flowmeter
1/8
in.
or 1/10
namely,
dis-
pacted in a die. Compressibility indicates the densification ability of a powder, whereas compactibility is the structural stability of the produced as-pressed compact at a given
pressure.
A generalized
pressed density versus pressure (for compressibility) and the as-pressed strength versus pressure (for compactibility). It must be noted that these two terms are not
interchangeable:
brittle
weak as-pressed
Sintering
ability.
compactibility.
Sintering ability
is
an as-pressed compact to bond together when heated during the sintering operation. Sintering ability is influenced mainly by the specific surface of the powder used and is
the factor responsible for imparting strength to the compact.
Metal Powders
Probably all metallic elements can be made in powderous form by the previously discussed manufacturing methods. However, the powder characteristics will differ in each case and will depend mainly upon the method of manufacture. The task of the manufacturing engineer
is
Economic considerations
2. Purity
3.
demands
These considerations
be discussed
in a later section.
254
Powder Metallurgy
7.2
POWDER METALLURGY:
THE BASIC PROCESS
The conventional powder metallurgy process normally consists of three powder blending and mixing, powder pressing, and compact sintering.
operations:
of powders used. These can be either elemental powders, including alloying powders
to
added
to the blending
used lubricants include zinc stearate, lithium stearate, calcium stearate, stearic acid,
paraffin, acra
disulfide.
The amount of
ranges between 0.5 and 1.0 percent of the metal powder by weight. The function of the
lubricant
is
to
between the
to ob-
powder
not rec-
ommended
compaction
be exceeded,
particles during
powder
particles
The time
for
to days,
ator experience
and the
for
However,
it
is
usually
recommended
that the
powders be mixed
because
it
45 minutes
may
Pressing
Pressing consists of
filling
applying the required pressure, and then ejecting the as-pressed compact, usually
called the green compact, by the lower punch.
usually per-
formed
at
(138
MPa)
to
60
MPa), depending upon the material, the der used, and the density of the compact to be achieved.
tons/in.^ (828
characteristics of the
pow-
made of hardened, ground, and lapped tool steels. The final come in contact with the powder particles during compaction should be around 60 R c in order to keep the die wear minimal. The die
Tooling
is
usually
cavity
is
fill
The
ratio
between the
is
powder
fill
and the
mined from
255
height of loose
powder
fill
compression
ratio
When
to
pressure
is first
restacking to reduce their bulk volume and to attain better packing density.
The
extent
which
this
ticles.
The movement of
powder
particles relative to
off.
one another
lapse at the initial areas of contact between particles because these areas are small and
the magnitude of the localized pressures are, therefore, extremely high. This leads to
metal-to-metal contact and, consequently, to cold-pressure welding between the powder particles at the points of contact.
When
the pressure
is
ing and plastic deformation of the particles take place, extending the areas of contact
and increasing the strength and density of the coherent compacted powder. Plasticity of the metal-powder particles plays a major role during the second stage of the pressing operation. As the compaction pressure increases,
particles
further densification
ial
is
and by
friction.
achieved density and the compaction pressure. As can be seen, the density first goes up at a high rate, and then the rate of increase in density decreases with increasing pressure.
Consequently,
is
it is
full
pressure
required.
Frictional forces
between the powder and the die wall always oppose the
its
trans-
when
is
distribution
throughout the compact. The density always decreases with increasing distance from the pressing punch face. Figure 7.4 indicates the variation of pressure with depth along
FIGURE 7.3
A
typical plot of the
relationship
between
compaction pressure
Compaction pressure
256
Powder Metallurgy
FIGURE 7.4
The
variation of
the
compact as well
It is
always recommended
that
in order
admixed with
the
to obtain more even density distripowder or applied to the die walls. Other
techniques are also used to achieve uniform density distribution, such as compacting
it
to
reduce the
ef-
in a die, elastic
curs in radial directions, leading to bulging of the die wall. Meanwhile, the compact
deforms both
elastic
elastically
and
plastically.
When
is
released, the
is
deformation
tries to recover.
due
re-
turning to
to
its
original shape. Accordingly, a definite load, called the ejection load, has
in
order to push
it
sequence of steps
in a pressing operation.
Sintering
Sintering involves heating the green compact in a controlled-atmosphere furnace to a
temperature that
is
slightly
When
the
compact
is
sinter-
FIGURE 7.5
Sequence
of steps
in
pressing operation
257
ing temperature will then have to be below the melting point of at least one major constituent.
The
1.
2.
Such
and atmosphere.
The amount,
to the
size, shape,
sin-
tering. There are two kinds of porosity: open, or interconnected, porosity (connected
compact surface) and closed, or isolated, porosity. In a green compact, most of the porosity is interconnected and is characterized by extremely irregular pores. After sintering, interconnected porosity becomes isolated, and pore spheroidization
takes place because of the surface tension forces. Also, the oxide films covering the particle surfaces of a green compact can be reduced by using the appropriate sintering atmosphere.
The most important atmospheres used in industrial sintering are carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and cracked ammonia. The latter is commonly used and is obtained by catalytic dissociation of ammonia, which gives a gas consisting of 25 percent nitrogen
and 75 percent hydrogen by volume.
ally
Vacuum
less, the
also finding
is
production rate
the
There are two main types of sintering furnaces: continuous and batch-operated. In continuous furnaces, the charge is usually conveyed through the furnace on mesh diamebelts. These furnaces are made in the form of tunnels or long tubes having a
of not more than 18 inches (45 cm). Heating elements are arranged to provide two heating zones: a relatively low-temperature zone, called a dewaxing zone, in
ter
which lubricants are removed so that they will not cause harmful reactions in the next zone, and a uniform heating zone, which has the required high temperature
third zone of the furnace tube is surrounded compacts to ambient temperature in the conby cooling coils in order to cool the Flame trolled atmosphere of the furnace, thus avoiding oxidation of the compacts.
where
tube curtains (burning gases like hydrogen) are provided at both ends of the furnace into the furnace. Figure 7.6 is a sketch of a continuous to prevent air from entering
sintering furnace. This type of furnace
is
suitable for
its
low sintering cost per piece and its ability to give more consistent products. When small quantities of compacts must be sintered, however, batch-operated furnaces are
used. These furnaces (e.g.,
vacuum
more
suitable
when
high-purity
The
an hour
the
sinter-
258
Powder Metallurgy
FIGURE 7.6
A sketch
of a continuous sintering furnace
Temperature
\
Uniform heating zone Flame
curtain
/@i
Cooling
Dewaxing zone
Flame
curtain
zone
W///////^^^^^
PERATIONAL FLOWCHART
Because of the wide variety of powder metallurgy operations,
a person
erations.
it
may be
difficult for
who
is
not familiar with this process to pursue the proper sequence of opin
The flowchart
Figure 7.7
is
intended to clearly
show
and
Nevertheless,
tions cannot
it
must be remembered
and
that
it
some opera-
overly detailed
and complicated.
TECHNIQUES
There are many techniques of consolidating metal powders. They are
classified, as
shown
in
Figure 7.8, into two main groups: pressureless and pressure forming. The
is
includes loose sintering, slip casting, and slurry casting. The, pressure forming methods
include conventional compaction, vibratory compaction,
powder
extrusion,
powder
259
FIGURE 7.7
A flowchart showing the relationship between the various powder metallurgy operations
Metal powders
Alternative
consolidation
Conventional
die pressing
HERF
compaction
Powder
rolling
Slip
Hot
pressing
casting
Cold
isostatic
Vibratory
Powder
extrusion
Hot
isostatic
Loose
sintering
pressing
compaction
pressing
Sintering
Secondary
processing
Finishing
operations
Finished
P/M components
FIGURE 7.8
Classification of the techniques for consolidating metal
powders
Consolidation techniques
Pressureless
Pressure
Loose sintering
Slip
Slurry
casting
forming
casting
Conventional
Vibratory
Powder
extrusion
Powder
rolling
HIP
CIP
Explosive
Forming
with binders
compaction
compaction
compaction
260
Powder Metallurgy
rolling, hot
and cold
Loose Sintering
Loose sintering
metal powder in
is
employed
in
manufacturing
filters.
It
molds made
is
involved
steel filters).
Slip
Casting
The application of slip casting is usually limited to the production of large, intricate components made from refractory metals and cermets (mixtures of metals and ceramics). The slip, which is a suspension of fine powder particles in a viscous liquid, is
poured into an absorbent plaster-of-paris mold. Both solid and hollow
articles
can be
after
produced by
this
method.
When making
slip is
poured out
Slurry Casting
Slurry casting
is
very similar to slip casting, except that the mixture takes the form of
a slurry and binders are usually added. Also, because the slurry contains less water,
Vibratory Compaction
Vibratory compaction involves superimposing mechanical vibration on the pressing
load during the compaction operation. The advantages of this process include the considerable reduction in the pressure required and the ability to
that
compact
brittle particles
powder
parti-
The main
Isostatic Pressing
In isostatic pressing (IP), equal all-around pressure
is
powder
mass via a pressurized fluid. Accordingly, die-wall friction is completely eliminated, which explains the potential of the process to produce large, dense parts having uniform density distribution. The process can be performed at room temperature (cold isostatic pressing)
at
is filled
is,
and pressurized
to con-
261
FIGURE 7.9
The
isostatic pressing
operation
Pressurized
fluid
esS9
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
Threaded
plug
lack of rigidity of the flexible envelope is countered by using container as a support (see Figure 7.9). The main disadvantage of a mesh or perforated this process is the low dimensional accuracy due to the flexibility of the mold.
solidate the powder.
The
In hot isostatic pressing (HIP), both isostatic pressing and sintering are combined. Powder is canned in order to separate it from the pressurized fluid, which is usually
then heated in an autoclave, with pressure applied isostatically. Comthe plete densification and particle bonding occur. The elevated temperature at which consolidated results in a softening of the particles. For this reason, the powder is
argon.
The can
is
process
is
steels, beryllium,
good example is the manufacture of turbine blades, where a near-net shape is made from nickel-base superaljet-engine loys. A main disadvantage of this method is the long processing time.
nickel-base superalloys, and refractory metals.
Powder Extrusion
compaction process and can be performed hot or length-tocold. It is employed in producing semifinished products having a high them by conventional powder metdiameter ratio, a geometry that makes producing
Powder
extrusion
is
a continuous
allurgy impossible.
into
An emerging
technique involves the extrusion of suitable mixtures of metal (or ceramic) powders and binders such as dextrin and sugars. It has been successfully employed in the
filters
262
Powder Metallurgy
Powder
Direct
process.
Rolling
powder rolling, or roll compacting, is another type of continuous compaction It is employed mainly for producing porous sheets of nonferrous powders like copper and nickel. This process involves feeding the metal powder into the gap between the two
a sheet that
is
rolls
it
is
High-Energy-Rate Compaction
The various
HERF
is
sintering.
It is
suitable only
when
compact and
danger of handling explosives and the low cycling times impose serious limitations on
this
technique
in
production.
presses like the
Dynapak
is,
(built
by General Dynamics)
an extension of the
powder compaction
that
can be classified as
and spark
sintering.
at
high
when
electric current is
is
energy into the powder mass to puncture the oxide films that cover each individual
powder
particle
and
2
to build
particles. After
(100
MPa)
powder
Injection Molding
Although injection molding
is
an emerging process,
is
it
injection
molding metal powders that are precoated with a thermoplastic polymer into a part similar in shape to the final required component but having larger dimensions. After re-
moving
density.
the
is
long time in order to allow for volume shrinkage and, consequently, an increase in
process
is that it
offers
promise
in the
forming of
intricate shapes.
263
Hot Pressing
Hot pressing
is is
It
that
pow-
ders are induction heated during pressing, and, consequently, a protective atmosphere
is
necessary. For most metal powders, the temperatures used are moderate (above re-
crystallization temperature),
of refractory metals
graphite dies.
(e.g.,
The
difficulties
technique limit
its
application to lab-
oratory research.
SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION
OPERATIONS
In
as-
compact are adequate enough to make it ready for use. However, secondary processing is sometimes required to increase the density and enhance the mechanisintered
cal properties of the sintered
it
gineering applications. The operations involved are similar to those used in forming
fully
dense metals, though certain precautions are required to account for the porous
is
a survey of the
common
secondary
Coining (Repressing)
Coining involves the pressing of a previously consolidated and sintered compact
order to increase
its
in
is
performed
at
ment
that
A further advantage
slightly.
of this process
is
is
can be employed
to alter
Repressing
a special
required.
When
processing
elevated temto
compacts has
be em-
ployed. Such techniques are applied to canned sintered compacts of refractory metals,
beryllium, and composite materials.
porosity
is
to
be completely eliminated,
hot forging of powder preforms must be employed. Sintered powder compacts having
medium
264
Powder Metallurgy
lubricated,
stroke, as
cavity.
The preform
is
opposed
to
blows and manual transfer of a billet through a series of dies are required. This advantage is a consequence of using a preform that has a shape quite close to that of
the final forged product.
therefore, the
The
pow-
der metallurgy and the conventional hot forging processes while eliminating their
extensively used in the automotive in-
Examples of some
however,
some physical
properties or geomet-
employed
in the
powder metallurgy
Sizing
Sizing
is
compact
at
room temperature
in
this
dimensions
may have
FIGURE 7.10
Some
forged powder
metallurgy parts
Powder Industries
Federation, Princeton,
New Jersey)
(a)
265
FIGURE 7.10
(Cont.)
Some
forged powder
metallurgy parts
Powder Industries
Federation, Princeton,
New Jersey)
(b)
limited deformation and slight density changes and has almost no effect on the
me-
Machining
slots, or grooves cannot be formed during pressing, and, thereone or two machining operations are required. Because cooling liquids can be retained in the pores, sintered components should be machined dry whenever possible. An air blast is usually used instead of coolants to remove chips and cool the
tool.
266
Powder Metallurgy
Oil
Impregnation
usually carried out by immersing the sintered porous
oil to cool.
comin the
Oil impregnation
is
mainly used
iron.
Infiltration
Infiltration is
performed
in
order to
fill
the pores
and
The widely used application of this process is the infiltration of porous iron compacts with copper. The process is then referred to as copper infiltration and involves placing a green compact of copper under (or above) the sintered iron compact and heating them to a temperature
give two-phase structures with better mechanical properties.
Heat Treatment
Conventional heat treatment operations can be applied to sintered porous materials,
provided that the inherent porosity
is
parts
For sintered
means poorer
is
of porous materials.
Steam
parts
Oxidizing
layer of magnetite (Fe 3
to
4)
A protective
tance of the
powder metallurgy
oil
Plating
Metallic coatings can be satisfactorily electroplated directly onto high-density and
copper-infiltrated sintered compacts.
plating
7.7 POROSITY
IN
POWDER
structure of a
METALLURGY PARTS
The
powder metallurgy
part consists of a matrix material with a mi-
crostructure identical to that of a conventional fully dense metal and pores that are a
this reason,
powder
7.7 Porosity
in
267
metallurgy materials are grouped according to their porosity, which is quantitatively expressed as the percentage of voids in a part. Those materials having less than 10 percent porosity are considered to be high density; those with porosity more than 25 percent, low density. There is a relationship between porosity and density (both being
and
it
porosity
density
(7.6)
As previously
metal but
is
is
the
mean
When
must be taken
into consideration.
size, shape,
and
distrib-
The volume of interconnected ution. The determined by measuring the amount of a known liquid needed to satporosity can be essential urate the porous powder metallurgy sample. The interconnected porosity is
for successful oil impregnation
and thus
is
of self-lubricating bearings.
At
this stage,
it is
bulk density
,
.
mass of compact
;
j^
nJ V -,
>
apparent density rr
compact = mass of
;
apparent volume
(/.)
mass of compact
bulk volume of compact
true density
mass of compact
true
volume
mass of compact
"
For a green compact produced by admixed lubrication, these densities are mispresence of lubrileading and do not indicate the true state of densification due to the density must be cant within the space between metal particles. Therefore, the bulk
readjusted to give the true metal density
(TMD)
as follows:
TMD = actual
,
bulk density x
of metal
n -) im I7
268
Powder Metallurgy
POWDER
part
METALLURGY PARTS
The design of
duce
it
powder metallurgy
to pro-
cannot be separated.
A part
executed. For
produced
by these methods has to be redesigned before being considered for manufacture by powder metallurgy. Following are various tooling and pressing considerations, some of
which
Holes
Holes
is
almost no limitation on the general shape of the hole. But side holes and side slots are very difficult to achieve during pressing and must be made by secondary machining operations (see Figure 7.11a).
Wall Thickness
It is
not desirable to have a wall thickness less than 1/16 inch (1.6
to
mm)
because the
punch required
produce the thickness will not be rigid enough to withstand the high
Fillets
It is
recommended
Fillets
with gen-
erous radii
are desirable, provided that they do not necessitate the use of punches with
Tapers
Tapers are not always required. However,
it is
desirable to have
them on flange-type
Chamfers
As mentioned
fers are the
earlier,
it is
to use radii
proper alternative
preventing burrs.
Flanges
small flange, or overhang, can be easily produced. However, for a large overhang,
is
269
FIGURE 7.11
Design considerations
for
powder metallurgy
Required
punch
bosses;
undercuts
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Bosses
Bosses can be made, provided
Figure
that they are
round
in
the height does not exceed 15 percent of the overall height of the
7. lid).
component
(see
Undercuts
Undercuts that are perpendicular
prevent ejection of the part.
ing operation (see Figure 7.1 le).
to the pressing direction
If required,
270
Powder Metallurgy
OF POWDER METALLURGY
Like any other manufacturing process, powder metallurgy has advantages as well as disadvantages. The decision about whether to use this process or not must be based on
these factors.
1. 2.
are as follows:
3.
The process
Because
virtually
steps of the process are simple and can be automated, only a miniis
mum
5.
rates.
of skilled labor
required.
intricate
at
high
6.
The
Powders
compared with
solid metals.
in principle
2. Sintering furnaces
Tooling
is
4.
High
initial capital
is
generally uneconomical
Powder metallurgy
ily suitable for
parts
to porosity (this
is
thus primar-
number of
first
group
the part
is
can also be produced by alternative competing manufacturing methods, powder metallurgy being used because of the low manufacture cost and high production rate.
The
in
which the
unique structure and cannot be made by any other manufacturing method. Examples
filters,
is
a quick review of
271
FIGURE 7.12
Some powder
metallurgy products
Powder Industries
Federation, Princeton,
New Jersey)
Structural
Components
to
parts.
powder preforms, the process is commonly used in producing high-density components with superior mechanical properties. Cams, gears, and structural parts of the transmission system are some applicaHowever, with the recent development
tions of the
in the
domestic appliance industries. Figures 7.12 and 7.13 show some examples of powder
metallurgy products.
The
structural
are usually
made of
iron-base
powlike
FIGURE 7.13
More powder metallurgy
products (Courtesy of
the Metal
Powder
Industries Federation,
Princeton,
New Jersey)
272
Powder Metallurgy
nickel. Prealloyed
less
common
than the
Self-Lubricating Bearings
Self-lubricating bearings are usually
made by
in
40 percent
achieved.
sizing operation
is
in the
manufacturing of porous bearings, but iron-base powders are also employed to give
higher strength and hardness.
Filters
In manufacturing
filters,
powder (e.g., bronze) is screened in powder is then poured into a ceramic or The
The mold
on
is
temperature so that loose sintering can take place. The products must have generous
tolerances, especially
their outer diameters,
where 3 percent
is
typical.
Friction Materials
Clutch liners and brake bands are examples of friction materials. They are best manufactured by
ditions of tin, zinc, lead, and iron. Nonmetallic constituents like graphite, silica, emery,
The mixture
is
some
re-
quired.
It
must be noted
always joined
which
weak
parts.
Electrical
Contact Materials
two main kinds:
sliding contacts
and switching
contacts.
It is
powder
employed when current is The two main characteristics needed are a low coefficient of friction and good electrical conductivity. Compacts of mixtures of graphite and metal powder can fulfill such conditions. PowSliding contacts are components of electrical machinery
transferred
between sliding
ders of metals having high electrical conductivity, such as brass, copper, or silver, are used. These graphite-metal contacts are produced by conventional pressing and sintering processes.
Switching contacts are used in high-power circuit breakers. The three characteristics
less
A combination
and
These contacts
7.10 Applications
of
273
infiltrating a
porous
Magnets
Magnets include
soft
magnets and permanent magnets. Soft magnets are used in dc in measuring instruments. They are made
is
usually used
the high
compact
maximum
aluminum (12
percent),
and iron (58 percent) and possesses outstanding permanent magnetic properties.
other additives are often used, including cobalt, copper, titanium,
Some
and niobium.
Cores
The cores produced by powder metallurgy are used with ac high-frequency inductors in wireless communication systems. Such cores must possess high constant permeability for various frequencies as well as high electrical resistivity. Carbonyl iron powder is mixed with a binder containing insulators (to insulate the powder particles from one another and thus increase electrical resistivity) and then compacted using extremely high pressures, followed by sintering.
tool steels
produced tool
by powder metallurgy eliminates the defects encountered namely, segregation and uneven distribution steels
of carbides. Such defects create problems during tool fabrication and result
tool
life.
in shorter
tool-steel
powders by hot
Superalloys
Superalloys are nickel- and cobalt-base alloys, which exhibit high strength
temperatures.
blades.
at
elevated
They
Refractory Metals
The word
tungsten,
refractory
means
points are considered to be refractory metals. These basically include four metals:
molybdenum, tantalum, and niobium. Some other metals can also be conExamples are platinum, zirconium, thorium, and titanium. Refractory metals, as well as their alloys, are best fabricated by powder metallurgy. The technique used usually involves pressing and sintering, followed by
sidered to belong to this group.
274
Powder Metallurgy
working
at
filaments and heating elements; they also include space technology materials, the
in radioactive shielding,
projectiles.
its
excel-
and
its
good
fatigue
Cemented Carbides
Cemented carbides
are typical composite materials that possess the superior properties
embedded
rock
drills,
in a
steel.
They
and forming
and armor-piercing
life
as tools.
bides are manufactured by ball-milling carbides with fine cobalt (or iron) powder, fol-
lowed by mixing with a lubricant and pressing. The green compact is then presintered at a low temperature, machined to the required shape, and sintered at an elevated temperature.
A new
dimension
in
cemented carbides
is
bide particles
embedded
,v Review Questions
1. Define
a. b. c.
compressibility
Why
8.
Is it
are lubricants
added
to
compactibility
fore pressing?
green density
possible to eliminate
all
voids by conven-
d. e.
f.
impregnation
infiltration
Why?
flowability
particle-size distribution
g.
10.
Why
is it
2.
powder metallurgy
process.
3. List four
11 Explain why
disadvantages of the powder metal-
it
is
each
lurgy process.
4.
of the
following
operations:
isostatic
HERF
compaction.
What
are
the
important characteristics of a
metal powder?
5.
12 13
Differentiate
repressing, sizing.
powders.
How
is
copper
its
infiltration
accomplished and
what are
advantages?
Chapter 7 Problems
275
14.
Can powder
18. 19.
by conventional forging?
15.
Why?
Why Why
are
is
electrolytic iron
powder used
in
manu-
How
16.
How
Name
is
plating of
17.
by powder metallurgy.
Problems
2
1.
276
Powder Metallurgy
277
7.
Following
ing
is
the relationship
between density
8.
cylindrical
1
plus
sity
Green density,
Pressure,
g/cm 3
5.35
6.15
6.58
6.75
6.9
MN/m 2
157.5
315
472.5
629.9
787.4
If
it is
its
bulk
its
g/cm
3
.
Calculate
with a capacity of
MN,
new dimensions.
The
sintered density of atomized iron
compact
3
.
How
containing
What
is
the porosity?
Design Project 1
Figure 7.14 shows a part that
chining. Because the part
ditions, the
is
is
ma-
producing company
Redesign
this
FIGURE 7.14
A part
to
be redesigned
for production by
powder metallurgy
Chapter 8
INTRODUCTION
Plastics, which are
more
In
macromoGreek
lecular chemistry.
fact,
is
composed
is,
of the two
indeed, an accurate
of a
made up
number
of iden-
smaller molecules that are repeatedly linked together to form a long chain.
is
composed
shown
in
of
as
Figure 8.1.
and, therefore, carbon usually forms the backbone of the chain. The organic
(like
ethylene)
is
referred to as
Now,
let
monomer tend
to link together.
car-
We know
bon atom
quently,
if
the valence bonds on the two carbon atoms of the center molecule
isfied
be
sat-
In
monomer tend
to
attach to one another to satisfy the valence requirement of the carbon atoms.
in
more
or
that are
278
279
FIGURE 8.1
The molecular chain of
polyethylene
__
r
H
I
H
I
fore,
It
is
also ob-
vious that properties of a polymer such as the strength, elasticity, and relaxation are
of the
polymers
life;
and natural
for a long
some examples
been
in
use
come
(cel-
The
It
first
was prepared
in
1869.
was
followed
in
1909
in light
II
new
poly-
due
aspects
of our lives.
LASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS
There
two methods for classifying polymers. The first method involves grouping all polymers based on their elevated-temperature characteristics, which actually dictate the manufacturing method to be used. The second method of classification groups polymers into chemical families, each of which has the same monomer. As an
are, generally,
is
mers (members of
will ited
this
made
on the basic monomer, as shown in Figure 8.2. As we this enables us to study most polymeric materials by covering just a limsee later, number of families instead of considering thousands of polymers individually. But
families of polymers,
this behavior,
let
us discuss
in
depth
Based on
polymers can be
split into
280
Plastics
FIGURE 8.2
Structural formula of
some polymers
of the ethenic
group
CC
Polyvinyl chloride
281
is
if
the part
is
point,
will return to
its
known
as shaping
Many thermoplastic polymers are soluble in various solvents. Consequently, any one of these polymers can be given any desired shape by dissolving it into an appropriate solvent
in
molds.
When
the solvent
com-
pletely evaporates,
These include
and the
in this chapter.
Thermosets
The molecules of thermosets usually
structure that
is
Figure 8.4.
When raw
(uncured)
set,
cross-
linked, or polymerized. If reheated after this curing operation, thermosets will not
melt again but will char or burn. Therefore, for producing complex shapes of ther-
mosetting polymers, powders (or grains) of the polymers are subjected to heat and
pressure until they are cured as finished products. Such polymers are referred to as
heat-convertible resins.
Some raw
at
re-
quired, they are converted into solids by curing as a result of heating and/or additives
(hardeners). This characteristic enables fabricators to produce parts by casting mixtures of liquid
re-
The cured thermosets are insoluble in solvents and do not soften at high temperatures. Thus, products made of thermosets can retain their shape under combined load
and high temperatures, conditions
that thermoplastics
cannot withstand.
FIGURE 8.4
The molecular chains of
a thermosetting
polymer
282
Plastics
portant role in determining the form of the product. In other words, the form
is
dictated
not only by the function but also by the properties of the material used and the
method
of manufacture, as
we
Following
is
on the design of
plastic products.
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical
properties of polymers are significantly inferior to those of metals.
Strength and rigidity values for plastics are very low compared with the lowest values
of these properties for metals. Therefore, larger sections must be provided for plastic
products
if
Un-
above mod-
some
and notch-sensitive.
Accordingly, any stress raisers like sharp edges or threads must be avoided in such
cases.
is
deform continaccelerplastics
ated at
room temperature. This phenomenon is higher temperatures. Consequently, structural components made of
should be designed based on their creep strength rather than on their yield strength.
This dictates a temperature range in which only a plastic product can be used.
vious that such a range
is It is
ob-
many
engineering apis
polymers
comparable
to
aluminum.
Physical Properties
Three main physical properties detrimentally affect the widespread industrial application of
which
is
steel.
and metals.
ever a significant temperature rise takes place. Second, some plastics are inflammable
(i.e.,
not self-extinguishing) and keep burning even after the removal of the heat
source. Third,
some
plastics
have the
ability to
unfortunately accompanied
this
by a change
polymer.
in the size
of the plastic
part.
kind of
283
OLYMERIC SYSTEMS
This section surveys the
man-
ufacturing properties and applications. Also discussed are the different additives that
are used to impart certain properties to the various polymers.
grouped
into
common monomer.
The monomer
is
ethylene.
This
polymers:
1. Polyethylene.
284
Plastics
Polypropylene
substituent groups
is
a thermoplastic material.
molecule of
sides.
this
polymer has
all
(i.e.,
CH 3
on only one of
also good.
its
The
resistance of
polypropylene to chemicals
is
Polypropylene
is
mainly used for making consumer goods that are subjected to life, such as ropes, bottles, and parts of appliances. This
its
polymer
is
superior resistance to
chemicals.
3.
Polybutylene.
CH 3
C-
C
H
CHo
Polybutylene
resistances.
It
is
also possesses
is
Polybutylene
many
The
made
it
applications. These pipes can be joined together by heat fusion welding or by mechanical compression. Some grades of polybutylene are used as high-performance
and
industrial sheeting.
CI
is
pression molding.
It is
fairly
resistance to chemicals.
When
molecules),
it
is
strains.
The
files,
applications of rigid
PVC
285
5.
Polyvinyleidene chloride.
CH 2
CI
Polyvinyleidene chloride
also possesses
(e.g.,
(PVDC)
is
It
nonpermeable
is
to moisture
and oxygen.
It
good creep
properties.
6. Polystyrene.
CH,
is
known
little
It
and breaks
easily.
Because of
cheap toys and throwaway articles. It is also made its cost, polystyrene is in the form of foam (Styrofoam) for sound attenuation and thermal insulation.
used for
7.
CH CH 2
C
,C
OCH 3
286
Plastics
This polymer has reasonably good toughness, good stiffness, and exceptional
resistance to weather. In addition,
it
is
equal to that of clear glass. Consequently, this polymer finds application in safety
glazing and in the manufacture of guard and safety glasses.
ing automotive and industrial lighting lenses.
It is
also used in
mak-
Some
Teflon
that
is
characterized by
its
most chemi-
cally
polymer.
Nevertheless,
it
has
low
commonly used
It
resistance,
in
It
also has
good chemical
widely used
It is
cost effectiveness.
also
and face
shields.
is
Polyacetal group.
HOCH,
CH,OH
Formaldehyde
is
also has
good resistance
Its
to moisture absorption.
brass, or
aluminum) by casting or stamping. These applications are exemplified by shower heads, shower-mixing valves, handles, good-quality toys, and lawn sprinklers.
287
Cellulosic group.
The monomer
is
cellulose.
CH,OH
OH
Cellulose itself
is
It
regeneration process to take the form of a fiber as in rayon, or a thin film, as in cello-
be chemically modified
1. Cellulose nitrate.
to
Good dimensional
use
is its
inflammability.
good dimensional
stabil-
and resistance
The uses of
also used in
making domestic
articles.
is
3. Cellulose
vacuum formed.
4. Cellulose
acetate propionate. This thermoplastic polymer has reasonably good mechanical properties and can be injection molded or vacuum formed. It is used for
blister
articles.
Polyamide group.
plastics.
NHR
is
members of
this family.
One group
of
common
polyamides
their
is
good mechanical properties even at relatively high temperatures. They also possess good lubricity and resistance to wear. The chief limitation is their tendency to absorb moisture and change size.
288
Plastics
in virtually
every market
(e.g.,
automotive, electrical,
components
like.
ABS.
The
monomers
Based on
this
an alloy
in the
group vary depending upon the components. Fifteen different types are commercially
of the
ABS
fittings,
These polymers
result
al-
the
used. This multitude of polymers are mostly thermoplastic and can be injection
molded
fibers.
ropes, fabrics, outdoor applications, construction, appliances, and electrical and elec-
components. Polyester
is
The monomer
is
phenol formaldehyde.
As
ized by their high strength and their ability to tolerate temperatures far higher than
their
molding temperature.
Phenolics are recommended for use in hostile environments that cannot be toler-
They
as
bonding agents
and
Polyimides.
They
289
and flow
at
powder metal-
lurgy techniques.
The polyimides
and turbine and parts
Epoxies.
are
good
that require
good
electrical
Epoxies and epoxy resins are a group of polymers that become highly crossat the
linked by reaction with curing agents or hardeners. These polymers have low molecular
chains.
Epoxy
their sta-
The common
fibers
as adhesives.
foams. While
all
polyurethanes are
rolls.
room temperature and find popular application in rubber dies for the forming of sheet metals. Flexible foam has actually replaced latex rubber in home and auto seating and interior padding. The rigid thermosetting foam is used as a good insulating material and for structural parts. Other applications
of these elastomers are castable at of polyurethanes include coating, varnishes, and the
Silicones.
like.
Some
chain and plays the same role as that of carbon in other polymers.
characterized
in-
mold
damp-
Elastomers.
than 100 percent together with significantly high resilience. This rubberlike behavior
is
attributed to the branching of the molecular chains. Elastomers mainly include five
290
Plastics
polymers: natural rubber, neoprene, silicone rubber, polyurethane, and fiuoroelastomers. Natural rubber
is
moisture
is
it,
then vulcanized.
The
that posin
and
aircraft parts,
form-
Additives
Additives are materials that are
in order to
impart and/or
sometimes added just for the sake of reducing the cost of products. Commonly
fillers, plasticizers,
and
sta-
Fillers involve
wood
flour, talc,
calcium carbonate,
silica,
mica
flour, cloth,
and short
use as a result of the continued price increase and short supply of resin stocks.
An
ex-
pensive or unavailable polymer can sometimes be substituted by another filled polymer, provided that an appropriate
filler
material
is
chosen.
The
if
addition of inorganic
fillers
kind of additive inhibits the mobility of the polymers' molecular chains. Nevertheless,
too
much
filler is
added,
it
may
if
create enclaves or
weak
injection
molding
is
employed.
flexibility.
This
is
a reeas-
move
ily relative to
the
one
to use.
polymer
flowability.
They include
cohols, fatty esters, metallic stearates, paraffin wax, and silicones. Lubricants are classified as external (applied externally to the
last
Colorants.
may be either dyes or pigments. Dyes have smaller molecules when dissolved. Pigment particles are relatively large (over 1 |im)
opaque. Pigments are more widely used than
is
aimed
at
and
service
ence of oxygen.
291
Stabilizers.
added
to
polymers
to prevent
degrada-
polymers
tion
by absorbing
ultraviolet radiation.
However,
methods can be employed in manufacturing plastic products. must be kept in mind that no single processing method can successfully be
shaping
all
employed
in
its
own
set
of advantages
and disadvantages
Following
is
a survey of the
common
methods for
plastic processing.
Casting
Casting
is
It is
usually
performed
partially
filling the
to cure.
the material
becomes
uniform properties
consideration
when designing
in trial jigs
PVC can be
to suit the
is
sometimes modified
its
cast in
PVC
film
is
PVC
on a sub-
Blow Molding
Blow molding
is
a fast, efficient
plastic polymers.
method for producing hollow containers of thermoThe hollow products manufactured by this method usually have thin
walls and range in shape and size from small, fancy bottles to automobile fuel tanks.
Although there are different versions of the blow molding process, they basically
involve blowing a tubular shape (parison) of heated polymer in a cavity of a
split
mold.
As can be
expands
is
which
in a fairly
conforms
to the
Injection Molding
Injection molding
articles
is
the
for
mass production of
articles,
is
plastic
because of
its
high production rates and the good control over the dimensions
is
but
it
can also
292
Plastics
FIGURE 8.5
The blow molding
process
M
/
Separation
line
which
is
due
to the
in the
process.
The process
which
is
granular pellet or powdered forms, to a viscous melted state and then forcing
split-mold cavity, where
it
into a
is
product
is
Molds
are usually
made of
and
molding of thermoplastics. As can be seen, the diverter valve allows the viscous polymer
to flow either
When
ent design has to be used. Also, the molds must be hot so that the polymer can cure.
Once
made
to
and favors
this
guidelines.
Injection mold-
Make
state.
ing of thermoplastics produces net-shaped parts by going from a liquid state to a solid
(These net-shaped parts are used as manufactured; they do not require further
processing or machining.) This requires time to allow the heat to dissipate so that the
FIGURE 8.6
The
injection
Heaters
molding
process
njection
Split
plunger
mold
293
The
thicker the walls of a product, the longer the product
solidify.
its
cost.
minimum
change
in thickness is unavoidable,
it
made
gradually.
It is
how
(by slight changes in constructional details) so that sound parts are produced.
Provide generous
fillet
radii.
The designer
radii instead.
The
should be
.4.
make
when
blind holes are normal to the flow, they require retractable core pins or split
production cost.
FIGURE 8.7
Examples
of poor
and
V &77A
Yes
WZZ&
Better
Rib
Improved design
////////////A
Poor
1.5/
Good
Better
294
Plastics
FIGURE 8.8
Examples of poor and
7.
good designs
in
of
bosses
injection-molded
parts
^y\
77777
Poor design
Good design
a
Through holes are better than
D
blind holes
As
is
it
is
important to provide a
Heavy
8.8
Compression Molding
Compression molding
is
process involves enclosing a premeasured charge of polymer within a closed mold and
then subjecting that charge to combined heat and pressure until
it
shows
a part being
produced by
is
very long
when compared
with that for injection molding, the process has several advantages. These include low
the elimination of the need for sprues or runners, thus reducing the material waste. There
295
FIGURE 8.9
The compression moldin
process
Flash
Part
are,
method.
however, limitations upon the shape and size of the products manufactured by this It is generally difficult to produce complex shapes or large parts as a result of
the poor flowability and long curing times of the thermosetting polymers.
Transfer Molding
Transfer molding
is
aimed
at increasing the productivity by seen in Figure 8.10, the process involves placing the charge in an open, separate "pot," where the thermosetting polymer is heated and forced through sprues and runners to
fill
The
a temperature of
the entire shot
ejected.
280
to
300F (140
200C)
to
(i.e.,
Rotational Molding
Rotational molding
is
a process
by which hollow objects can be manufactured from It is based upon placing a charge of solid or
polymer in a mold. The mold is heated while being rotated simultaneously around two perpendicular axes. As a result, the centrifugal force pushes the polymer against the walls of the mold, thus forming a homogeneous layer of uniform thickness
FIGURE 8.10
The transfer molding
process
Plunger
Part
Runner
296
Plastics
FIGURE 8.11
The extrusion process
Changeable die
Extruded section
4
Heater
that
conforms
to the
is
is
ejected.
The
process, which has a relatively long cycle time, has the advantage of of-
Complex
parts can be
molded by em-
Extrusion
In extrusion, a thermoplastic
polymer
in
is
endless product that has to be cooled by spraying water and then cut to the desired
lengths.
The process
is
employed
to
and
fibers.
plastic
manufacturing methods
as coextrusion.
obtained.
is
A modification
of conventional extrusion
a process
known
It
in-
volves extruding two or more different polymers simultaneously in such a manner that
to the other
is
used in
in-
some desired
property.
Examples of coextrusion include refrigerator liners, foamed-core solid-sheath telephone wires, and profiles involving both dense material and foam, which are usually used as gasketing in automotive and appliance applications.
Thermoforming
Thermoforming involves a variety of processes that are employed to manufacture cupfrom thermoplastic sheets by a sequence of heating, forming, cooling, and trimming. First, the sheet is clamped all around and heated to the appropriate temlike products
it.
is
The polymer is then cooled to retain the shape. This is followed by removing the part from the mold and trimming the web surrounding it. Figure 8.12a through d illustrates
thermoforming processes. Although thermoforming was originally developed for the low-volume production of containers, the process can be automated and made suitable for high-volume applications. In this case, molds are usually made of aluminum because of its high thermal
the different
297
FIGURE 8.12
Different
Heater
- fi "-
v
in
Heater
-'
thermoforming
processes:
(a) straight
^---CLOngina
sheet
Original
vacuum
(b)
(c)
forming;
sheet
Mold
drape forming;
matched-mold
(d)
forming;
vacuum
snapback
Hi
Heated
plastic
sheet
Lower
half
of mold)
Vacuum
[1)
First stage
atmosphere
~|
Vacuum
Vent for
relieving
entrapped
air
(0
fm MmtM
(2)
Atmosphere
Second stage
(d)
conductivity. For
plaster of paris.
low-volume or
trial
made of wood
or even
Examples of
uct
is that
it
like.
The only
limitation
If
made by machining
Calendering
Calendering
This process
is is
the process
employed
in
films.
similar to rolling with a four-high rolling mill, except that the rolls that
is
first
and second
roll
is
298
Plastics
FIGURE 8.13
The calendering
process
Most of
the calendering products are flexible or rubberlike sheets and films, although
is
the process
sometimes applied
to
ABS
illustrates the
calendering process.
Machining of Plastics
In
some
machining
Some
method. Nevertheless, there are several problems associated with the machining of plastics.
its
characteristics,
and
they are very different from those of the conventional metallic materials.
lem
is
when machining
which
needed
1.
to
provide solutions for these problems, there are some general guidelines:
friction at the tool-workpiece interface
Reduce
ished surfaces.
2. Select tool
geometry so as
revealed that there exists a critical rake angle (see Chapter 9) that depends upon
the polymer, depth of cut, and cutting speed.
3.
Use
ma-
and hole
drilling.
High-pressure water
some
Welding of Plastics
There are several ways for assembling
plastic
ods include mechanical fastening, adhesive bonding, thermal bonding, and ultrasonic
welding. Only thermal bonding and ultrasonic welding are discussed next because the
first
two operations
299
FIGURE 8.14
Steps involved
plate joining
in
hot-
Fixtures
Hot
plate
Force
is
also
known
as fusion
bond-
involves the melting of the weld spots in the two plastic parts to be joined and then
pressing them together to form a strong joint. Figure 8.14 illustrates the steps involved
in the
known
comes
as hot-plate joining.
to
As can be seen
be mated
in
when
the plate
in contact
is
cool to yield
15 to 20 seconds, depending
upon
the relationship between the melt time and the temperature (of the hot plate) for the
Figure 8.15 illustrates different types of joint design. The one to select
depen-
dent upon both the desired strength and the appearance of the joint. The product designer must keep in
to
mind
that a small
amount of material
into account
is
form
the
when dimensional
critical,
As can be seen
FIGURE 8.15
Different joint designs
for fusion
bonding
1
Straight
Flanged
butt joint
Bead enclosed
Bead covered
Recessed weld
butt joint
300
Plastics
FIGURE 8.16
The thermostaking
process
Hot
air
involves the softening of a plastic stud by a stream of hot air and then forming the
softened stud and holding
it
while
it
widespread application
and medical
industries.
Ultrasonic welding
0.5 second
is
because of
easily
of the
mating
parts.
This frictional heat melts the thermoplastic polymer, allowing the two
in
mind that not all thermoplastics render themWhereas amorphous thermoplastics are good
candidates, crystalline polymers are not suitable for this process because they tend to
attenuate the vibrations. Hydroscopic plastics (humidity-absorbing polymers, such as
nylons) can also create problems and must, therefore, be dried before they are ultrasonically welded. In addition, the presence of external release agents or lubricants re-
making ultrasonic welding more difficult. power supply, a transducer, and a horn. The power supply converts the conventional 115-V, 60-Hz (or 220- V, 50-Hz) current into a highfrequency current (20,000 Hz). The transducer is usually a piezoelectric device that converts the electrical energy into high-frequency, axial-mechanical vibrations. The
friction, thus
horn
is
is
may be made
of aluminum,
The
latter material
and
is,
may
it
take different
forms
shown
in
Figure 8.17.
is critical
The
because
sign of the
molded
its
and
limitations.
to
be
a discussion of the
com-
monly used
joint designs,
which are
301
FIGURE 8.17
Different horn
shapes
employed
in
ultrasonic
welding of plastics
\ r
Catenoidal horn
Step horn
Exponential horn
FIGURE 8.18
Different joint designs
for ultrasonic welding:
(a) butt joint; (b)
step
joint; (c)
tongue-and-
groove
joint; (d)
interference joint;
(e)
scarf joint
(a)
(b)
Mu
(0
Fixture
Parts to be
joined
(d)
s:
(e)
1. Butt joint
The
is
the
most
is
commonly used
known
As can be seen
initial
in the figure,
contact to a very
small area, thus increasing the intensity of energy at that spot. This causes the
projection to melt and flow and cover the whole area of the joint. This type of
joint
is
it
is
not difficult to
mold
into a part.
2.
Step
joint with
is
stronger than
is
desired.
302
Plastics
FIGURE 8.19
Ultrasonic installation
of metal insert into
plastic part
Plastic part
Fixture
3.
4. Interference joint.
and
is
usually
The interference joint (see Figure 8.18d) is a high-strength recommended for square corners or rectangular-shaped parts.
joint
FIGURE 8.20
Ultrasonic staking
Staking
tool
Flared stake
Spherical stake
(1.6
diameter
less
than
in.
mm)
diameter
less
than -^
in.
(1.6
mm)
N/S/VV
4S
m
Knurled stake
in.
Hollow stake
diameter more than ^(4
mm)
Flush stake
303
5.
Scarf
joint. The scarf joint (see Figure 8.18e) is another high-strength recommended for components with circular or oval shapes.
joint
and
is
employed
thermoplastic components. Figure 8.19 illustrates an arrangement for the ultrasonic installation of a metal insert into a plastic part.
is
ultrasonic staking,
which
is
equiv-
alent to riveting or heading. Figure 8.20 indicates the different types of stakes, as well
recommended
J. 5
FIBER-REINFOR
COMPOSITES
In this present age of
new
materials based on the combination of organic polymer resins and high-strength, highstiffness synthetic fibers. This section addresses the materials, processing,
and design
Historical
Background
was reportedly used
as a building material
Although the merits of fiber-reinforced materials have been known for centuries,
(straw-reinforced clay
by
the Egyptians in
600
B.C.),
it
is
only in the past 40 years that fiber-reinforced polymers have become im-
New
new
resins
ma-
terial
commod-
and bathroom
and shower
stalls),
mer
the
resins
first
such as sports equipment (sailboat spars) and, more recently, wind turbine blades.
The
utilization of
It is,
composite materials
tinues to grow.
know
about and
new
uses
may
presented next.
niques, and engineering design features will put into perspective present and future
* Section 8.5
was written by
Dr.
Armand
F.
Lewis, Lecturer
at the
304
Plastics
Nature of Composites
made up of
com-
Many
and
particulate-filled compositions,
and mul-
Most
compos-
We
the
will
composed of
higher-strength, higher-modulus
lists
embedded
and
in
some of
comre-
mon
resin
fiber materials
epoxy
resins
most
common
fibers are
trade name), and boron fibers are also in use for specialty (advanced) composite material
applications.
The
integral
fibers
and
rel-
materials.
FRP
of polymeric materials yet, due to their fiber reinforcement, can be designed to possess
directional stiffness and strength properties comparable to those of metals.
These meillus-
chanical properties can be achieved at a very light weight. This feature can be
trated
elastic
by comparing the
specific
modulus
(tensile elasticity-modulus/density)
compares the
specific strengths
and
commodity elastomers,
plas-
TABLE 8.1
Classifications of
Classification
composite materials
305
TABLE 8.2
Some
materials used
in
Matrix Resin
organic polymer
engineering composites
306
Plastics
FIGURE 8.21
1
Specific strengths
and
'
of materials
307
For example,
if
we
polymer resin
composite, the modulus and strength properties of the composite will be very different
in the direction longitudinal to the fiber length
compared
perpendicular to the
ate for
fibers.
most appropri-
The mechanical contribution of the fibers are directly in line with the direction of pull. The fibers are strong and stiff in this longitudinal direction, and the polymer matrix is relatively weak
composites being tested
in the longitudinal (fiber) direction.
and much
are always
less rigid.
Note
and
form
fiber
much
because the
have an
and stronger
polymer matrix by
composites
in
itself.
reinforced polymer
is
engineering designs.
Fiber Reinforcement
Generally, reinforcement in
In composite
materials of the most commercial interest, fibers are the most important and have the most
influence on composite properties. Table 8.3 presents a comparison of the most common re-
inforcement fibers used in preparing organic polymer engineering composites. Nylon fiber
is
included here as areference fiber. All the materials listed in Table 8.3 are textile fibers and
most part, be processed into manufactured products in the same manner as texcontinuous yarn,
wound
filaments,
fabrics,
nonwoven
and pol-
mats).
yaramid
rication,
These reinforcing
can take several forms, such as <0. 1 inch (3^4- mm) fiber "whiskers," 0. 1 -0.3 inch
(3-10
mm)
chopped
fibers,
mm)
fiber sheets,
woven fabric (continuous) fiber with plain weave, and unidirectional/longitudinal (continuous) fiber ribbons. These fiber reinforcement forms are illustrated
Figure 8.22.
When
is
using fiber reinforcement in polymer composites, the surface of the fibers or yarns
pre-
TABLE 8.3
Comparison properties
of various fibers
308
Plastics
FIGURE 8.22
Comparison
of fiber
reinforcement forms
309
enhance wetting and adhesion of the matrix resin made specific to the chemical nature of
important that the fiber supplier be consulted for the proper are purchased. type of fiber/resin coupling agent when fiber reinforcement materials glass. As Table 8.3 shows, the most commonly used reinforcing fiber material is There exists an applications. In particular, S-2 glass is used in most high-performance involving the use of glass extensive applications, manufacturing, and processing history of carbon fiber are also used fiber in polymer composite applications. Various forms
for high-performance applications.
The processing of
fibers.
carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer
However,
in the
continuous-yarn
is generated equipment from damage. Airborne, electrically conducting graphite dust rings and rollers. This can when the carbon fibers or yarns are processed through guide fabrication. The occur before the fibers are wetted by the matrix resin during material an instrument's enclodust can ruin electrical equipment if it is allowed to penetrate used when processing carbon sure. Sometimes, explosion proof electrical equipment is
fibers.
Another approach
is
to
fit
Matrix Resins
Classification of polymer matrices.
Many
FRP
composite materials.
classified
with of the polymers previously discussed can be reinforced chopped-fiber-reinforced types are fibers to form composites. The most common same way as nonfiberthermoplastics. These materials can be processed in the and mixed into a molten reinforced plastics. Generally, chopped fibers are blended in a meltmass of the engineering thermoplastic (e.g., nylon, polycarbonate, acetal)
Many
molding powder
parts then used for injection molding or extrusion of engineered sections. similar to the unreinforced plastics discussed in the preceding prepared Continuous fibers such as glass, carbon, or polyaramid have also been first coat thermoplastic with thermoplastic resin matrices. The concept here is to polymer solution-solvent-dip resins onto continuous-fiber yarn by a hot melt or a
is
then be fabricated into process. These thermoplastic polymer-coated yarns can compression molding technique or shaped structures by a (hot press) matched-die consolidation. At this other techniques for affecting molten-polymer controlled composites are much more widely time, discontinuous chopped-fiber thermoplastic
advantages of thermoused than continuous fiber-reinforced composites. The main be processed, for the most part, in plastic matrix fiber composites is that they can Furthermore, any scrap conventional thermoplastic polymer fabrication equipment. into the injection molding or extruding material can be recycled back
or off-quality
this thermoplastic
processing not to
310
Plastics
in
molten
which can
di-
polymer matrix.
cured
state,
The
final,
dition of the
polymer
reinforcement
in the
processing,
it
is
imIt is
Sequence
resin
is
of
FRP
its
system involved.
It
At
first,
the
in a liquid state as
may
depending on
syrup).
At
mixed
resin
low enough
to
accommodate
init is
may be lowered by
fiber. In all,
application to the
it
im-
prop-
also necessary
that
it
ambient temperature so
remains
fluid
in the
time
is
controlled by the nature of the catalyst, the ambient temperature, and the bulk
volume
is
a resin undergoing
is
volume of
the resin
cannot be easily dissipated. The reaction in the fiber/resin dip tank will automatically
accelerate, the resin will cure, or, worse, the heat of the reaction
fire as
may
cause a serious
Most
often,
tain
the proper
components of the resin system (resin: part A; curative: part B) at the appropriate moment and position for wetting the fibers. Once the resin part and the curative part of the resin system have been mixed, the
liquid-to-solid cure reaction of the resin begins.
The curing
resin
several stages: liquid/fluid, gel stage, rubbery stage, and tough/glassy solid.
Depending
upon
hours (for room temperature cures), to minutes, to seconds. The gel point in a ther-
311
when
is
a sharp rise in viscosity and ceases to be a fluid. Theoretically, the gel point is defined as the time in the cure when each polymer molecule in the system is tied together by
at least
one cross-link. Therefore, at the gel point, the polymer molecules in the resin system have combined and have reached an infinite molecular weight. After the gel point, the number of cross-links in the polymer system continues to increase, the crosslink
network gets
tighter
and
tighter,
solid.
It is
at the gel
stage
The
rubbery stage
is
intermediate in
cross-links
number of
in the resin system exists. Figure 8.23 illustrates the nature of the polymer resin and curative molecules during the curing sequence. Note that it is only in the solid-state
its
shape and
necessary. Let us
Chemistry of the unsaturated polyester resin system. Unsaturated organic polymers are polymer systems containing double bonds, or C = C. Double bonds can react with
each other by an addition reaction that can be initiated by a free-radical catalyst. With the help of free-radical catalysts, unsaturated organic compounds can react with each
other to form high-molecular-weight polymers:
"H
312
Plastics
FIGURE 8.23
Nature of molecules at
various stages of
BACKBONE
CROSSLINICING
Polymer (Pre-Polymer)
Chemical/Agent
thermosetting resin
cure
Liquid
All
molecules
are independent,
Gel
to
At least one
crosslink attachment
each backbone
ploymer molecule.
Rubber
still
crosslinks,
More backbone
flexible
Glass
tight
High
crosslink density,
network
structure
313
Unsaturated
polyester resin
FIGURE 8.24
Chemical structure of
unsaturated
polyester/styrene resin
(UP)
H
<{>
Styrene
(Monomer)
c C C C C'
(j)
(j>
(J)
314
Plastics
c
this
C=C
group
in polyesters.
Epoxy
polymers contain-
They
are cured
by adding a multifunctional
chemical to the mixture that serves to cross-link the system by an addition reaction
with the oxirane ring. The most
amines.
common
Many
of the amines used to cure epoxies are liquids, which makes the amines
serve as reactive diluents. Such liquid material systems are also easily adaptable to
dual-component pumps and the mixing of resin during dispensing for processing. The
basic reaction between (primary) amine groups and the epoxy group
is
as follows:
OH
RNH, + CH
1?
315
2.
o
C C
C C
o O OH
CH
i
/ \
+ CH 2
O O
CH
i
CH
*~
CH 2
CH
OH
3.
Epoxy groups,
in turn, reacting
OH
groups:
/\
OH
+ CH 2 CH
=
HC
=
HC
CH ?
CH
Although
all
Compared
are necessary
to
of anhydride cures
is
compared
to
amine-cured sys-
much
From
much
problems
these resins.
The
(RIM) process
in-
mixing head and injecting the reacting mixture into a closed mold before reaction
in
is
complete, as illustrated
atively
at
a rel-
low pressure of 50
is
is
very im-
moment
the
mold cavity
is filled.
Close
process control
complex
RIM
method.
316
Plastics
FIGURE 8.25
The
reaction injection
Resin
Resin
component A
component B
High-
pressure
cylinder
Reinforcement
prior to mixing
if
can be added
to
some
instances,
molded product. This process, reinforced reaction injection molding (RRIM), is shown in Figure 8.26. Structural reaction injection molding (SRIM) and resin transfer molding (RTM) are similar to RRIM, except that the reinforcement is placed directly into the mold
a special surface finish
SRIM,
the reinforcement
is
typically a
in
preform of
fibers. In
RTM,
as
shown
Figure 8.27, a
pumped
the reinforcement.
FIGURE 8.26
The reinforced reaction
injection
Reinforcement
Resin
Resin
molding
component A
component B
(RRIM) process
High-pressure
cylinders
Mold
317
FIGURE 8.27
The resin transfer
molding (RTM) process
Resin
Dry Reinforcement
The
resin system
is
such that
is
it
The advantages of
is
RTM
are that,
ment and
FRP
parts
and cores
RTM
process.
RTM
processing
Wet
lay-up
Imbedding
polyaramid
pro-
plain-weave fabric or fibrous mat into an uncured liquid resin and allowing the liquid
resin to solidify (cure) while being constrained
by a mold or form
is
common
A typical
arrangement of
is shown in Figure 8.28. vacuum bagging method of fabricating composite parts and shapes. The principle of vacuum bagging is quite simple. The shape to be fabricated is prepared by a room temperature wet lay-up procedure as just described. The
Related to
this
is
the
part to be fabricated
is
it,
the
bag
by
FIGURE 8.28
Arrangement of
plies in
u a d n u u u a u u u u o~q n n n n n n w n n rrri n n rn
B P
fabric
C
S
Pressure sensitive
flexible sealant
318
Plastics
composite assembly
is
(cure) at
ply,
room
vacuum
bag, bleeder
and resin-absorber material are removed from the assembly and discarded, leaving the fabricated composite part ready for subsequent finishing or treatment. A variation of the wet lay-up method is the spray-up process, where a spray gun simultaneously sprays catalyzed resin and chops continuous glass yarn into specific lengths. As shown in Figure 8.29, chopped fibers enter the spray nozzel of the spray gun,
and the materials are comixed and sprayed onto an open-cavity mold. The mold usually
is
faced with a smooth coating of already cured resin called a gel-coat or a thermoplasshell.
tic
When
the
removed from
the mold.
The laminar
formed is composed of an aesthetically acceptable or otherwise finished outer Adhered to and backing up this skin is the cured fiber-reinforced resin. Open-mold processing of this type is used extensively in bathtub and shower stall applications.
Unidirectional-fiber resin prepregs.
com-
form of a prepreg. Prepregs are typically side-by-side aligned fiber yarns that have been impregnated by a B-staged resin matrix (meaning that it has been deliberately partially cured). Unidirectional-fiber composite prepregs are commercially
monly used
in the
One drawback
is
for shipping
use.
They
also
by plying together lay-ups of these resin-impregnated unidirectional fibers. The lay-ups can be designed to have different desired mechanical properties depending upon the geometrical arrangement or assemPrepreg material
used
to fabricate structures
Some
in
cross-ply (0, 90), and quasi-isotropic (0, +45, 90, -45, 0) plied laminates will
FIGURE 8.29
The spray-up process
^^\ J
319
FIGURE 8.30
Various arrangements
of unidirectional-fiber
ply
laminates
Unidirectional
(0,0)
Cross-ply
(0,90)
Quasi-isotropic
stiffness will
always be higher
in the
forms are commercially available (e.g., fabrics and fibrous mats). The numerous Bstage precomposite forms and types of fiber are all available to the composite materials
design engineer
in the
320
Plastics
Filament winding.
Filament winding
is
cedure commonly used to fabricate tubular (hollow) and like structures. The apparatus used in the filament winding
8.31a. Basically, filamentary yarns are fed off a spool that
process
is
yarn
is
immersed
in a catalyzed, but
still
nated with the resin. After squeezing out excess resin, the resin-impregnated yarn
wound onto
A computer
sys-
tem and control arm guide the yarn back and forth across the mandrel in a predetermined pattern. The computer controls the type of wind pattern and the number of
layers of yarn filaments to be laid
down on
is
Two
types of wind
patterns are possible: circumferential and helical, (as Figure 8.31b shows). In the cir-
wound
in a
continuous manner
in close
prox-
No
be
at a
The
is
mandrel
is
number of
layers
tra-
verses the length of the mandrel at a prescribed angle (e.g., 10, 30, 45). Again, the
mandrel
number of
layers
is
formed.
In practice, combinations of
ricate a part.
hoop and helical wind are usually performed to fabThe desired lay-down sequence is programmed on the computer. While
is
heating lamps can be focused on the resin/fiber mass to affect partial cure of the resin
is
and enough state that the rotation can stop and the cylindrical part and mandrel can be removed from the filament winding machine. Postcuring of the wound composite and mandrel can then be
fiber/resin
wound
is left
rotating. Rotation
in
an oven. After
mandrel
is
is
removed from
ally
To
mandrel form
gener-
made with
its
slipped out of an end, leaving the desired filamentary composite cylindrical "shell."
The composite
or form.
Pultrusion processing.
Pultrusion
is
lin-
commonly produced by
ing
a linear-oriented process-
immersed
in
and im-
As
the
heated die designed so that the fiber/resin composite mass exiting the die
is
sufficiently
in the pul-
die.
shown
in
321
FIGURE 8.31
The filament winding
process:
(b) (a)
C
Hoop wind
apparatus;
wind patterns
C
Mandrel
(a)
Mandrel
Hoop
Multiple helical
IHoop and
helical
(b)
Longitudinal
is,
therefore, adaptable to
The
process of pultrusion
polyester, epoxy,
is
critically controlled
(e.g.,
unsaturated
resins), the
shown
in
Figure 8.32b,
is
al-
is
often a need
tape)
wrap
of fibrous material. This serves to consolidate the pultruded shape and gives a
much
more durable outer surface to the finished part. In this instance, thin veils of nonwoven or woven fabric tapes are fed into the entrance of the die along with the resinimpregnated continuous-fiber yarns. This assembled mass of fibers and resin proceeds to be pulled through the die as just described. The manufacture of hollow pultruded
shapes
is
common, and
a special die
is
then required.
it.
shaped
fluid
insert or
"torpedo"
is
The
resin-impregnated fibers
now
322
Plastics
FIGURE 8.32
The pultrusion process:
(a)
apparatus;
(b)
cross-
sectional designs
Q^D QZD
Puller
Cured
composite
material
assembly
Yarn spools on a creel
(a)
IT
^Z^p
Structural
////////
beams
shapes
323
FIGURE 8.33
Model of technical base
for
engineered
composite materials
product development
First,
however,
in
mer composites,
limitations.
the engineer
their
advantages and
Some
Advantages
1. 2.
of carbon fibers.
ratios
Good wear
low
friction coefficient
8.
9.
Some
(directional) electrical
Very low
10. Very broad engineering design versatility 11. Broad processing versatility
324
Plastics
Advantages
1.
of polyaramld fibers.
ratios
4.
5.
Good
vibration
damping
properties
6.
Disadvantages.
1.
2.
3. Anisotropic properties 4.
Low
fiber)
New
prod-
ucts that take advantage of the unique properties of composite materials can also be
conceived.
Many
of these
fiber- reinforced comThe design engineer can choose from a multitude of reinforcing fiber types and fiber geometry arrangements, as well as from a variety of matrix materials. He or she has the freedom to mix in the design specification two or more diverse fiber types,
specific strengths
and specific
posites.
as well as the
freedom
degrees
(CAD)
and finite-element
stress analysis
(FEM)
new
computer-model form.
come
Some
next.
state,
required as final steps. Therefore, the assembly and the finishing of the fabricated part
are important in the creation of a final
bility
is
325
tion,
edge fraying, matrix cracking, or crazing leading to weak spots in the composite all possible. Great care must be taken to maintain the composand appearance.
Post-treatment of fiber-reinforced composites involves different tooling and procedures compared to what is done for metal or plastics. The abrasiveness of the fiber
and the possibility of fragmentation of the matrix resin are two factors to consider. Composites are machined, cut, and trimmed more easily using processes similar to
grinding or abrasive cutting rather than conventional metal-cutting techniques. Also, the method used is dictated by the type of fiber reinforcement. Glass fiber, carbon
fiber,
fiber
composites
all
require their
own
procedures.
For example, the cutting of polyaramid-fiber-reinforced composites is difficult because the fiber is so tough and does not cleave or cut in a brittle, fracture mode. Pol-
yaramid
undergo a process called fibrillation when "damaged" by the drilling, cutting, or machining tool. Fuzzy edge cuts or fiber-filled drill holes are produced when conventional machining and drilling tools are used. For polyaramid and for
fibers
other fiber-reinforced composite materials for that matter, water-jet cutting, laser cutprofile ting, and diamond wire cutting are often used to achieve an acceptable edge
to the final machine-finished parts.
For carbon-fiber-reinforced composites, the thermachining, and drilling can be a deterrent because mal effects due to laser cutting, the carbon fibers are thermally conductive. A weakened, charred, heat-damaged zone
may
surround the laser-cut edge. In summary, great care must be taken in the finishing post-treatments of fiber-reinforced composite materials.
Adhesive and mechanical joining. Adhesives are the principal means of joining complastics, posite materials to themselves and other materials of construction (metals, wood). The reasons for this are numerous. Most importantly, adhesive bonds are
uniquely capable of distributing stress and can easily be joined into contoured shapes. of the In mechanical joining, hole drilling is required, which can lead to delamination
composite and a
one material
can of materials joining. This can be achieved better by adhesive joining. Adhesives as a one-step often be incorporated into the structural laminar shape being fabricated
strips, layers,
manufactured structure during the composite processing stage (e.g., wet lay-up, filament winding, RIM, RRIM, and so on). Adhesive joining techniques previlend themselves to the creation of integrally designed structures as described tensile, scarf joints, and so ously. The various adhesive joint designs (lap shear, butt
"molded"
in the
the
common are Structural adhesives are available in various forms and types. Most very similar to the epoxy two-package epoxy resins. These formulated products are
Usumatrix resins used to create the fiber-reinforced composite materials themselves. the epoxy resin prepolymer, and ally, these two-package products consist of part A,
part B, the curative (such as a primary
amine or a polyamide/amine).
Fillers, thicken-
silicone compounds ers, reactive diluents, tackifiers, and other processing aids such as are added to the final formulation. to improve the moisture durability of the adhesive
326
Plastics
These two-part adhesives are mixed just before being applied to the surfaces of the parts to be joined. The assembly is then placed in a compression mold, platen press, or
heat
may be
being joined and cure the adhesive. There are also some one-package paste adhesives
at
high temperature.
Film adhesives are used exthe aerospace industry. Here, adhesives exist in the form of sheets. These
the film adhesive.
sheets are malleable, are drapable, and can be cut using shears to the desired size and
shape. These films are then placed between the surfaces to be joined and are cured
under consolidation pressure and elevated temperature. Like the one-package adhesives, these adhesives are formulated with a high-temperature-reacting latent curative.
Film adhesives,
stored at
like the fiber-reinforced epoxy prepregs described earlier, must be low temperature and kept frozen until ready to use. Also used in bonding composite materials are the acrylic adhesives. Acrylic ad-
They cure
at
room temperature by
is
One
that cure
can
be achieved by
first
An
uncat-
is
The
surfaces
to cure, undisturbed,
is
especially necessary
when
joining
composite materials to metals. Vapor degreasing, followed by a chemically alkaline cleaning bath, is normally used for surface treating metals prior to adhesive bonding.
Sandwich-panel
face sheets
construction.
Structural
made up of
illustrated in Fig-
The principle behind sandwich construction is that the core material spaces facings away from the symmetric center of the panel. Therefore, in flexure, the
reinforcement in the faces, which resists the bending of the panel. The columnar
faces or outer skins of the panel are in tension or compression. This construction leads
to the
strength of the
honeycomb core
Above
all,
the adhesive
to the use
used extensively
and aerospace applications, where the core materials are generally honeygeometric shape.
combed
in
Honeycomb
cores can be
made of
thin metal
(aluminum
(e.g., thin
sheet of resin-impregnated
sion process
is
shown
honeycomb core involves coating The specially coated core ma"log" or block of core material. The
327
FIGURE 8.34
Structural sandwich
Face sheet
panel construction
(Courtesy Strong,
A. B.
Honeycomb
Film adhesive
Fundamentals of
Composites
Manufacturing:
Materials, Methods,
and Applications.
Dearborn, Michigan:
Society of
Manufacturing
Engineers, 1989)
Face sheet
log must then be cut to the desired core height and subsequently expanded to form the
final
core material. In
some
is
honeycomb
is
method of making demanding stiffness and foam core material can be used. Rigid foam and
some
less
FIGURE 8.35
Manufacture of
Adhesive
strips are
2. Plies
from step
are
laid
to
form a block.
h
II
II
II
u u
3.
Block
is
cured under
328
Plastics
Kraft-paper-based
in
door panels.
Standard coating methods can be used for painting or coating
must
final
coating
is
abrading, filling in surface grooves/blemishes, and a solvent wipe must be carried out
before the paint sealer and final paint finish are applied. Paint sealers and the final
paint coating
must be dried/cured
at
composite
part.
technique.
Epoxy and
REFERENCES
Kaverman, R. D. "Reinforced
ites." In
Plastics
and Compos-
Michael L. Berins,
ed.,
neering
Handbook.
New
New
Manu-
Reinhold, 1991.
facturing: Materials,
SWIY
Ltd.,
1.
What
mers'?
why
8.
What What
is
2. 3.
What
Are
monomer"?
artificial?
9.
are the
main
characteristics of a thermo-
all
is
polymers
Give examples.
plastic
polymer?
4.
Why Why
of metals?
5.
is
melting temperature?
Why?
characteristics of a ther-
polymers
11. 12.
What What
is
are the
When
mosetting polymer?
13.
plication
7.
and why?
based on their
How
differ
How
temperature characteristics?
329
14.
Compare
metals.
How
do the differences
37.
starting
What
ing?
is
15.
How
can
from the
38.
What
by compression molding?
39. List
ing process.
are the
is is
17.
What
What
What
trate?
40.
What
is
the
18. 19.
cellophane and
how
is it
produced?
20.
What
What
are the
acetate?
21.
22.
is
43.
What What
is
Why
is it
used
What
lics?
in industry?
44.
are polyimides manufactured?
produced
23.
How
common
What What
are
the
products
of
the
calendering
process?
25. Discuss the properties of polyurethanes and
some of
26.
their applications.
46.
is
when
What
erty.
machining plastics?
property characterizes silicones? Suggest
suitable applications to
make use of
that prop-
27. Explain
28.
how
natural rubber
is
processed.
Why
are additives
how
ultrasonics are
employed
in
weld-
29. List
some
fillers.
Why
added
to poly-
mers?
30. 31.
50.
too
Do
all
much
added?
51.
How
What
components of ultrasonic
welding equipment?
52. Using sketches,
properties of a polymer?
32. List
some of
when
ultra-
process-
ing polymers.
33.
What
mers?
are the
mechanisms
all
same manner?
54.
What
What
What
produced
55.
by blow molding?
manufac-
330
Plastics
FRP
composites.
60.
Why
is
in the
modified
How
What should we be
fiber resin prepregs?
careful about
when using
58. List
some of
FRP FRP
composites.
62.
What
Design Pxojects__
I
The
8
current products of a
company involve
dif-
sume
volume
is
15,000
pieces.
g).
that
it
can be
250,000
cents.
lete
Because
24 inches (600
is
mm), and
company
cans
center.
Assume
cubic
volume
is
100,000 wheels.
1
make
a feafoot (0.027
3
)
is
made of
withstand an
axial
compressive load of
it
110
Design a
cup
of 8
pounds (50
kg).
Redesign
so that
it
can be
ounces (about 250 g) of water. Assume the annual production volume is 20,000 pieces.
made of
volume
plastic.
Assume
is
20,000 pieces.
Design a high-quality
Chapter 9
yslcs of
Metal Cutting
INTRODUCTION
Metal cutting can be defined as a process during which the shape and dimensions of a workpiece are changed by removing
of chips.
tool that
some
of
its
material
in
the form
of a cutting
of the workpiece,
Among
all
commonly
called machining,
is
castings are subjected to subsequent machining operations to acquire the precise dimensions and surface finish required. Also, products can
sometimes be
Machining comprises a group of operations that involve seven basic chipproducing processes: shaping, turning, milling,
grinding. Although
drilling,
one or more
of these metal-removal
at
some
stage
all
in
basis for
these processes
is
is
certainly not
due
rather
is
and high
rise in
chining, and,
finally,
tool
geometry and
seems, therefore,
331
332
FIGURE 9.1
Two-dimensional cutting
using a prismatic,
Workpiece
wedge-shaped
tool
assumptions
if
an insight
into this
complicated process
in
is
to
be gained.
In
fact,
we
We
employed,
as shown
workpiece)
Figure 9.1, and the direction of motion of the tool (relative to the
is
perpendicular to
its
such condi-
tions resemble the case of machining a plate or the edge of a thin tube and are
referred to as orthogonal cutting.
UTTING ANGLES
Figure 9.2 clearly illustrates that the lower surface of the tool, called the flank, makes
an angle
\j/
with the newly machined surface of the workpiece. This clearance angle
is
sur-
As can
an angle
a between
or face, of the tool along which chips flow and the plane perpendicular to the machined
FIGURE 9.2
Tool angles
in
two-
dimensional cutting
Tool angle
Clearance
angle
333
It is
known
The
removed chips depends mainly upon the value of the rake angle. As a consequence, the quality of the machined surface also depends on the value of the rake angle. In addition to these two angles, there is the tool angle (or wedge angle), which is the angle confined between the face and the flank of the tool. Note that the algebraic sum of the
rake, tool,
fine only
is
always equal
to 90. Therefore,
it is
sufficient to de-
two
and clearance
As you may
expect, the
recommended values
dependent upon the nature of the metal-cutting operation and the material of the workpiece to be machined. The choice of proper values for these two angles results in the
following gains:
1. 2.
A decrease
which
is
in the
3.
Longer
elapsed heat
reduced to
minimum
the mechanical properties of the workpiece material af-
Let us
fect the
now
consider
how
optimum value of
with larger positive rake angles to allow easy flow of the removed chips on the tool face, as shown in Figure 9.3. In addition, the higher the ductility of the workpiece material, the larger the tool clearance angle that is needed in order to reals require tools
workpiece
(i.e.,
between the
hard, brittle
On the other hand, and the machined workpiece negative rake angles in order materials require tools with smaller or even
tool flank
surface).
to to increase the section of the tool subjected to the loading, thus enabling the tool
withstand the high cutting forces that result. Figure 9.4 illustrates tools having zero and
negative rake angles required
clearance angle
is
when machining
FIGURE 9.3
Positive rake angle
required
when
soft, ductile
Positive
machining
metals
rake angle
Workpiece
334
FIGURE 9.4
Zero and negative rake
angles required when
Negative rake angle.
Tool
machining hard,
materials
brittle
Zero
rake angle
Workpiece
Workpiece
7
9.2 CHIP FORMATION
Mechanics
of Chip Formation
at the
He
many
years;
wood
fibers, as
was based on assuming that a crack would be initiated ahead of would propagate in a fashion similar to that of the splitting of shown in Figure 9.5. Thanks to modern research that employed highit
speed photography and quick stopping devices capable of freezing the cutting action, it was possible to gain a deeper insight into the process of chip formation. As a result,
Reuleaux's theory collapsed and proved to be a misconception;
it
the operation of chip formation basically involves shearing of the workpiece material.
Let us
now
see, step
by
step,
how
The
at
shown
is
in
Figure 9.6.
When
the tool
is set
cutting edge of the tool and the face start to penetrate the workpiece material.
The
sur-
is
As
N-N,
called the shear plane, plastic deformation takes place, and the material of
no option but
being sep-
exceeded, and a
little
FIGURE 9.5
Reuleaux's
misconception of the
mechanics of chip
removal
Workpiece
335
FIGURE 9.6
Stages
(a) tool
in
Tool
Chip
separated
chip removal:
A new
chip
set at a certain
(b)
being generated
workpiece penetration;
(c)
chip separation
Workpiece
(b)
(0
separated from the workpiece by slipping along the shear plane (see Figure 9.6c). This sequence is repeated as long as the tool continues to be pushed against the workpiece,
third,
Types of Chips
The type of chip produced during metal
1. 2. 3.
cutting depends
upon
The mechanical
machined
cutting conditions used (e.g., cutting speed) and the cross-sectional area of
the chip
Based on these
ure 9.7.
may
shown
in Fig-
Following
metals such as low-carbon steel, copspeeds (which are high), plastic flow per, and aluminum at the recommended cutting predominates over shearing (i.e., plastic flow continues, and shearing of the chip never
Continuous chip.
When
machining
soft, ductile
(see takes place). Consequently, the chip takes the form of a continuous, twisted ribbon plastically deforming the metal is evenFigure 9.7a). Because the energy consumed in
tually converted into heat, coolants
and lubricants must be used to remove the generbetween the tool face and the hot, soft chip.
brittle materials
Discontinuous chips.
When
machining hard,
bronze, brittle failure takes place along the shear plane before any tangible plastic flow occurs. Consequently, the chips take the form of discontinuous segments with irregu-
shape (see Figure 9.7b). As no plastic deformation is involved, there is no energy remains in conto be converted into heat. Also, the period of time during which a chip
lar
FIGURE 9.7
Types of machining
chips: (a) continuous,
twisted ribbon;
(b)
^Sfflto%
(a)
discontinuous, irregular
segments;
(c)
sheared,
(b)
(c)
short ribbons
336
tact
is
is
due
to friction
very small.
As
not required.
Sheared chips.
tively
When
at rela-
midway
be-
9.7c).
They
are usually
now and
then.
at
heat generated as a result of plastic deformation and friction between the chip and the
large
and
shown
in Figure 9.8.
The
at the tool
some of the chip material to the tool face (see Figure The welded material (chip segment) becomes an integral part of the cutting tool,
upon layer of chip
is
thus changing the values of the cutting angles. This certainly increases friction, leading to the buildup of layer
ting
material. This
newly formed
false cut-
The
ma-
chined surface (see Figure 9.8c). The harmful effects of the built-up edge are increased
tool
wear and a very poorly machined workpiece. The manufacturing engineer must
to
The
ratio
of
/t is
FIGURE 9.8
Stages
in
the formation
edge
flawed surface
Broken chips
(a)
(b)
sticking to the
newly machined
surface
(c)
337
FIGURE 9.9
Geometry
of a chip with
_*o _
t
ts
sin
(())
sin
(|)
ts
cos
- a)
cos (
- a)
(9.1)
By employing
we
tan
<b
=
1
rc cos
a a
in obtaining the value
(9.2)
is
rc sin
Equation 9.2
employed
when
the rake
angle a, the depth of cut, and the final thickness of the chips are known. In experi-
is
either
measured
ended micrometer or obtained from the weight of a known length of chip (of course,
the density and the width of the chip
Let us
now
=
Vx
or
tn
V,
c
t
In other words,
Vr =
Vrr
=
draw
V
cos
sin
(())
(j)
- a)
(9.3)
We can now
of two
we know
the magnitudes
is
and directions
velocities,
V and Vc The
.
shear velocity,
V which
v
,
which the
tri-
metal slides along the shear plane, can then be determined. Based on the velocity
angle
shown
in Figure
9.10 and applying the sine rule, the following can be stated:
V.
V,
V
sin (90
(j
+ a)
sin (90
- a)
sin
ty
338
FIGURE 9.10
Velocity triangle
(90
<t>
a)
and
removal process
(0
-a)
(90 - a)
V
cos
((})
Vs
vc
sin
<j)
- a)
cos
Therefore,
a V=V coscos - a)
((()
(9.4)
due
to shearing.
be expressed as follows:
y=
a'n
h
d'n
cot
an
an
(J)
.,
tan
(<|)
- a)
(9.5)
The shear
y=
strain rate
a'n
+
1
a'd'
an
At
an
At
an
At
FIGURE 9.11
Shear
strain during chip
Final shape of material
Rake angle
just after
formation
Shear
strain,
Original shape of
machining (hatched)
339
But,
a'd'
At
Therefore,
Y=
V.
an
is
where an
the thickness of the shear zone. Experimental results have indicated that
is
it
This
finding
is
UTTING FORCES
Theory of Ernst and Merchant
In order to simplify the problem, let us consider the two-dimensional, idealized cutting model of continuous chip formation. In this case, all the forces lie in the same
plane and, therefore, form a coplanar system of forces. Walter Ernst and Eugene
M.
Merchant, both eminent American manufacturing scientists, based their analysis of this system of forces on the assumption that a chip acts as a rigid body in equilibrium under the forces acting across the chip-tool interface and the shear plane. As Figure 9.12 shows, the cutting edge exerts a certain force upon the workpiece. The magnitude of that force is dependent upon many factors, such as the workpiece material,
FIGURE 9.12
Cutting force diagram
Merchant
340
lar
components,
and
two perpendicu-
Fc
tool travel
direction and
known
The resultant tool force can alternatwo perpendicular components, Fs and Fn The first
.
component,
s,
and
is
second component,
that acts
Fn
acts
normal
to
it
on the
shear plane. Again, at the chip-tool interface, the components of the resultant force
and
TV.
while
N is
movement of the chip as it slides over the face of the tool, normal force. The ratio between F and TV is actually the coefficient of
Because each two components are perpendicular,
that the point of intersection of
it
clear
nents must
ameter.
The
Fs Fn
,
F,
and
TV in
terms
Fc
s
and F, as follows:
cos
sin
sin
<J)
F = Fc Fn = Fc
F = Fc
F, sin F, cos
(J)
(9.6)
(9.7)
(J)
a+F
cos
a a
to
(9.8)
N=F
cos
a-
F, sin
(9.9)
u.
F =
TV
F,.
sin cl
F, cos t
Fc
cos
a- F
sin
a = a
_i
tan
we
obtain
Fc nitude of the
+ F,tana F, tan a
(9>10)
The shear force Fs is of particular importance as it is used for obtaining the magmean shear strength of the material along the shear plane and during the cutting operation. This is equal to the mean shear stress acting through the shear plane and can be computed as follows:
'
A,
where
s,
A chip/sm
((),
where
A chip
is
the cross-
_ [Fc cos
(()
F, sin
<t>]sin
())
chip
341
calculated from
stress,
Equation 9.11,
ditions. This
is
constant for a given metal over a wide variation in the cutting conat
occurs
is
sufficiently high to be the only factor that affects the shear strength for a
strain, or
effect
stress
Ernst and Merchant extended their analysis and studied the relationship between
the shear angle and the cutting conditions.
cause the
total
work done
in cutting is
They suggested that the shear angle always consumed in cutting to a minimum. Bedependent upon and is a direct function of the
component
Fc
Fc
in
terms of
(J)
that expression
was
dif-
for
is
which
Fc
consumed
minimum. Following
From Figure
9.12,
we can
see that
(9.12)
F =R
s
cos
(4>
+ p - a)
Therefore,
cos (
But,
+ p - a)
F =
s
xs A s
xs
'chip
sin
Therefore,
T * Achi P
sin
R=
Again,
it
x
cos
(<|)
+ P-
(9.13)
a)
9.
1
2 that
(9.14)
Fc = /?cos(p-<x)
Hence, from Equations 9.13 and 9.14,
F =
TA
sin
hiD
cos (p cos
((()
- a) + P - a)
({)
(9lS)
20 + P -
a=
(9.16)
342
It
was found
of
ty
when
was not
the case
when
steels.
scientists E.
is
A further assumption
is
behaves
man-
was not
<|>
f3
- a=
-j
(9.17)
In fact, neither of the preceding theories quantitatively agrees with experimental results.
linear relationships
between
())
and
((3
a),
which
is
qualitatively in
results.
Cutting Energy
We
tool
the energy
it is the component F c that determines consumed during machining because it acts along the direction of relative travel. The power consumption P, (i.e., the rate of energy consumption during
Pm
=F xV
c is
(9.18)
where V
The
rate of metal
Zm
is
Zm =A
where
chip.
xV
t
(9.19)
Now,
consumed
in
removing a
unit
as follows:
P,
F F xV=
c
Zm
In
A x V
t)
(9.20)
A
a parameter that indicates the efficiency of the process,
is
Equation 9.20,
Pc
commonly known
is
called the
is
not
we
will see
343
we have
nal cutting. In this type of cutting, the cutting edge of the tool
tion
normal
to the direc-
tool movement, as shown in Figure 9.13a. It is two-dimensional process in which each longitudinal section (i.e., parallel
of relative
actually
to the tool
and chip
is,
is
identical to
chip.
The
cutting force
into
two
components, both lying within the plane of the drawing. Although this approach facilitated the analysis of chip formation and the mechanics of metal cutting, it is seldom
used
in practice
because
its
it
applies only
when
direction parallel to
axis.
(or
in the various
is
machining op(i.e.,
inclined to
It is
not normal to) the relative tool travel, as can be seen in Figure 9.13b.
a three-
dimensional problem in which the cutting force can be resolved into three perpendicular components, as indicated in Figure 9.14.
known
as
The magnitudes of these components can is mounted either in the workholder a dynamometer. As you may expect, the tool geometry
FIGURE 9.13
Types of
cutting: (a)
(b)
orthogonal;
oblique
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 9.14
Components
cutting force
of the
three-dimensional
Tool
344
is
rather complicated
and
will
be discussed
later.
For now,
let
Forces
Following
ure 9.14:
1.
in
is
Oblique Cutting
a discussion of the three components referred to as
Fc Ff
,
and
in Fig-
Fc
is
and
components and results in 99 percent of the energy consumed during the process. The horsepower due to this force, hp c can be given by
It is
hp
-=l^
Fc
is
Fc
xV
<9 - 21)
In Equation 9.21,
in
pounds and
Vc
is in
if
the
horsepower
is
to
be obtained
in
Ff
is
movement of the
amounts
to
horsepower required
to feed the
The term feed means the machined only about 40 percent of the cutting force. The tool, hp f can be given as follows:
,
hpf Ff
= t?,
Ff x Vf 7550x60
to only
1
(9.22)
The horsepower given by Equation 9.22 amounts power consumed during cutting.
3.
is
and
to
no
tool
move-
ment along
is,
however, interested
determining
in order to
be able
made of
common
The
hp c = unit hp x
(9.23)
where the
rate of metal
removal
tor is introduced to
345
Table 9.1 indicates the unit horsepower values for various ferrous metals and
alloys. Figure 9.15a to
al-
loys having different hardness numbers. Table 9.2 provides the unit horsepower values
for nonferrous metals
and
horsepower
is
The
that
it
cutting horsepower
significance
is
is
used
in
TABLE 9.1
Unit
horsepower values
for ferrous
Brinnei Hardness
Number
Ferrous
346
TABLE 9.2
Unit
for
horsepower values
nonferrous metals
and alloys
347
FIGURE 9.15
Different correction
1.6
the cutting
1.2
speed;
(b)
chip
(c)
thickness;
rake
0.8
Handbook
Cutting,
of High-
0.4
Efficiency Metal
1980, courtesy
Inc.,
200
400
600
800
Carboloy
Tools
A Seco
0.100 0.0010.002 0.004 0.010 0.020 0.040 Undeformed chip thickness (in.)
(b)
Company)
cr
348
where
is
atrue =
The correction
hp
is
spindle hp
3.6
x 0.8 x
x 0.83 =
1.9
hp
hp c =
Therefore,
Fr
x 300 ft/min.
550 x 60
Fc =
1.9x550x60
300
= 209 pounds F
Note
that the
undeformed chip thickness equals feed (inches per revolution) times the
characteristics: First,
it
The
is
Nevertheless,
it
moment,
of sim-
we cover
operations.
As can be seen
jecting
in
adequately described by six cutting angles. These can be shown more clearly by pro-
as
is
done
in
now
The
(SCEA)
is
usually referred to as
The value of
ing
upon
the machinability, rigidity, and, sometimes, the shape of the workpiece (e.g.,
FIGURE 9.16
Geometry
of a single-
End
relief
349
FIGURE 9.17
Orthogonal projection
of the cutting angles of
ECEA
20
Side rake 8
Back rake 2
Nose radius
SCEA
15
Side
relief
[* End
relief
Top view
Front view
Tool character
2 8 6
20
15
\n.
End
Side
relief-
relief
ECEA
SCEANose radius
0 SCEA). As this angle increases from 0 to a 90 shoulder must be produced by a limit for in15, the power consumption during cutting decreases. However, there is a because of the large creasing the SCEA, beyond which excessive vibrations take place cutinterface. On the other hand, if the angle were taken as 0, the full
tool-workpiece
ting
edge would
workpiece
at
once, causing an
initial
shock. Usually,
the
recommended
value for the lead angle should range between 15 and 30.
rubEnd cutting-edge angle. The end cutting-edge angle (ECEA) serves to eliminate end cutting edge and the machined surface of the workpiece. Albing between the
though
this
commonly recommended
Side
and end relief angles. Side and end relief angles serve to eliminate rubUsually, the value bing between the workpiece and the side and end flank, respectively. 5 and 15. of each of these angles ranges between
relief
Back and
is
Back and side rake angles determine the direction of flow Rake angles can be positive, negative, or zero. It
dominant influence on
is
varies
between 0 and
15,
usually taken as 0.
Another useful term in metal cutting is the true rake angle, which is confined beplane. tween the line of major inclination within the face of the tool and a horizontal obtained face of the tool and can be It determines the actual flow of chips across the
350
tan" '(tan
sin
X+
tan
f3
cos X)
(9.25)
where:
a
(3
is is is
the back rake angle the side rake angle the lead angle
(SCEA)
marked
effect
to
As previously mentioned,
power
for a given
on the
unit horse-
culating the
power
Tool character.
The
tem called
relief,
As
the tool angles are always given in a certain order: back rake, side rake,
end
relief, side
tool.
even
at the
as toughness, creep
high bearing
and so
on).
Following
a survey of the
commonly used
Plain-carbon steel.
additives,
is
and
is
suitable only
it
when
machined
at
low
cut-
ting speeds as
hardness
at
tempering action.
Alloy steel.
alloy steel
is
but
it
made of
alloy steel
must
to
carried out at
600F (300C)
High-speed
steel
(HSS)
is
cent),
(at
two
molybdenum, vanadium, and cobalt. High-speed steel is heat treated by heating stages), cooling by employing a stream of air, and then tempering it. Tools
retain their hardness at elevated temperatures
up
to
100F (600C).
except
when
351
Cast hard
alloys. Cast hard alloys can be either ferrous or nonferrous and contain about 3 percent carbon, which, in turn, reacts with the metals to form very hard carbides. The carbides retain their hardness even at a temperature of about 1650F (900C). Because such a material cannot be worked or machined, it is cast in ceramic
molds
to take the
form of
mechanically fastened.
Sintered cemented-carbide tips.
nate the
was developed
to elimi-
main disadvantage of
compo-
particles sition of this material involved about 82 percent very hard tungsten carbide always molded to and 18 percent cobalt as a binder. Sintered cemented carbides are
shape by the powder metallurgy technique (i.e., pressing and sintering, as was explained in Chapter 7). As it is impossible to manufacture the entire tool out of cemented carbide because of the strength consideration, only tips are made of this have the material; these tips are brazed or mechanically fastened to steel shanks that
required cutting angles.
Cemented carbides used to be referred to as Widia, taken from the German expression "Wie Diamant," meaning diamondlike, because they possess extremely high hardness, reaching about 90 Re, and they retain such hardness even at temperatures of
up
to
retungsten, titanium, and tantalum carbides with cobalt or nickel alloy as binders. The friction and high abrasion resistance. sult is characterized by its low coefficient of reTools with cemented-carbide tips are recommended whenever the cutting speeds therefore, commonly used in mass producquired or the feed rates are high and are, oxides to increase their tion. Recently, carbide tips have been coated with nitrites or
life.
of very fine alumina powder, A1 2 3 which is molded by pressing and sintering. Ceramics have almost the same hardness of 2200F as cemented carbides, but they can retain that hardness up to a temperature
Ceramic
(1100C) and have a very low coefficient of thermal conductivity. Such properties the cutallow for cutting to be performed at speeds that range from two to three times Ceramic tips are also characterized by ting speed used when carbide tips are employed.
their superior resistance to
wear and to the formation of crater cavities. They require to no coolants. Their toughness and bending strength are low, which must be added vibration. Therefore, ceramic tips are recomtheir sensitivity to creep loading and
mended only
speeds of up to 180 feet per minute (600 m/min.). Following are the three
types of ceramic
1.
tips:
common
Oxide
tips,
consisting mainly of
tint.
pink or yellow
2.
Cermet
tips,
as titanium or
molybdenum,
Tips that consist of both oxides as well as carbides are black in color.
352
Ceramic
oxygen.
tips
Diamond.
operations.
Diamond pieces are fixed to steel shanks and are used in precision cutting They are recommended for machining aluminum, magnesium, titanium,
When
finish
can
be obtained.
Tool
Wear
Although these two actions take place simultaneously, the role of each varies for
is
There are two interrelated causes for tool wear: mechanical abrasion and thermal erosion.
used or when the workpiece possesses high machinability. Thermal wear prevails when
high cutting speeds are used with workpieces having low machinability. Thermal wear
is
due
to diffusion, oxidation,
and the
change as a
The
its
harder than
wear
is
tool.
Wear
formation of a
crater.
1. 2. 3.
Flank wear
Wear of
comes
in contact
Wear of Wear of
edge
itself
4.
5.
the nose
a crater
6.
such as millings
Tool Life
Tool
life is
at the
moment
can be
It is
when
used
a just-ground tool
at the
moment when
at
common
tip).
from the
in the
maximum
tool life
is
is
mm)
mm)
The
The
W. Taylor
between
tool life
exponential.
9.6 Machinability
353
FIGURE 9.18
Relationship between
tool
life
and cutting
log-log
speed on a
scale
Tool
life,
line, as
shown
was
correction factor
is
also intro-
duced
The
original for-
mula had
n
VT =
c
is
(9.26)
where: n
a constant that
for
HSS, 0.20
for
carbides,
c
is
(e.g.,
feed)
is
is
measured
in
V
Equation 9.26
life is
is
life
known
at
9.6 MACHINABILITY
Machinability Defined
Machinability
is
It is
the ease
in a
quan-
is
used:
1.
The maximum
machined workpiece
Tool
life
4.
Energy required
to
is the most important of these criteria as it plays an impormaximizing the production while minimizing the production cost. Moreover, criteria such as surface finish and machining precision depend upon many factors, such as the sharpness of the cutting edge, the rigidity of the tool, and the posIt is
tant role in
354
TABLE 9.4
Machinability indices
for
355
machine bearing and
slides
whenever
2.
it
comes
The
cutting fluid
must be chemically
stable
(i.e.,
its
properties
with time).
3.
No
The
is
no
possibility of
4.
5.
must be
superior.
filtration
The
process.
Pure
seed
oils.
oil,
Mineral
oils
oils is
permissible only
cooling properties. Although the polar organic oils possess good lubricating and cooling properties, they are prone to oxidation, give off unpleasant odors, and tend to
gum.
Mixed
oils.
Mineral
oils are
advantages of
added
is
oils.
The
disadvantage of the possible emission of chlorine gas during the machining operation.
Soluble
oils.
oils.
By
blending
tures can
mended
be obtained. These liquids have superior cooling properties and are recomfor machining operations requiring high speeds and low pressures.
Water solutions.
solution of
fluid.
sodium
nitrate
is
and trinolamine
in
ployed as a cutting
Caustic soda
If the
machine and
may be
affected.
Synthetic
fluids.
varies in appearance
from clear
to translucent.
Extreme-pressure additives
it
like sulfur
difficult
machining
356
HATTER PHENOMENON
When we
nomenon
feel cold in winter,
may
start to chatter.
similar phe-
occurs
when
to certain unfavor-
dynamic
characteristics of the
is
machine
tool structure.
The
in
phenomenon
work of
Birmingham
England,
we
how
how
may
they can be minimized. Left without remedy, these vibrations result in breakage of the
cutting tool (especially
if it is
machine
tool.
Two
ma-
chine tool structure. This force can be due to an imbalance in any of the machine tool
components or interrupted cutting action, such as milling, in which there is a periodic engagement and disengagement between the cutting edges and the workpiece. The frequency of these forced vibrations must not be allowed to come close to the natural frequency of the machine tool system or any of its components; otherwise, resonance
(vibrations with extremely high amplitude) takes place.
try to identify
The remedy
in this
case
is
to
any possible source for the imbalance of the machine tool components
it.
and eliminate
the
machine
ural frequency of
when an unexpected
disturbing force,
chip-tool inter-
at the
face, causes the cutting tool to vibrate at a frequency near the natural frequency of the
machine
tool.
As
minimum
excitation produces
life,
result in
poor surface
quality,
and
may
by conusually
is
achieved by selecting the proper material for the machine bed (cast iron has better
damping characteristics than steel), by employing dry-bolted joints as energy dissipators where the vibration energy is absorbed in friction, or by using external dampers or absorbers. Advanced research carried out at the University of Birmingham in England indicated the potentials of employing layers of composites as a means to safeguard
against the occurrence of chatter.
to find out the operating conditions (mainly the cutting speed) that
life.
in opposition
some
357
FIGURE 9.19
Relationship between
speed
Tool-change
cost
speed for
Cutting speed
trade-off or balance
must be made
production
in order to
rate,
achieve either
is
minimum machining
cost
per piece or
maximum
whichever
requirements.
how
to
The total cost is speed and the total cost per piece for a simple turning operation. components: machining cost, idle-time (nonproductive) cost, tool composed of four
cost,
in a reand tool-change cost. An increase in cutting speed obviously results time and, therefore, lower machining cost. This is accompaduction in machining tool-change costs. As can nied by a reduction in tool life, thus increasing tool and has 9.19, the curve of the cost per piece versus the cutting speed be seen in Figure corresponds to the optimum cutting speed for the minimum cost a minimum that
per piece.
The
be
relationship
constructed in the
between the production time per piece and the cutting speed can same manner, as shown in Figure 9.20. There is also a minimum
optimum
piece). Usually, this value is higher these two speed given in Figure 9.19. Obviously, a cutting speed between economy recommended. limits (and depending upon the goals to be achieved) is
ductivity
358
FIGURE 9.20
Relationship between
Idle
time
.Optimum
j
maximum
production
Cutting speed
Review Questions
1.
How
be approached?
2. Define the rake
in
why we
two-dimensional cutting.
are the angles in Question 2 required?
is
is
3.
4.
5.
Why
What
the upper surface of the tool called? the lower surface of the tool called?
What What
15.
are the cutting variables that affect the
What
is is
6.
16.
What
some drawbacks
if
When
When
18.
Draw
tive value?
9.
How
tive value?
10.
Can orthogonal
Explain.
Merchant?
cutting
actually
take place?
20.
On what
basis have
their theory?
Chapter 9 Problems
359
31.
What
is
cutting speed?
how
it
is
oblique cutting.
by the machinability
23.
What
components of the cutting force in oblique cutting? How do you compare their magnitudes with each other?
are the
index.
33.
What
ting fluids?
24. Define the unit horsepower. 25. Describe fully the geometry of single-point cutting tools.
What
ing machining?
36.
How
What
process.
37. 38.
chatter and
why does
it
occur?
How
What
can
we
eliminate chatter?
39.
for tool
ma-
chining?
28.
What
are the
wear?
40. Use
the
for
sketches
to
explain
how
the
value of
29. List the different kinds of tool wear. 30. Define tool
life.
optimum
cutting
maximum
productivity.
MM
Problems o,
In a turning operation, the diameter of the work-
Calculate the
a.
piece
is
it
rotates at
360
Cutting ratio
b.
How
Shear angle
0.3)
an
c.
minute when
Chip velocity
geared-head lathe
is
used
at
1000
feet per
of a car-
employed for machining The cutting speed is steel AISI 1055, minute, and the rate of metal re400 feet per moval is 2.4 cubic inches per minute. If the tool
BHN
250.
esti-
When
its
in
0.125 inch
0.15 inch
8
lime time
Chip thickness:
Back rake
angle:
cutting
Cutting speed:
300 ft/min.
360
Cutting speed:
to
be used for
Chapter 10
achlnlng
Metals
INTRODUCTION
This chapter
will
operations, as well as the design features of the various machine tools em-
In
shapes and
geometries produced by each operation, the tools used, and the work-holding
devices
will
will
rate,
must
mechanisms capable
of generating the
following motions:
1.
relative
in
the direc-
tion of cutting
2.
workpiece
until
achieved
3.
A feed motion that repeats the cutting action every round or every stroke
to
361
362
10
Machining of Metals
Construction
flat
lathe
is
edges.
number of tools that can simultaneously be mounted, and degree of automation, lathes, or more accurately, lathe-type machine
Based on
tools,
1. 2.
Engine lathes
Toolroom
lathes
Automatic lathes
6. Special-purpose lathes
machine
common
features with
considering the
in
commonly used
is
is
shown
lathe.
Lathe bed.
ports.
It is
The
It
lathe
bed
is
the
vertical supis
usually
made of gray
damp
vibrations and
made
by
casting.
has guideways that allow the carriage to slide easily lengthwise. The
height of the lathe bed should be such that the technician can do his or her job easily
and comfortably.
Headstock.
The headstock assembly is fixed at the left-hand whose axis is parallel to the guideways
bed and
The spindle is driven through the gearbox, which is housed within the headstock. The function of the gearbox is to provide a number of different spindle speeds (usually 6 to 18 speeds). Some modern lathes have headstocks with infinitely variable spindle speeds and that employ frictional, electrical, or hydraulic drives. The spindle is always hollow (i.e., it has a through hole extending lengthwise).
Bar stocks can be fed through the hole
if
continuous production
is
hole has a tapered surface to allow the mounting of a plain lathe center, such as the one
shown
fits
in
Figure 10.2.
It is
made of hardened
Morse
taper,
tool steel.
The
coni-
cal
As explained
like.
later, lathe
is
The
tailstock
parts: its
lower base, an
is
on the
lathe
363
FIGURE 10.1
An engine lathe
(Courtesy of Clausing
Industrial, Inc.,
Headstock assembly
Tool post
Compound
rest
Center
Tailstock quill
Kalamazoo, Michigan)
Tailstock assembly
Bed
Lead screw
Feed rod
has a clamping device so that the entire tailstock can The inbe locked at any desired location, depending upon the length of the workpiece. moved transversely so that the axis of the tailtermediate part is a casting that can be
it
the quill, is a stock can be aligned with that of the headstock. The third part, called moved longitudinally in and out of the intermediate hardened steel tube that can be
part as required. This
achieved through the use of a handwheel and a screw, around tawhich a nut fixed to the quill is engaged. The hole in the open side of the quill is of lathe centers or other tools like twist drills or boring pered to allow the mounting means of a clamping bars. The quill can be locked at any point along its travel path by
is
device.
Carriage.
the carriage
is
to
mount
ate longitudinal
and /or cross feeds. It is actually an H-shaped block that slides on the guided by the V-shaped lathe bed between the headstock and tailstock while being
FIGURE 10.2
A plain lathe center
Taper
364
10
Machining of Metals
guideways of the bed. The carriage can be moved either manually or mechanically by means of the apron and either the feed rod or the lead screw. The apron is attached to the saddle of the carriage and serves to convert the rotary
motion of the feed rod (or lead screw) into linear longitudinal motion of the carriage
and, accordingly, the cutting tool
(i.e., it
The apron
also pro-
vides powered motion for the cross slide located on the carriage. Usually, the tool post
is
mounted on
the
compound
rest,
which
is,
in turn,
mounted on
The
compound
rest is pivoted
any de-
sired angle with respect to the axis of the lathe (and that of the workpiece).
These var-
ious components of the carriage form a system that provides motion for the cutting
tool in
When
two perpendicular directions during turning operations. cutting screw threads, power is provided from the gearbox
all
to the
apron by
it is
a pair of half nuts that are fixed to the rear of the apron.
When When
gear.
actuating a certain lever, the half nuts are clamped together and engage with the
is
fed, together
disengaged, the half nuts are released and the carriage stops.
the feed rod
is
other hand,
when
used,
it
supplies
power
to the
apron through a
On the worm
This gear is keyed to the feed rod and travels with the apron along the feed rod, which has a keyway extending along its entire length. A modern lathe usually has a quick-change gearbox located under the headstock and driven from the spindle through
a train of gears.
It is
connected
to
both the feed rod and the lead screw so that a vari-
and rapidly be selected by simply shifting the appropriate levers. The quick-change gearbox is employed in plain turning, facing, and threadcutting operations. Because the gearbox is linked to the spindle, the distance that the
apron (and the cutting tool) travels for each revolution of the spindle can be controlled and is referred to as the feed.
A turret lathe
is
is re-
placed with a hexagonal (or octagonal) turret that can be rotated around a vertical axis
as required. Appropriate tools are
mounted on the
The
is
brought into the exactly desired operating position. These cutting tools can, therefore,
be employed successively without the need for dismounting the tool and mounting a
time, as
is
appreciable saving in the time required for setting up the tools. Also, on a turret lathe,
a skilled machinist
is
Figure 10.3
its
view of a hexagonal
turret
sides.
Sometimes, the
vertical
(i.e.,
with a hor-
thus allow-
365
FIGURE 10.3
Top view of a hexagonal
turret with six different
tools
Reamer
successively. Turret lathes always ing twelve machining operations to be performed mechanisms. have work-holding devices with quick-release (and quick-tightening)
Specifying a Lathe
It is
a lathe in order to important for a manufacturing engineer to be able to specify contract bids. The specifications of a lathe place an order or to compare and examine workpiece to be machined should involve data that reveal the dimensions of the largest power consumption, as well as information must include the
on
that lathe.
They
also
that is
10.1 indicates an
example of how
to
specify a lathe.
Tool Holding
(tool post). On an engine Tools for turning operations are mounted in a toolholder More than one cutting tool (up to four) can located on the compound rest.
lathe,
it
is
required for changing and setbe mounted in the toolholder in order to save the time be mounted at a time. In all turning operations, ting up each tool should only one tool fulfilled: the following conditions for holding the tools must be
1.
The
the lathe axis. of the cutting edge must fully coincide with the level of center as a basis for This can be achieved by using the pointed edge of the lathe condition results in a adjustment, as shown in Figure 10.4. Failure to meet this change in the values of the cutting angles from the desired ones.
tip
2. 3. 4.
The
The
must be horizontal.
its
must be fixed
tightly along
elastic strains
and vibrations.
366
10
Machining of Metals
TABLE 10.1
Example of
specifications of a lathe
Model
367
FIGURE 10.5
Different kinds of
turning tools
Right-hand
Left-hand
Broad-nose
Rough turning
tools
Finishing tools
2.
Facing tools. Facing tools are employed in facing operations for machining
side or
fiat
in
both
left
and right side surfaces. These side surfaces are generated through the use
is
used.
Cutoff tools, which are sometimes called parting tools, serve to sepaworkpiece into parts and/or machine external annular grooves, as shown in
Figure 10.7.
4. Thread-cutting tools. Thread-cutting tools
upon the cross section of the desired thread. Also, must always be identical to those of the thread
forms. Thread-cutting tools have straight shanks for external thread cutting and
bent shanks for internal thread cutting. Figure 10.8 illustrates the different shapes
of thread-cutting tools.
FIGURE 10.6
Different kinds of
facing tools
FIGURE 10.7
Cutoff tools
J-
368
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.8
Different
shapes
of
thread-cutting tools
Triangular
Square
Trapezoidal
5.
Form
tools.
As shown
that
is
in
to take a
form
Internal
and external
tools.
The types of internal cutting tools are similar to those of They include tools for rough turning, finish turning, thread
illustrates the different types
of internal
cutting tools.
Carbide
the
tips.
As previously mentioned,
to
is
usually
made
in
The tips are brazed or mechanically fastened to steel shows an arrangement that includes a carbide tip, a chip breaker, a seat, a clamping screw (with a washer and a nut), and a shank. As its name suggests, the function of a chip breaker is to break long chips every now and then,
form of
10.11
tips.
made
shanks.
Figure
may
cause problems
As shown
tips
in
ramic
tips)
which they
hole,
The
employed
for
mounting the
on the shank.
FIGURE 10.9
Form tools
/"~\
O"
^
K-S
FIGURE 10.10
Different types of
internal cutting tools
YMM
nm\
Recess or groove making
WM
Internal
u
threading
369
FIGURE 10.11
A carbide
tip
Clamp
fastened
to a toolholder
FIGURE 10.12
Different
shapes
of
carbide tips
Round
Diamond
Diamond
Square
Triangle
Methods
in
of Supporting
Workpieces
when mounting workpieces on
a lathe to ensure
Lathe Operations
precautions must be taken
Some
recommended
that
is
low be used.
A high
gripping force
may
workpiece
after
either vibration of the the turning operation, whereas a low gripping force causes workpiece and the spindle (i.e., the rotational speed, workpiece or slip between the
necessary.
The
nent
any permacutting force should not affect the shape of the workpiece or cause engineer should calculate the cutting force using manufacturing deformation.
his or her
knowledge of metal cutting (Chapter 9) and then check whether or not such Such calculations a force will cause permanent deformation by using stress analysis. machining slender workpieces (i.e., those with high lengthare very important when will cause to-diameter ratios). Whenever it becomes evident that the cutting force machining parameters must be changed to reduce the permanent deformation, the
magnitude of the force
Following
is
(e.g.,
methods employed
in
lathe operations.
The workpiece
is
length-to-diameter centers when turning long workpieces like shafts and axles having be pre4. Before a workpiece is held, each of its flat ends must ratios higher than 3 or 60 center hole. The pointed edges of the live center (mounted in pared by drilling a workpiece) and the dead tailstock so that its conical part rotates freely with the
the
drilled center holes. center (mounted in the spindle hole) are inserted in the previously
370
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.13
Holding the workpiece
As shown
dog
dog
tail
is
clamped on the
left
which
is
When
turned between centers, rests must be used to provide support and prevent sagging of
the workpiece at
its
move
during the machining operation; follower rests are bolted to and travel with the
carriage.
A
in
However,
high-speed turning, the steady rest should involve balls and rollers
is
at the
supported.
A follower rest has only two fintool. A steady rest can be used as
an alternative to the tailstock for supporting the right-hand end of the workpiece. Figure 10.14 illustrates a steady rest used to support a very long workpiece.
in
a chuck.
When
when
per-
is
is
screwed on the
universal, self-centering
can be
moved
sep-
FIGURE 10.14
A steady
rest
used
to
371
away
toward
its
from
its
movement
it
achieved by inserting a
chuck wrench
when
work-
pieces for facing operations. There are also pneumatic and hydraulic chucks, and they
how
held in a chuck.
A faceplate
is
and T-slots
in its face.
The workpiece can be mounted on it with the means of clamping. The faceplate is usually employed
is
when
and
cannot, therefore, be held in a chuck. Before any machining operation, the faceplate
to the
Figure 10.16.
ends are mounted on mandrels, which are held between the lathe centers. In
the
mandrel acts
like a fixture
FIGURE 10.15
Holding the workpiece
in
Chuck body
Chuck
jaw
a chuck
FIGURE 10.16
Mounting the workpiece
Faceplate
Counterweight
on a faceplate
Workpiece
372
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.17
Mounting the workpiece
on a mandrel
Flattened
surface
(for the dog)
Workpiece
Lathe
center
y; // ;; ;/
// // />
Mandrel having
invisible slope
Tightening nut
mandrel can be a truncated conical rod with an intangible slope on which the workpiece
is
held by the
wedge
action.
split
sleeve that
is
is
some
in
a chuck collet.
sleeve with an external tapered surface. The collet can grip a smooth bar placed
collet sleeve,
which
is
internally tapered,
is
pushed
shown
in
Figure 10.18.
Lathe Operations
The following
sections focus
that
can be per-
must be born
in
computerized numerically controlled (CNC) lathes have more capabilities and can do
other operations, such as contouring, for example. Following are the conventional
lathe operations.
Cylindrical turning.
lathe operations.
falls
Cylindrical turning
is
most
common
of
all
whose center
on the lathe
axis; this
motion
tool.
is
axial feed
motion of the
The
is
machining marks
always cylindrical.
axial feed is provided
The
cuts,
it
rest, either
manually or
depending
recommended
mm)
material,
On
FIGURE 10.18
Holding the workpiece
in
chuck
collet
Workpiece
373
FIGURE 10.19
Equations applicable to lathe operations
Operation
Cutting Speed
Machining Time
N
Turning
(external)
(rpm)
fN
= it(D
+2d)N
where L =
i.e.,
*.
workpi e Ce
allowance
MRR
= tt(0
+ d)N-f-d
allowance
f (feed)
Boring
nDN
-k
MRR
n(D - d)N-f-d
max.
Facing
min.
=
=
nDN
D +
max.
allowance
MRR
nDN-f-d
.. mean y =
nDN -
2fN
mean
MRR
Feed, f
max.
Parting
= =
nDN
D +
max.
allowance
MRR
=
=
nDN-f-d
irDN-f-d
min.
V
1/
mean
Feed, f
nDN
2
2fN
preferred for finishing cuts. Figure 10.19 indicates the equations used to estimate the
different
machining parameters
in cylindrical turning.
is
Facing.
The
result of a
facing operation
flat
surface that
is
end
is provided by the cross slide, whereas the depth of cut is conby the carriage or compound rest. Facing can be carried out either from the periphery inward or from the center of the workpiece outward. It is obvious that the
machining marks in both cases take the form of a spiral. Usually, it is preferred to clamp the carriage during a facing operation as the cutting force tends to push the tool (and, of course, the whole carriage) away from the workpiece. In most facing operations, the
workpiece
is
374
10
Machining of Metals
and groove-cutting operations, only cross feed of the tool is employed. The cutoff and grooving tools that were previously discussed are employed.
Groove cutting.
In cutoff
Boring and internal turning are performed on the interinternal cutting tool. If the initial workpiece is
first.
must be performed
The
stock,
which
is
Taper turning.
Taper turning
is
angle of the taper. Following are the different methods used in taper turning:
1.
of the compound rest with an angle equal to half the shown in Figure 10.20. Feed is manually provided by cranking the handle of the compound rest. This method is recommended for the taper turning of external and internal surfaces when the taper angle is relatively large.
One method
is
2. Special
form
shown
in Figure 10.21.
The width of
is
the workpiece
the tool,
usually held in
FIGURE 10.20
Taper turning by
rotating the disk of the
Workpiece
compound
rest
Chuck
FIGURE 10.21
Taper turning by
Workpiece
Tool
Chuck
375
this case,
is
is
clamped
machine bed.
The method of
shown
in Figure
10.22,
is
emhave
ployed for the external taper turning of long workpieces that are required
small taper angles (less than 8). The workpiece
ters;
is
to
mounted between
S
in the direction
the
is
shifted a distance
normal
5=
L(D - d)
(10.11
where:
is
workpiece
D
d
i
4.
is is
the largest diameter of the workpiece the smallest diameter of the workpiece
the length of the tapered surface
is
shown
is
in
Figure 10.23,
is
used
when
the length
the
compound rest. The procedure followed in such cases involves complete disengagement of the cross slide from the carriage, which is then guided by the taperturning attachment. During this process, the automatic axial feed can be used as
usual. This
method
is
recommended
Thread cutting.
For thread
must be kept
at a
constant
rate,
which
is
dependent upon the rotational speed (rpm) of the workpiece. The relationship
is
between both
cut.
As previously mentioned, the axial feed is automatically generated when cutting a thread by means of the lead screw, which drives the carriage. When the lead screw rotates
FIGURE 10.22
Taper turning by
offsetting the tailstock
center
376
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.23
Taper turning by
employing a special
attachment
a single revolution, the carriage travels a distance equal to the pitch of the lead screw.
sequently,
if
Conthat
is
(i.e.,
therefore, always
rpm of workpiece
rpm of =
lead screw
(10.2)
This equation
is
and the lead screw and enables proper selection of the gear
between them.
chuck or mounted between two lathe centers for relatively long workpieces. The form of the tool used must exactly coincide with the profile of the thread to be cut (i.e., triangular tools must be used for triangular threads, and so on).
Knurling.
It
Knurling
is
which no chips
are produced.
involves pressing two hardened rolls with rough filelike surfaces against the rotat-
ing workpiece to cause plastic deformation of the workpiece metal, as ure 10.24. Knurling
that are usually
is
shown
in Fig-
used as handles. Sometimes, surfaces are knurled just for the sake of
decoration, in which case there are different knurl patterns to choose from.
is
the
(being cut) of the workpiece in one minute. The relationship between the surface speed
377
FIGURE 10.24
The knurling operation
SFM = kDN
where:
(see Table
0.
is
TV is the
rpm
The surface cutting speed is dependent upon the material being machined as well informathe material of the cutting tool and can be obtained from handbooks and as is taken as 100 when provided by cutting-tool manufacturers. Generally, the tion
SFM
steel, as
when machining
softer materials.
50 when machining tougher metals, and as 200 For aluminum, the SFM is usually taken as 400 or
cutabove. There are also other variables that affect the optimal value of the surface coolant, the feed, ting speed. These include the tool geometry, the type of lubricant or depth of cut. As soon as the cutting speed is decided upon, the rotational speed
and the
/V
SFM
kD
selection of a suitable feed depends
(10.3)
The
upon many
factors,
depth of cut, and the geometry of the tool used. Finer feeds will prowhich better surface finish, whereas higher feeds reduce the machining time during duce generally recommended is in direct contact with the workpiece. Therefore, it is the tool Again, use high feeds for roughing operations and finer feeds for finishing operations.
surface finish, the
to
recommended values
books and
in
for feeds,
Design Considerations
When
for
Turning
the machining cost. the possibilities and limitations of the turning operation as well as The cost increases with the quality of the surface finish, with the tightness of the tol-
not recomerances, and with the area of the surface to be machined. Therefore, it is mended that high-quality surface finishes or tighter tolerances be used in the product
10.25 design unless they are required for the proper functioning of the product. Figure
378
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.25
Design considerations
for turning: (a)
reduce
area of surface to be
machined;
(b)
reduce
number
of operations
(c)
required;
provide
R^v^^: K^ ss
>*
(a)
allowance
for tool
F3 LJ
Not recommended
(b)
Preferred
Preferred
Not recommended
(d)
Cover
Better design
Less
recommended
(e)
graphically depicts
for turning.
to
be followed:
1.
Try
to
when
a large
num-
ber of parts
ure 10.25a).
2.
required or
when
Try
to
in the de-
between
Figure 10.25c).
4.
Always keep
sive than
in
mind
that
is
easier
and
less
expen-
379
5.
Remember
that
through boring
is
Figure 10.25e).
processes, the cutting action takes place along a straight line. In planing, the workpiece
is
line,
thus generating a
flat
is
surface. In shaping
and
slotting, the
two processes
Shapers and
is
vertical in slotting.
slotters
can be employed in
cutting external and internal keyways, gear racks, dovetails, and T-slots. Shapers and
planers have become virtually obsolete because most shaping and planing operations have been replaced by more productive processes such as milling, broaching, and abrasive machining. The use of shapers and planers is now limited to the machining of
large beds of In
strokes.
all
machine
tools
and the
like.
and
idle return
The
cutting speed
is,
The
cutting speed
may be
either con-
shaper or planer.
working stroke or variable, depending upon the design of the Let us now discuss the construction and operation of the most com-
mon
As can be seen
of a frame that houses the speed gearbox and the quick-return mechanism that transmits power from the motor to the ram and the table. The ram travel is the primary motion that produces a straight-line cut in the
working
stroke,
is
The
oted
at its
in
order not
to ruin the
newly machined
The
tool
to
The workpiece can be either bolted directly to the machine table or held in a vise The cross feed of the table is generated by a ratchet and pawl mechanism that is driven through the quick-return mechanism (i.e., the crank and the slotted arm). The machine table can be raised or lowered by means of a power screw
and a crank handle.
It
in a universal shaper. in
Quick-return mechanism.
As can be seen
that is driven at a
connected to the crank by a sliding block. The working stroke takes up an angle (of the crank revolution) that is larger than that of the return stroke.
arm
that
is
380
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.26
Design features of a
horizontal push-cut
Feed screw
(to control
depth of cut)
Tool
slide
shaper
Clapper
box
Table
Screw
for adjusting
table height
is
constant,
it is
the
main
mechanism
to
operation to a
minimum.
(s)
Now,
let
It
can be determined as a function of the length of the stroke and the number of strokes
per minute as follows:
2LN
in tt/min.
(m/min.)
(10.4)
where: L
is
TV is the
number of
C
Note
is
C=
total
cutting time
2k
It is
number of
strokes required to
machine
a given surface
381
FIGURE 10.27
Details and working
principles of the quick-
Length of stroke
return
mechanism
Sliding
block
where:
is
workpiece
is
can be
given as follows:
T=
2LN
(10.6)
sxC
382
10
Machining of Metals
(MRR)
3
MRR = rx/xLxyV(in.
Vertical
The
/min.)
Shaper
shaper
is
vertical
ram and
is mounted on a round table that can have whenever desired to allow the machining of curved surfaces (e.g., spiral a rotary feed grooves). Vertical shapers, which are sometimes referred to as slotters, are used in in-
ternal cutting.
Another type of
vertical shaper
is
known
as a keyseater because
like.
it is
specially designed for cutting keyways in gears, cams, pulleys, and the
Planer
A planer is a machine tool that does the same work as the horizontal shaper but on workpieces that are
much
common
machined on a shaper. Although the designs of and open-side constructions. In a housings are mounted at the sides of the long, heavy
of these housings carries the cutting tools.
A cross
rail that is
supported
at the top
The machine
has T-slots in
table
is
bed and
can
this type
of planer, the
cross
rail
drive.
The
be raised or lowered as required, and the inclination of the tools can be adjusted as well. In an open-side planer, there is only one upright housing at one side of the bed. This construction provides
more
flexibility
are to be machined.
They
are
steel or
carbon tool
steel
with carlift-
stroke, thus
The
cutting angles for these tools depend upon the purpose for which the tool
is
to be used and the material being cut. The end relief angle does not usually exceed 4, whereas the side relief varies between 6 and 14. The side rake angle also varies be-
tween 5
and 15
(for
medium-carbon
steel).
DRILLING OPERATIONS
Drilling involves producing through or blind holes in a workpiece by forcing a tool
that rotates
around
its
from
this axis
of rotation
symmetrical cutting edges that rotate about the same axis are employed.
10.3
Drilling
Operations
383
ma-
by using
either
hand
is
drills or drilling
The
its
tool
always rotates
around
a lathe.
contrary to drilling on
employed.
The drill can have one or more cutting edges and corresponding flutes that are straight or helical. The function of the flutes is to provide outlet passages for the chips generated during the drilling operation and also to allow lubricants and coolants to reach the
cutting edges and the surface being machined. Following
is
a survey of the
commonly
used types of
Twist
drill.
drills.
The
most
common
type of
drill. It
flutes that
drill
The
drill
also consists of a neck and a shank that can be either straight or tais fitted
tapered shank
spindle and has a tang that goes into a slot in the spindle socket, thus acting as a solid
means
same way
as tapered-shank drills.
As can be seen
in
Figure 10.28, the two cutting edges are referred to as the lips
and are connected together by a wedge, which is a chisel-like edge. The twist drill also has two margins that allow the drill to be properly located and guided while it is in operation. The tool point angle (TPA) is formed by the two lips and is chosen based on 118, the properties of the material to be cut. The usual TPA for commercial drills is irons. For harder and which is appropriate for drilling low-carbon steels and cast
tougher metals, such as hardened
steel, brass,
FIGURE 10.28
A
twist
drill
Body
Tang
Margin
Chisel
edge
(wedge
Flute
Margin
Tool point
angle
384
10
Machining of Metals
The
between
24 and 30.
copper or soft plastics, higher values for the helix angle are (between 35 and 45). Twist drills are usually made of high-speed recommended steel, although carbide-tipped drills are also available. The sizes of twist drills used in
drilling
When
up
to
80 mm).
Core
drill.
core drill consists of the chamfer, body, neck, and shank, as shown in
drill
may have
margins, which ensures superior guidance, thus resulting in high machining accuracy.
The
figure also
shows
and the
lip
angle
employed
drill
may vary between 90 and 120. Core made holes and not for originating holes.
This type of
Gun
drill.
The
latter
at its center,
Spade
drill.
spade
drill is
3V2
inches (90
mm)
or
this
type of
marked saving
drill.
weight that
of handling. Moreover,
Saw-type cutter.
saw-type
one
used
made
and a
in
An example
is
a drill
tap.
and
drill
industrial practice.
in Drilling
It
We
can easily see that the cutting speed varies along the cutting edge.
is
always
Never-
maximum at the periphery of the tool and is equal to zero on theless, we consider the maximum speed because it is the one
FIGURE 10.29
A core
drill
Chamfer
_ Body
Neck
1
i
Shank
TPA
Helix
angle
10.3
Drilling
Operations
385
FIGURE 10.30
Gun
drills: (a)
drill; drill
Cutting
Cutting fluid
passage
edge
trepanning gun
center-cut gun
(b)
Shape of the
resulting hole
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.31
A spade
drill
Fastening
screw
Diameter
of the
resulting hole
FIGURE 10.32
A saw-type
cutter
386
10
Machining of Metals
wear and the quality of the machined surface. The maximum speed must not exceed which depends upon the material of the workpiece as
well as the material of the cutting tool. Data about permissible cutting speeds in
drilling operations
can be found
in
N=
CS
kD
(10.8)
where:
N is D is
CS
the rotational speed of the spindle (rpm) the diameter of the drill in feet (m)
the permissible cutting speed in ft/min. (m/min.)
is
Again, the appropriate value of feed to be used depends upon the metal of the workpiece and
drill
Whenever
must be increased,
speed.
is
Other Types of
Drilling
Operations
a brief description of each of
In addition to conventional drilling, there are other operations that are involved in the
is
Boring.
been
drilled. It is similar to
internal turning
lathe, as previously
mentioned.
There are also some specialized machine tools for carrying out boring operations.
Counterboring.
larged, as
is
As
one end of a
drilled hole
in
is
en-
which
to set a bolt
head or a nut so
Spot facing
is
that
it
will
part.
Spot facing.
performed
in
around the
Figure
10.33b, this
is
As shown
is
done
to
accommodate
the conical seat of a flathead screw so that the screw does not appear above the surface
of the part.
FIGURE 10.33
Operations related to
drilling:
(a)
(b)
(c)
counterboring;
spot facing;
countersinking
10.3
Drilling
Operations
387
FIGURE 10.34
Details of a
reamer
Fluted section
Neck
Shank
Rake angle
Tool angle
Relief
angle
Reaming.
Reaming
is
As
a result of a
smooth
surface.
The
known
as a reamer.
As shown
and a shank. The fluted section inin Figure 10.34, a reamer the starting taper, the sizing zone, and the back taper. cludes four zones: the chamfer, The chamfer or bevel encloses an angle that depends upon the method of reaming and
has a fluted section, a neck,
the material being cut. This
consequence of the fact that this angle affects the magThe larger the chamfer angle, the larger the required nitude of the axial reaming 10.2 indicates some recommended values of the chamfer angle for reaming force. Table
is
force.
different
reamer
each tooth of that part of the reamer has a cutmoves rake, relief, and tool (or lip) angles. The sizing zone guides the ting edge as well as reamer and smooths the surface of the hole. Finally, the back taper serves to reduce fricchips. Figure 10.34 also
shows
that
tion
between the reamer and the newly machined surface. Reamers are usually made of hardened tool steel. Nevertheless, reamers
and the production
Tapping
in
is
that are
the tool used in mass production are tipped with cemented carbides in order to increase
life
rate.
Tapping.
tap.
The
As shown
Figure 10.35,
Made
of hardened tool
steel, taps
TABLE 10.2
Recommended
of the
values
Metal to Be Reamed
Steel
Cast Iron
l-3
Soft Metals
chamfer angle of
reamers
Manual reaming
Machining reaming
l-3
l-3
8-10 c
20-30 c
3-5
388
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.35
A tap
Land
Chamfer
Flute
r
Thread
length
machine
tool
must reverse
its
direction of
end of the cutting stroke so that the tap can be withdrawn without destroying the newly cut thread. When tapping is carried out by hand, a set of three taps
is used for each desired threaded hole size. The three taps differ slightly in size, and two of them are actually undersized. The first tap of the set to be used is always a tapper tap; it reduces the torque (and, consequently, the power) required for tapping.
Design Considerations
guidelines to be followed:
1.
for Drilling
for drilling.
Make
part.
is
normal
to the surface
of the
This
avoid bending and breaking the tool during the drilling operation.
drill
As
its
facilitates the
it is
not normal to the surface to be drilled. (See Figure 10.36a for examples of poor and
When
tapping through holes, ensure that the tap will be in the clear
side of the part (see Figure 10.36b).
it
when
it
appears
Remember
that
is
Classification of Drilling
Machines
employing small portable machines or by
all
using the appropriate machine tools. These machine tools differ in shape and size, but
they have
common
its
features.
drills,
is
each
rotating around
own
contrary
on a
lathe,
chuck. Following
is
a survey of the
commonly used
Bench-type
drilling
machines.
small machine tools that are usually placed on benches. This type of drilling machine
includes an electric motor as the source of motion, which
belts to the spindle,
is
where the
tool is
is
10.3
Drilling
Operations
389
FIGURE 10.36
Design considerations
for drilling: (a) set
centerline of tool
normal to surface to be
drilled; (b)
ensure tap
it
is
clear
when
appears
provide allowance
a blind
when tapping
hole
To be avoided
Recommended
Recommended
(a)
Acceptable
a
II
To be avoided
(b)
in.
(6
mm)
(0
is
(which
The workpiece
is
mounted on the machine table, although a special vise is someThe maximum height of a workpiece to be machined maximum gap between the spindle and the machine table.
is
Depending upon the size, upright drilling machines can be medium, and even relatively heavy jobs. A light-duty upright drilling machine is shown in Figure 10.37. It is basically similar to a bench-type machine, the main difference being a longer cylindrical column fixed to the base. Along the column is an
Upright drilling machines.
used for
light,
additional sliding table for fixing the workpiece that can be locked in position at any desired height.
machine
is
employed
in
390
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.37
An upright
drilling
machine (Courtesy of
Clausing Industrial,
Inc.,
Kalamazoo,
Michigan)
Capstan wheel
Spindle
Drill
chuck
Table
Column
Base
drilling
ma-
chine has a box column and a higher power to deal with large jobs. Moreover, gearto provide different rotational spindle speeds as well as axial feed
at
any desired
rate.
machines.
Multispindle drilling
is
capable of drilling
many
holes simultaneously.
The
tire
positions of the different tools (spindles) can be adjusted as desired. Also, the en-
tools)
can be
tilted if necessary.
This type
holes,
of drilling machine
many
Gang
drilling
machines.
arranged on a single
drilling
When several separate heads (each with a single spindle) are common table, the machine tool is then referred to as a gang
is
particularly suitable
10.3
Drilling
Operations
391
Radial
drills.
Radial
and
heavy workpieces
mount on
machine. As shown
is
The cantileverd guide arm, which carries the drilling head spindle and tool, can be raised or lowered along the column and clamped at any desired posiaxial feed tion. The drilling head slides along the arm and provides rotary motion and
fixed to the base.
motion. The cantilevered guide arm can be swung, thus allowing the tool to be in all directions according to a cylindrical coordinate system.
Turret drilling machines.
moved
Machine
machine
is
cat-
A common
design feature
that the
main spindle
only a single
is
threading tools.
replaced by a turret that carries several drilling, boring, reaming, and Consequently, several successive operations can be carried out with
setup and without the need for setting up the workpiece again be-
initial
tween operations.
Automatic turret drilling machines that are operated by NC or CNC systems (see Chapter 14) are quite common. In this case, the human role is limited to the initial setup and monitoring. This type of machine tool has advantages over the gang-type tool) drilling machine with respect to the space required (physical size of the machine
and the number of workpiece setups.
Deep-hole
drilling
machines.
Deep-hole
drilling
rifle barrels.
used and are fed slowly against the workpiece. In this type of machine
is
the
FIGURE 10.38
A
radial
drill
Drilling
Lifting
head
c
Motor
screw
>
Arm
to
left
y
*r
TJR
Column
Spindle
Base
392
10
Machining of Metals
workpiece
drilling
that is rotated,
while the
drill
is
deep-hole
in
However,
common
feature
is
machine of
this
them because the table movements are monitored by electronic measuring devices. Jigboring machines are usually employed in the manufacture of forming and molding
dies, gages,
like jigs
and
fixtures.
Work-Holding Devices
During conventional
in Drilling
chine table. The type of work-holding device used depends upon the shape and the size
rate.
when
the accuracy
is
blocks (for round work) are used. For moderate production and
when accuracy
is
of
some importance,
ferent
employed.
(i.e., it
A jig
is
is
dedif-
shapes) and to guide the cutting tool during the drilling operation. This
eliminates the need for laying out the workpiece prior to machining, thus saving the
a separate topic
and
is
when no jigs are employed. The design of jigs and beyond the scope of this text. Interested readers are
referred to the books dealing with tool design and with jig and fixture design that are
given
at the
end of
this text.
machining process
tool
known
removal
achieved by simultaneously
linear
Each of
ter
when
it
engages with the workpiece metal. Therefore, each of the cutting edges has
Because only a few of the cutting edges are enand feeds for milling are three
sur-
at a
faces
machined by milling
is
A
the
machine
is
make
the milling
machine
10.4
Milling Operations
393
Milling
Methods
and workpiece feed are concerned, milling
is
As
Up
is
shown
Therefore, the machining process involves no impact loading, thus ensuring smoother
The
quality of the
is
machined surface
in
obtained by up milling
is
commonly used
Down
In
down
between the
is
tool
in Fig-
ure 10.39b.
method
is
The advantages of this method include higher quality of the machined surface act downward.
Types
of Milling Cutters
wide variety of shapes, each designed to effectively perform milling operation. Generally, a milling cutter can be described as a multiedge
Milling cutters
a specific
come
in a
cutting tool having the shape of a solid of revolution, with the cutting teeth arranged
either
is
a survey of the
com-
shown
in
Figure 10.40a,
is
a disk-
may have
always
flat
surfaces.
is
A face
surfaces.
also used
in turn,
for machining
is
is,
mounted
FIGURE 10.39
Milling
methods:
(a)
up
milling; (b)
down
milling
Feed
(a)
*-
-*
(b)
Feed
394
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.40
Types of
milling cutters:
(a) plain milling cutter; (b)
saw
Helical teeth
T-slot
end
mill
cutter
(g)
Notice that
it
is
slots,
grooves, and
As can be seen
Figure 10.40d,
it
is
on the
As
is
An
As shown
in
As
the
name
is
used
10.4
Milling Operations
395
common
like.
End
mill
cutter.
An end
grooves, flutes,
As Figure 10.40g
always mounted on a
vertical milling
straight or helical.
Form
this
milling cutter.
The
have a shape
that is identical
be removed
type of cutter include gear cutters, gear hobs, and convex and concave cutters. Form milling cutters are mounted on horizontal milling machines, as is explained later
when we
in
Milling
durFigure 10.41 indicates methods of estimating the different machining parameters include the cutting speed, the feed, and the ing milling operations. These parameters
metal-removal
rate.
The
cutting speed
cumference of the
pendent upon
diameter and
life
cutter.
The
the peripheral velocity at any point on the cirallowable value for the cutting speed in milling is deis
many
of the cutter, feed, depth of cut, width of cut, number of teeth on the operations is the rate of movecutter, and the type of coolant used. The feed in milling workpiece. It is expressed in inches (or mm) per ment of the cutter axis relative to the
revolution or inches (or
mm)
per minute.
It
in inches (or
mm)
one
per tooth, especially for plain and face milling cutters. The depth of cut is the thickness of the metal layer that
be removed
in
material being machined cut. The maximum allowable depth of cut depends upon the inch (8 mm) in roughing operations and up to 1/16 and is commonly taken up to 5/16
mm)
in finishing operations.
Another parameter
contact with the cuterations is the width of cut, which is the width of the workpiece in The width of cut should decrease with increasing direction normal to the feed.
ter in a
met by depth of cut to keep the load and power requirement below those that can be
the cutter and the
machine
tool, respectively.
is
The
20, depending
removal of chips and ranges from 10 to be cut. When machining hard metals with
is
upon
usually employed. The relief angle 25. the workpiece material and varies between 12 and
QlCM
c E
QlCN
y
QlCM
"2
tJ ts
O H
Hi =>
o
=5.
Q.
ro
396
10.4
Milling Operations
397
FIGURE 10.42
Relief
Cutting angles of a
plain, straight-tooth
angle
milling cutter
by
their construction
and design
features.
are generally
the
common
general-purpose types to duplicators and machining centers that involve a tool magazine and are capable of carrying out
many machining
is
machines commonly
chine
is
lows), except that the machine table cannot be swiveled. Plain milling machines
usually have a column-and knee type of construction and three table motions
gitudinal, transverse,
is,
(i.e.,
lon-
and
vertical).
The milling
cutter
is
mounted on
in turn, rigidly
The construction of
a universal milling
it is
is
similar
a sturdier
frame and
up
mathis
chines are usually equipped with an index or dividing head that allows for the cutting
is
discussed
later.
As
the
name
vertical milling
vertical.
machine suggests,
the axis of
is
mobe
tion
is
table
when
helical
to
machined. The cutters used with vertical milling machines are almost always of the
end-mill type. Figure 10.44 shows a vertical milling machine.
Duplicator.
it is
duplicator
is
sometimes referred
to as a
capable of reproducing an exact replica of a model. The machine has a stylus that
at
Duplicators were used for the production of large forming dies for the automotive
dustry, where models made of wood, plaster of
commonly used
in
paris, or wax were employed. Dupliindustry now because they have been superseded by
CAD/CAM
systems.
398
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.43
A universal
milling
machine (Courtesy of
Manuel
Pereira.
photography specialist.
University of
Massachusetts.
Dartmouth)
Machining center.
(see Chapter
machining center
is
is
comprised of a multipurpose
CNC
machine
14) that
of different
machining
processes.
A machining
many
changes are automatically carried out, and so are functions such as coolant turn-on/off.
Machining centers
chining operations on a workpiece with a single setup. Parts having intricate shapes
The universal dividing head is an attachment mounted on machine that is employed for cutting gears. The
is
removed. Therefore,
attachment
is
sometimes known as an index head. Figure 10.45 shows a universal dividing head, which consists of the body, the swivel block, the work spindle and its center, the index plate, and the index crank with
a latch pin.
its
10.4
Milling Operations
399
FIGURE 10.44
A
vertical milling
machine (Courtesy of
Manuel
Pereira,
photography specialist.
University of
Massachusetts,
Dartmouth)
FIGURE 10.45
A universal dividing
head (Courtesy of
Manuel
Pereira,
photography specialist,
University of
Massachusetts,
Dartmouth)
400
10
Machining of Metals
spindle)
is
rotated through the desired angle by rotating the index crank through an
is
angle that
is,
is
in turn, attached to a
ratio of
40
to
Consequently, 40
has six concentric circles of equally spaced holes to assist in measuring and controlling
in order to
tion
to
be rotated
in gear
cutting:
number of
=
number of
if
40
:
(10.9)
We
20
teeth, the
index crank
to
be produced. As a conse-
quence, the workpiece will be rotated each time through an angle equal to 18. Similarly,
if
30
teeth, the
GRINDING OPERATIONS
Grinding
is
number
ish.
considered to be a finishing
fin-
process and
cylindrical, or
grinding machines differ in construction as well as capabilities, and the type to be em-
ployed
is
ground
(e.g., cylindrical
As
the
name
two possible
varia-
With a horizontal spindle (see Figure 10.46a), the machine usually has a planer-type reciprocating table on which the workpiece is held. However, grinding machines with vertical spindles can have either
tions: either a horizontal or a vertical
machine
spindle.
is
where
the
workpiece
is
indi-
cates the equations used to estimate the different parameters of the grinding operation,
like,
magnetic chucks.
401
FIGURE 10.46
Surface grinding:
(a) horizontal spindle; (b) vertical
spindle
Grinding wheel
[j
.Workpiece
"7
Grinding wheel
Longitudinal
feed, f
(b)
Machining time
T
where:
L
is
= L
+ 2A
= approach allowance
A
A
for
up to
s/W(D - W)
is
for
W<
where
Metal-
d
=
is
where
W
=
MRR
where
W-d-f
is
MRR
W-d-f
removal
rate
Cylindrical grinding.
workpiece
is
is
the source
shown
in
rotate,
and
depth of cut
piece.
is
adjusted by the cross feed of the grinding wheel into the work-
FIGURE 10.47
Cylindrical grinding
Centers
Workpiece
Control of depth of cut
Longitud
feed
402
10
Machining of Metals
2.
In the plunge-cut
method, grinding
is
is
applied. This
the
method, which
allowance
is
removed
in a single pass.
This method
is
usually
recommended when
Internal grinding
is
employed
is
shown
in
grinding wheel and the workpiece rotate during the operation, and feed
the longitudinal direction.
applied in
Any
for
and
it is
recommended
heavy workpieces
its
that
cannot be held
own
being ground.
Centerless grinding.
(i.e., the grinding wheel and the regulating or feed wheel). The grinding wheel does the actual grinding, while the regulating wheel is responsible for rotating the workpiece as well as gen-
which
is
is
is
usually
made of rubber-bonded
As can be seen
in
is tilted at
axis of the grinding wheel. Consequently, the peripheral velocity of the regulating
tudinal feed.
wheel can be resolved into two components: workpiece rotational speed and longiThese can be given by the following equations:
'workpiece
"regulating wheel
* COS
i
01
(10.10) sin ot
(10.11)
axial feed
= Vregu at ng
i
wnee
Cx
Note
that
is
a constant coefficient that accounts for the slip between the workpiece
FIGURE 10.48
Internal grinding
Grinding wheel
Longitudinal feed
Workpiece
403
FIGURE 10.49
Centerless grinding
Peripheral velocity
of regulating wheel
Peripheral veloc
of workpiece
Workpiece
Regulating
Grinding wheel
wheel Supporting
plate
The
is
controllable and
is
is
used
to
The angle a
larger the angle, the larger the longitudinal feed will be.
When a
is
taken as 0
(i.e.,
the nal
two axes of the grinding and regulating wheels are parallel), there is no longitudifeed of the workpiece. Such a setting is used for grinding short shoulders or heads
Grinding Wheels
Grinding wheels are composed of abrasive grains having similar size and a binder. The
actual grinding process
is
within the binder enable the grains to act like separate single-point cutting tools. These
pores also provide space for the generated chips, thus preventing the wheel from clogging. In addition, pores assist the easy flow of coolants so that heat generated during
the grinding process
is
efficiently
size,
Shape and size of grinding wheels. Grinding wheels differ in shape and size, depending upon the purpose for which they are to be used. Various shapes are shown in
Figure 10.50 and include the following types:
1. Straight
internal,
2. Beveled-face or tapered
3.
and the
like
and
slotting operations
when
thickness
is
0.02 to 0.2
inch (0.5 to 5
5.
mm)
Cylindrical, straight, and flaring cups for surface grinding with the end of the
wheel
404
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.50
Various shapes of
grinding wheels
405
FIGURE 10.51
Standard marking system
for grinding
wheels
Standard Marking System Chart
Sequence
Prefix
3 Grade
Bond
Structure
type
V
Manufacturer's
symbol indicating
exact kind of
abrasive
(use optional)
Dense to
Coarse
Medium/
Fine
Very
fine
180
Soft
ABCDEFGHIJKL
406
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.52
Types of sawing teeth
Blade
T
Straight
Claw
Buttress
Saw
(Top view
set
heat.
movement of the saw blade in the kerf, The maximum thickness is usually
width of the resulting
kerf.
saw
set
and
is
equal to the
When
per inch, several factors have to be taken into consideration, such as the cutting tool
material, the material of the workpiece, the tooth form,
(coolant) used.
Sawing Machines
for
Sawing machines differ in shape, size, and construction, depending upon the purpose which they are to be used. They can be classified into three main groups.
Reciprocating saw.
In a reciprocating saw, a relatively large
hacksaw blade
is
me-
chanically reciprocated. Depending upon the construction of the saw, the cutting
blade
may
saw
is
considered to be a low-
productivity
saw and
is
used only
in small
volume.
FIGURE 10.53
Basic idea of a band
Movable pulley
to adjust tension
in
the band
saw
Band blade
Driving pulley
(fixed)
407
saw
it
Circular saw.
The
is
on
its
periphery.
It
used with
it is
highly efficient,
Band saw.
The highly
which
is
flexible
is mounted on two Each machine has a flashwelding attachment that is used to weld the edges of the band-saw blade together after adjusting the length, thus forming a closed band. Band saws can be used for contouring and for large-volume cutoff operations. Loading and unloading of the bar stock as well as length adjustment are done automatically (by special attachments in
band-saw blade
pulleys, one of
the source of
power and
rotation.
BROACHING OPERATIONS
Broaching
is
shown
in
Figure 10.54,
is
amount
of metal
slots, like
removed. Broaching
commonly used
those
it
shown
in
However,
can also be used for producing intricate external surfaces that require tight
tolerances.
FIGURE 10.54
A broaching
tool
Chip
breakers
u
Pull
Finishing
Semi
finishing
Roughing
teeth
slot
Pilot
teeth
(tapered)
FIGURE 10.55
Different
shapes
produced by broaching
408
10
Machining of Metals
Broaching Machines
A broaching
machine
is
means for moving the cutting The commonly used types of broaching machines are as follows:
which the broaching
tool
is
1. Pull-type machines, in
initial
is
pushed
to generate the
3.
move
to
4.
important to
know
the advantages
in order to
make
full
use of the potential of this operation. The advantages include the high cutting speed and
high cycling time, the close tolerances and superior surface quality that can easily be
achieved, and the fact that both roughing and finishing are combined in the same stroke
Nevertheless, this operation can be performed only on through
of the broaching
tool.
holes or external surfaces and cannot be carried out on blind holes, for example. Also,
itself
to
be removed
is
broaching tools and machines, together with the expensive fixturing, make
tion economically unjustifiable unless a large
opera-
number of products
are required.
result
of the shortcomings
chining processes. There are a variety of nontraditional processes, and each has
set
own
is
commonly used
in industry.
Ultrasonic Machining
Ultrasonic machining
is
machining hard,
brittle materials
be-
come
in
They
are sep-
arated by a liquid (vehicle) in which abrasive grains are suspended. Equal volumes of
409
water and very fine grains of boron oxide are mixed together to produce the desired
suspension. Ultrasonic energy applied to the tool results in high-frequency mechanical
vibrations (20 to 30 kHz). These vibrations impart kinetic energy to the abrasive
grains, which, in turn, impact the
it.
The machining
tool
must be
made of a tough ductile material such as copper, brass, or low-carbon steel so that it will not be liable to fretting wear or abrasion, as is the case with the workpiece. Ultrasonic machining
is employed mainly in making holes with irregular cross Both through and blind holes can be produced by this method.
sections.
Abrasive-Jet Machining
In
The
is
then employed in processes like deburring, drilling, and cutting of thin sheets and sec-
The process is particularly advantageous when cutting glass and sheets of comThe shortcomings of this process involve the problems associated with using high-pressure pumps and the relatively slow feed rate employed.
posites.
Chemical Machining
Chemical machining involves attacking the surfaces of the workpiece
to
be machined
with a chemical etch that reacts with the metal and dissolves the resulting chemical
compound. The procedure consists of first covering the surfaces of the workpiece that are not to be machined with neoprene rubber or enamel and then dipping the workpiece into a basin of the appropriate chemical etch. Very fine details can be etched by
this
is
A further
process
is
that
it
any work-hardening.
Electrochemical Machining
The mechanism with which electrochemical machining (ECM)
cal to that of the electroplating process, although similar
takes place
is
is
reciproin
equipment
used
both
is
the cathode
is
connected
to a
is
Low-
pumped
into the
As
is
amperage
from the
removal during the electrochemical maanode to the cathode chining process). Electrochemical machining can be applied to all electrically conductive
metals,
including
hardened alloy
steel
it
is
particularly
Electrodischarge Machining
Electrodischarge machining
shapes, and
tle. It
it
(EDM)
all
is
can be applied to
cannot, however, be used with ceramics, plastics, or glass. Metal removal takes
410
10
Machining of Metals
FIGURE 10.56
The
EDM
process
Dielectric liquid
(coolant) in
Dielectric liquid
*- out
Workpiece
place as a result of an electric arc between the electrode and the workpiece, which
are kept apart.
is
pumped through
about 0.02 inch (0.5 mm) between the electrode and the workpiece, as shown in Figure 10.56. The dielectric liquid also acts as a coolant and a flushing medium to whip
per, brass, graphite, or a copper-tungsten mixture. The electrode must be given a shape
exactly into the desired final cavity. Consequently, intricately shaped parts can
easily be
produced by
this
in the manufacture of tools, metal-forming and forging dies, plastic, and die-casting
FIGURE 10.57
The concept of wire
EDM
411
FIGURE 10.58
cut by wire
Concept and
Engineering, a
Member
of Synergis
Technologies Group,
Grand Rapids,
Michigan)
molds. Generally,
it
is
dependent
A new
trode
is
version of
EDM
is
shown
in Figure 10.57,
guided by a
CNC
system
any desired contour. This process has revolutionized the tool and die-
making
wire
industry.
by conven-
EDM
by
some stamping
dies that
EDM.
Review Questions ,v
1.
What
6.
7.
What
is
the
machining operations?
How
motion?
8.
Use sketches
a turret lathe
between
What
are the
is
and an engine
lathe.
4.
Why
How
What
ing?
10.
412
10
Machining of Metals
31. List
some
form
tools.
12.
What
when
sup-
into account
when designing
drilled parts.
33
machines and
13.
When When
centers?
14.
is it
34.
chuck?
15.
is
When would
faceplate?
a workpiece be
mounted on a
Why
ing?
are
the
permissible
cutting
speeds
in
16.
How
that
17.
What do
the
like
in
37. Differentiate
milling.
cylindrical turning?
18.
How
is
how
is
the
38. List the various types of milling cutters and discuss the applications of each.
in cylindrical turning?
What do What
the machining
marks look
like in fac-
ing operations?
20.
40.
What
head?
is
facing operations?
41. Define grinding. 42. List the types of grinding operations and discuss the applications of each.
What provides
43.
44.
Of what
composed?
What
How
45
when designing
turned parts.
26.
What
is
the difference
planing?
27.
saw
surfaces can
blades.
What kind of
be produced by
When
is
the
use of this
recommended? Discuss
the advantages
mechanism.
Why How
ma-
commonly used
chining operations?
49.
is
ultrasonic energy
employed
to
machine
30.
What
is
How
machining.
Chapter 10 Problems
413
53. Explain the working principles of electrodis-
51.
When
is
mended?
52. Discuss the advantages and limitations of elec-
trochemical machining.
EDM.
Problems 0,
1.
It is
feet per
in a turning operais
1
workpiece diameter
3.25
inches (82
(2.5
mm)
is 0.
inch
feet per
data.
minute (60
mm),
calculate the
rpm of
A
is to
mm)
piece
to
tail-
stock. If the
is
maximum
inches
is
be faced starting
the depth of cut
at the outside.
is
The
rotational
l'/g
(28.125
mm)
and the
calcu-
minimum
late the 6.
diameter
mm),
mm), and
the
amount of
offset.
feed
is
to
be bored for
rate
of metal removal.
4 inches (100
inch (2 inch
mm)
of
its
length to a diameter of
Two
in
mm)
mm).
mm)
long are to
be turned
ters.
down
to 2.75-inch
330
feet
Heavy
cuts followed
by a
it
takes 15 seconds
and
set the
is
300
cuts
cut
is
part
is
to be tapered in such a
manner
as to
speed
is
Tapered length:
Large diameter: Small diameter:
beginning of cut
is
2 minutes.
in
mm) mm) 1.0 inch (25 mm) 0.625 inch (16 mm)
6 inches (150
1 '/2
inches (62.5
A bronze
eter, is
bushing
is
2 inches (50
mm)
It is
diam8.
3 inches (75
mm)
How
far
must
mm).
to
be pro-
0.5-inch-per-foot
(41.7-mm/m) taper on an
8-
duced on a
lathe, starting
414
10
Machining of Metals
9.
In a drilling
ter,
the
metal-removal
rate,
hole
is
inch (25
the
mm),
is
0.4 inch
time.
(10
mm),
inch (0.25
rpm is 100, and the feed is 0.01 mm). Calculate the cutting speed and
used
15.
An
18-tooth,
-inch-wide (25-mm)
(
1
00
10-inch-long (250-mm)
10.
standard twist
drill is
to drill a
number
workpiece.
inch (6
0.24
in a 5/8-
mm),
93
feet per
(16-mm) SAE 1020 steel plate. Cutis 60 feet per minute (18.3 m/min.), and feed is 0.004 inch (0.1 mm). Calculate the
ting speed
0.005 inch
mm
metal-removal
11.
It
rate.
1
is
-required to drill a
speed
is
the feed
mm)
in
diameter
is
Rotational speed:
300 rpm
0.25 inch (6
takes 30 seconds
that 15
Depth of
Feed:
cut:
mm)
part
and
seconds
bit
is
mm per tooth)
mm)
drill
changes as
is
1
Length of
10.
workpiece:
12. In a drilling operation, the feed rate
inch
is
20 inches (500
workpiece
Cutter width:
to
be drilled
is
17. The
recommended feed
mm). What
is
the feed?
mm per tooth)
feet per
when using
(22.5
mm)
mill
in
a 2-inch-long
(50-mm) workpiece,
(12.5-mm)
is
speed
is
70
minute
is
two-fluted
is
1/2-inch-diameter
end
used.
The
is
rotational speed
700 rpm,
inches (100
table.
mm),
mm
18.
When
the
gear-cutting
metal-removal
rate.
is
mm), and
the table
moves
at 0.2
workpiece
is
The width of the mm), and the cutter inches (81 mm). The rois
number of
a.
b. c. d.
teeth:
20 teeth
32 teeth 22 teeth
15 teeth
feed
is
mm per tooth).
10 inches (250
If the
mm),
number of
Chapter 11
INTRODUCTION
As mentioned
in
Chapter
1,
and working
capi-
recovered, and a
it
profit is
vital role in
the marketing
process because
even-
more competitively
tion
of the
production
cost
may
result
in
products
sold
at
loss
and,
is
the cost required to bring each design into being and manufacture the product.
Therefore,
it
is fair
is initiated by,
linked to,
and
new
products.
of
Cost
is
or
sequence
for es-
aimed
at
415
416
11
COSTS: CLASSIFICATION
AND TERMINOLOGY
Costs can be classified
in different
ways based on
The first, and most logical, way to classify costs is to split them into two groups: capital costs and operating costs. As the name suggests, capital costs are incurred because of buildings, production machinery, and land. It is important to remember, when carrying out cost estimation, that
volume and
the nature of the manufacturing operations.
(i.e.,
is not.
operation.
to classify costs is to
Another way
costs,
view them as belonging to one of two catewhich are independent of the production volume, and variable
it.
in the
fixed-cost category:
Property taxes (sometimes states and communities give tax breaks to industrial
corporations to attract them to a region)
Interest
in
Chapter
and financial
staffs)
R&D expenses)
or
Cost of
rentals, if
itself is rented,
some equipment
may
Management and
staff,
plus
(salaries and wages paid to marketing and sales and delivery expenses, rentals of warehouses, if any)
fall in
The following
cost elements
Cost of materials
Cost of labor (including production supervision) Cost of power
(electricity, gas, or fuel oil)
and
utilities (water,
sewer, etc.)
The
logical
is
way
is
to
add up
all
the cost
elements, as
11.1 Costs:
Classification
and Terminology
417
FIGURE 11.1
Elements contributing
to the total cost of a
product
Direct labor
cost
Direct material
cost
Factory
expenses
General
expenses
Product manufacturing cost
Cost
is
student
is,
therefore,
encouraged
to learn
about and practice using them. The value of an alternative, the for-
mula for computing a cost element can be employed in the cell if the value of that element is not known. A further advantage of using spreadsheets is the ease with which alternative designs can be compared and evaluated from the point of view of cost. Figure 11.2 shows a spreadsheet where the specific cost elements and the total cost of
FIGURE 11.2
A spreadsheet that compares the cost
of four alternative designs
\.
Element of
\.
Design
Product
\Tost
>v
Alternatives
418
11
in
columns
that
easy.
From
is
example,
is
the
As easy
as
it
may
look, however,
it
is
termining the total cost of a product unless rational procedures and analyses are em-
First,
some
or traced to any particular product, but rather are spread over the entire factory; they
are, therefore, labeled as "indirect" costs. In other
late the cost
is
how
to calcu-
we do
not actually
know
the time taken to produce a design because that design has the objective of this chapter to provide adequate answers
It is
to
show
the student
how
an en-
is
we must develop
mates that are suitable for submission on a bid or purchase order. This type of estimate
is referred to as a detailed estimate and must have a level of accuracy of 5 percent. The American Association of Cost Engineers came up with a list of five types of cost
estimates, each having a certain level of accuracy, a different approach, and recom-
mended applications. For example, the first type, a rough estimate, has an accuracy of 40 percent and is based on indexing and modifying the cost of existing similar designs. It is, therefore, recommended for initial feasibility studies that are used to decide
whether or not a probable
cost estimates
quently,
fall
profit justifies
and
are,
conse-
recommended
depend upon
Before
we
attempt to gain a deeper insight into each of the elements that con-
we must
that, if
overlooked,
may
adversely affect the accuracy and validity of the estimate. For instance, the cost
if
country of production
is
when
so long that
initial
money
costs
loses
its
R&D
for
man-
of building the design, whereas indirect labor involves the work of foremen, stock-
room
the
We
will be
is
generally covered by factory overhead costs form of a percentage of the cost of direct-labor hours. At this point, our goal is
to
estimate the labor time for building a design and then to multiply that time by the
com-
419
is
Note, however, that wages are sometimes not based just on attendance, but also on per-
formance
(i.e.,
when
lished goal).
Methods
for
Measurement
of
Time
Although there are quite a few approaches for the measurement and estimation of labor time, two methods are well accepted in industry and will, therefore, be covered here. The first method is based on time and motion study, a modern subject that was established
by the eminent American engineer Frederick W. Taylor of Pennsylvania in the which is favored by industrial engineers, in-
manual work of an operation into individual simple motions. and grab" (i.e., the worker stretches his or her hand to reach a tool and grab it). The operation is then converted into a tabular form that includes the entire sequence of basic motions that comprise the desired manual opvolves breaking
the
down
is,
A typical
motion
Because these basic motions were thoroughly studied by industrial engineers and because time measurements were taken and standardized for each basic motion, our job is fairly easy. It is just to read, from published data that is readily available, the
eration.
standard time unit for each motion included in the manual operation and insert a time and motion study table.
it
into
By summing up
all
total
time reis
quired by an average worker to carry out the operation can be obtained. This time
modified by dividing
it
worker
to
account
for interruptions and fatigue. This approach has the clear advantage of including a
mechanism
ful
used to estimate the time for a single opoperations required to produce a design.
is
for
all
Consequently, our
available)
is
method requires a considerable amount of work, but it has usually been found that the effort and time spent are well worthwhile. The second method is based on the historical value of time. Time cards for a similar design that has already been built are obtained and studied in order to determine the number of "man-hours" required to do the job (a man-hour is a unit indicating the
clear that the time and motion study
output of one person working for one hour). Data analysis using spreadsheets
is
then
employed
to
make
the skill level of the workers, the workplace environment, and cost escalation,
any.
is
well-known
fact that
first
when doing it for the fifth time, for example. This is evidently due to the phenomenon of self-teaching while performing the work, which, in turn, leads to a gain in work experience and thus a shorter time for doing that job. This
a worker than
is
what
is
As can be seen
420
11
FIGURE 11.3
The learning curve
Eg c
C
=>
<D
2.
its-
421
Labor Laws
Some
state
legal aspects
and
minimum wage
is
number of
week
limited to 8. If either
at
wage
for the
exceed
rel-
rates in the
evant information, are compiled and published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for
various industrial sectors and can be obtained from the Department of Labor.
It
is
also important to
remember
money
spent on wages but must include the fringe benefits paid to workers. Fringe benefits
differ for different
insurance premiums
when
actually taken
in
pension plans
(if
union stewards
the
company
is
unionized)
Profit-sharing bonus
money
(that part
much
as
It is,
therefore,
common
to
of Material
Used
amount of material used
first
manufacture
that
product
must be determined and then multiplied by the price the form of dollars per unit weight or volume. Conseavailable before this cost-estimating operation
bill
is ini-
a process
sometimes
more than
the
is
includes but
upon the specific production processes employed. For example, when the part is to be produced by machining, the amount of material removed from the stock in the form of chips must be added to the amount calculated from the design drawing. When the part
is
to
removed by machining
The same
manufacturing processes of forging, press working, and extrusion. Note that the waste
422
11
is
sometimes sold
to
ingly be subtracted
ueless and
is
junk dealers for recycling and the money paid for it must accordfrom the cost of material. In some cases, however, the waste is valat a cost that
disposed
to waste, losses
due
must
recycling or
may
may
which
a loss caused by
environmental conditions
(e.g.,
known
as direct
ma-
This category can also include standard purchased items like nuts, bolts,
springs,
in
chase price
company
to
when
company and
any labor cost
plastic
is
injection
molded into a mold that has several dissimilar cavities for producing different parts. The sprues and runners form the waste in the injection molding operation. The question is, How do we determine the share of each part from that waste? Let us consider dividing the amount of material of the runners equally between the parts in order to get the amount of waste for each product. Unfortunately, the results may be totally misleading, especially when some of these products are very small while others are large. In fact, this case is referred to as one of joint material cost and arises whenever there is a multiple-product manufacturing process where the tracing of the raw material
share of each individual product
is difficult.
A well-accepted
is
approach
in this case is to
common
expendithe
material that
is
consumed during
It is
and untraceable
to a particular design
and
oils,
is,
As
it
is
mathematics will not work here, a simpler method, which has gained acceptance
dustrial cost-estimating practice,
is
to
add
this
volume,
in
When
contractual
(i.e.,
pur-
chased specifically for manufacturing a certain product), the actual purchase price
can be directly employed in estimating the cost of material. However,
terial
is
when
it
the
mathat
it
is
in the cost
same material
is,
at different
times
at different prices.
Which
423
price
do we use
in cost
number of approaches have been adopted by different is a brief summary of some of the com-
method.
The
first-in-first-out
of issuing
first
method is based on following the rule was purchased first (i.e., having the longest time in
its
purchase price
drawback of
ing of the
method arises when the time between purchasing and processmaterial becomes long. The original price may not be a true representation
this in
method.
is
In the last-in-first-out
first
inventory
issued
to the factory.
The
lot,
material
The approach taken by the current-cost method is to use the when the estimate is prepared. Once again, issued from the inventory that would have been purchased earlier or later may
cost.
is
money
from
the
is
more)
used
lots
1
1
,;
Cfit
V*'-'*i
'-'equivalent
X
1
a,
where:
c, is
a, is
i
lot
/'
ma-
is
often
however, to get a quote for the cost of equipment, especially during the
early phase of a feasibility study. Published data about the cost of equipment are. unfortunately, not directly applicable
due
to inflation
power of
the dollar, as well as the difference in capacities or ratings given in the pub-
lished data and those of the required equipment. Adjustments must, therefore, be
424
11
made
data,
to
account for factors that affect the validity of the published cost-of-equipment
Cost Indexing
cost index
is
money
at a particular
if
time for a
certain category of
the cost of
equipment
some
initial
is
obtained:
Cc =
C,
(j)
(11.5)
where:
is is
C,
some
initial
time
I c is the
/,
current index
is
same
initial
time as C,
to a certain area
of applicais
price).
cost index
the
one
It is
the various kinds of industry. Care must, therefore, be taken not to use the index for
the paper industry to calculate the cost of a steam turbine, for example.
tantly,
More impor-
when
there
is
This
is
evidenced by the fact that the prices of many electronic products have actually
account for regional conditions because published indexes are indications of
needed
to
national averages.
Size Effect
Sometimes,
it
is
possible to only get hold of the cost of a machine similar to the re-
quired one but having a different size or rating. Corrections must, therefore, be
to that cost in order to obtain the cost
made
matical relationship between the cost and the capacity (size or rating) of capital equip-
ment must
due
first
be established. As you
of the
may have
is
not linear
to the effect
economy of
scale
which
is
usually referred
c \0.6
where:
C2
C,
is
is
equipment
2 is
of capital equipment
425
Regression Analysis
Statistical techniques are
is,
in turn, subjected to
Here
is
C=C ^
j=
i
P?>
(11.7)
where:
P, is the
parameter
w,
is
Pi,
and
is
irij
Although the
it is
formula
oped,
it
devel-
and parameters
calculus.
most
to the cost.
It
and optimize cost using simple mathematical manipulations such as those of differential
ENGINEERING COST
Engineering cost includes salaries for high-level engineering jobs as well as expenditures (whether salaries or general expenses) for
R&D.
it
is
some
cases). Nevertheless,
is
when
the product
is
The
contract
may
specify a
lump sum
engineering cost or
may
accurately determined.
costs cannot be directly or specifically related to the manufacturing of any particular product or even to a particular category of the
into
426
11
Factory Overheads
factory expenses that are not related to direct labor or material.
the
Factory overheads include the previously mentioned engineering costs as well as other An example would be
wages paid
how to calculate the "share" of each different prodmany approaches for charging these expenses to the
upon which factory overhead
The
the total
between the direct-labor hours required to manufacture the product and direct-labor hours spent on the factory floor (this ratio, when multiplied by the total overhead expenses, yields the share of that product from
ratio
number of
The ratio between the material cost of the product and the total cost of material consumed on the factory floor (again, the share of a product from overhead cost
the product of multiplication of this ratio by the total overhead expenses)
is
3.
The ratio between the space occupied by or machine tool) and the total area of the
the production
equipment
(e.g.,
furnace
factory floor
The
effect
its
direct-labor-hours
method
is
by
is
far the
As
clear, the
If the
reduced to half
normal
total
is
always a good
at different
production vol-
umes
(i.e.,
percentages of
results
in
full
ductivity
sometimes
may
It is
be
made
to
An
alternative,
use a different basis for allocating the overhead costs and request-
Corporate Overheads
yond
Corporate overheads basically involve the cost of daily operation of the company bethe factory floor throughout the year. These expenses include, for example, the
salaries
and fringe benefits of corporate executives as well as those of the business, adand legal staffs. Again, the commonly adopted approach is to obtain an overhead rate that is the product of dividing the total corporate overhead expenses by
ministrative,
Knowing
you can
worth mentioning
may
11.7 Design
to
Cost
427
DESIGN TO COST
The preceding discussions
reflect the usual or
design and then costing the product based on the information provided in that design.
With increasing global competition, however, cost is becoming more and more the driving force. Consequently, a need arises for costing a potential product before its design is completed or even made. This unusual approach is aimed at continuously improving
the design in order to manufacture the desired product at a designated price that
is
equal to or less than the market price of the competitor's product. This "reverse" prois known as design to cost and is gaining popularity in industry, especially with newly emerging methodologies such as reengineering. The process starts with benchmarking a given product, taking market price and quality as the judging criteria. By removing the retail profit, the manufacturing cost
cedure
is
obtained. Next, the various overhead rates that are well established in the
company
employed to remove the different overhead cost items, yielding the prime cost. Then comes the difficult task of meticulously breaking down the prime cost among components, assemblies, and subassemblies. Favoring one component at the expense of another is a big mistake as setting a target cost below reasonable limits will make the design of the component virtually impossible. Once the target cost for a compoare
nent
is
allocated, design begins using that target cost as an incentive for continuously
If the direct-labor cost, for
example,
is
found
to
be less than
some
When
the design
is
finalized,
it
(i.e., if the cost of a component is more flexibility when designing other components). must be subjected to the conventional and accurate
cost-estimating process.
,v Review Questions
1.
Why
What
is
7.
Do
the
all
design engineer?
2.
8.
Can you
done
last
that
was
3. List 4. List
5.
two methods
year?
that
Why
not?
fixed cost.
9.
Assuming
the construction
of the plant
this
would
have
List
What
that
compli10. 11.
What
is
meant by
direct labor?
428
What
11
12.
is
24.
Why
ial
is
it
of unit mater-
when
the material
is
when
the mate-
How
What
can
we measure
is
rial is
actually manufactured?
cons of each.
15.
En-
26.
What
is
a cost index?
Why
is it
important in
cost estimation?
27.
How
with a
known
capacity
if
you know
the cost
and
machine?
17.
What
it
is
What
effects does
28.
Show how
What
What
is
be employed
18. List
some important labor laws that must be considered when estimating the cost of a
product.
How
is it
estimated?
30.
are the different types of overhead costs?
some common
is
fringe benefits.
31.
On what
allocated?
bases
are
factory
overhead costs
What What
between the
in
32. In
some
might
What
is is
What
is
Give examples.
35.
What
the
in the
Problems
mm) in diameter and 12 feet (3.6 m) in 2000 bars, each 2.75 inches (69 mm) in diameter and 12 inches (300 mm) in length. The material cost is $1.05 per pound ($2.11/kg), and the 3 density is 0.282 pound per cubic inch (789 kg/m ). The total overhead and other exnumber of stock
bars,
pense
is
is
Solution
First,
we have
some assumptions:
Chapter 11 Problems
429
smooth end
for a
finish
is
mm).
is
mm).
collet requires
4 inches (100
mm)
Heavy
cuts are to be
is
cutting speed
for finishing,
done followed by a light finishing cut: For two rough cuts, minute (60 m/min.) and feed is 0.01 inch (0.25 mm); cutting speed is 300 feet per minute (90 m/min.) and feed is 200
feet per
beginning of cut
is
15 seconds.
Load
minute.
Machining Time
Position tool to perform cutoff:
15 seconds
Cutoff time:
D+a
3.25
0.75
x
7t
x 3.25
x60 =
51 seconds
200 x 12 x 0.01
Position tool to carry out facing operation:
15 seconds
Facing time:
+a
radial feed rate
2 x
71
x 3.25
x60
68 seconds
15 seconds
300 x 12 x 0.005
rough
cut:
first
rough
cut:
12+
1/16
+ 3/16 + 4/16
320 seconds
15 seconds
feed rate
Position tool to perform second rough cut:
Second rough
Finishing:
12.5
cut:
320 seconds
15 seconds
360 seconds
feed rate
Cutoff
is
included
in the
piece.
(1
minute):
is
60 seconds
1254 seconds.
The
total
430
11
Cost of Labor/Piece
.
single bar
= =
12 12 x total length
1 1
pieces
length/piece
loading time
x 182 x 60
=
2000
10.9
11
seconds
total
11
= 1265 seconds
1
(direct labor)
cost of labor/piece
96S
x $10/hr
(assuming a
= $3.52
Cost of Material/Piece
CNC
machine
is
used)
We
is
simple:
= $32.17
Cost of Overhead/Piece
In this, all other costs are included:
overhead
t rate
= $5.57
= =
material cost
+ overhead
cost
3.52
+ 32.17 +
5.57
= $41.26
Design Project
2
Select a
that
7,
preferably a
project for each manufacturing process, and then carry out cost estimation for the
product.
(e.g.,
You
are strongly advised to obtain real values for the different cost elements
Chapter 12
sign
for
Assembly
INTRODUCTION
Modern societies are undergoing continuous development, which necessitates large-scale use of sophisticated products
like
appliances, automobiles,
components,
assemblies,
cerned with the ease and cost of assembly, especially when given the fact
that
70
to
80 percent
is
determined
for
is for
is
this
It
design approach not only focuses on functionality but also concurrently considers assemblability.
is fairly
recent, several
companies can
claim,
in
good
faith,
using guidelines for assembly-conscious product design for a long time. For
stance, the General Electric
Company published
It
in
1960,
for internal
use
only,
in
the
company
in
sound and
the subject
Internationale pour
le
431
432
12
Design
for
Assembly
began
Massachusetts Amherst.
The
vidual
traditional
approach
in
for
to reduce the
number
of indi-
components
When
a design
is
altered
such
manner
that two
is
consequence
manual assembly
or a
re-
to incorporate
process capacity and product mix considerations so that products can be designed to assist
in
life
cycle, in
cycle.
first
is
the
selection of the
for
ap-
an assembly-conscious design
the
assembly and
in
is,
now
assembly
methods
currently available.
no single method
that
is
all
method has
own domain
or range
within which
of
Assembly Methods
433
the
number of
individual
components
in
is
Manual Assembly
In
manual assembly,
simple, general-purpose tools like screwdrivers and pliers. Individual components are
transferred to the
workbench
either
such as parts feeds or transfer lines and then are manually assembled. This assembly a direct consequence of the method is characterized by its flexibility and adaptability
human
brain.
The assembly
cost per
virtually constant
and
is
There
is
an upper limit to the production volume above which the practicality and feais,
sibility
upper
limit
assembly system
close to zero.
to as fixed
type, ei-
chines where parts are handled by a free-transfer device are used. The system, in both
cases, should be built to assemble only
is
in Detroit,
name
given to
this type
of assemthat
an inherent rigidity in
accommodate
work before
components must be subjected to strict quality-control inspection before they can be assembled because any downtime due to defective parts
will result in considerable production and, therefore, cash losses. Nevertheless, a real
advantage of
this
assembly system
is
the decreasing
in-
creasing production volume. Naturally, when the production volume increases, share of each product from the capital investment becomes smaller, which makes
the
this
It is
worth mentioning
in
bly cost per product because the cost of equipment has to be divided
between a smaller
assembly sys-
number
tem
that
In order to
come up with
more
bled, the
fitted
434
12
Design
for
Assembly
magazines. Thus, the assembly sequence and characteristics can be tailored to match the attributes of the modified design. Although this system provides some flexibility, it
is still
volume
is
system but lower than that of an automatic assembly system that incorporates specialpurpose machines. It, therefore, fills a gap, in production volume, between these other
two assembly systems. Robotic assembly systems may take one or more of the
lowing forms:
1.
fol-
at
tailored to suit
2.
robotic arms operating at a single workstation. A programmable controller (PLC) is employed to simultaneously control and synchronize the motions of the two arms. This setup is referred to as a robotic assembly cell and is, in fact, very similar to a flexible manufacturing cell. Other supporting equipment like fixtures
Two
in the cell.
is
On
mass pro-
Comparison
Clearly,
of
Assembly Methods
least capital
On
compared
to the
automatic sys-
tem with special-purpose machines, the multistation robotic assembly system requires
more
volume but
less capital
investment for
is
A better way
to plot a
graph indicating the relationship between the assembly cost per product and the annual
production volume for the three assembly methods.
As shown
is
volume
of robotic assembly, the assembly cost per product also decreases with inits
creasing production volume but not linearly because the type of system used and
physical size depend upon the production volume as well. Figure 12.1 also helps to de-
termine the range of production volume within which each of the assembly methods
cost effective. Consequently, such a graph
priate
is
is
12.2 Selection
of
Assembly Method
435
FIGURE 12.1
Assembly cost per
product versus annual
production volume for
three assembly
Robotic
methods
Manual assembly
Automatic assembly
using special-
purpose machines
when
to
as-
number of
individual
components
be assembled
in a product, the
number of
it is
uct or products, the availability of labor at a reasonable cost, and, last but not least, the
interactive,
and
domain for each assembly method. Usually, a two-variable constructed based on fixed specific values for the other variables.
ious assembly
Figure 12.2 indicates the appropriate ranges of application for each of the var-
is
in most cases, volume and the number of individual components in an assembly. Notice that the manual assembly method is suit ablefor low production volumes and a limited number of individual components per assembly. Robotic assembly is recommended for moderate production, with the one-arm robot being more appropriate for assemblies that have less than eight individual components. When a large number of assemblies is to be produced, the use of assembly systems with special-purpose machines becomes a must. Remember that with an increasing
436
12
Design
for
Assembly
FIGURE 12.2
Appropriate ranges of
application for various
assembly methods
50
40
to
=1
o
T3
30
Special-purpose
automatic
assembly
? E "> 2 0) Q. E
20
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
number of
recommended ranges of
in Figure
ap-
method
will differ
12.2.
is
that the
assembly
rate
in
is
Assuming
that
is
sembly cost
whenever more than one assembly method is under consideration. all other factors are comparable, the method that gives the lowest asthe one to select.
now
and guidelines
to
It is
is
complex components
and expensive
to manufacture.
engineering sense, rational thinking, and accumulated knowledge will ensure that these
rules are wisely applied.
The
strategy to adopt
manual
as-
for
Manual Assembly
437
sembly
is to strive
to
skills
required of assem-
bly workers. Here are the guidelines for product design for manual assembly:
1. Eliminate the
or her having to
need for any decision making by the assembly worker, including his make any final adjustments. Remember that assembly workers are usually unskilled and are paid at or close to the minimum wage and it is, therefore,
make
is
these adjustments.
visibility.
It
a hole that
is
accessible.
3. Eliminate the
components
to
need for assembly tools or special gages by designing the individual be self-aligning and self-locating. Parts that fit and snap together
eliminate the need for fasteners, thus resulting in an appreciable reduction in both
the assembly time and cost. Also, features like lips and chamfers can greatly aid in
making parts self-locating, as is clearly demonstrated in Figure 12.3, where two pins, one having a chamfer and the other without, are being inserted into two identical holes during an assembly operation. Obviously, it is far easier and takes less
time to insert the pin with the chamfer.
4.
by adopting the concept of standardization as a design philosophy. Expand the use of standard parts as well as multifunction and multipurpose components. Although more material may be consumed to manufacture
parts
multipurpose parts, the gains in reducing assembly time and cost will exceed that
waste.
5.
Minimize the number of individual parts in an assembly by eliminating excess parts and, whenever possible, integrating two or more parts together. Certainly, handling one part is far easier than handling two or more. The criteria for reducing the parts count per assembly, established by G. Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst (see the references
at the
end of
this
FIGURE 12.3
Using a chamfer to
make
a part self-
locating
438
12
Design
for
Assembly
Does
the part
move
assembled?
Must
Must
from
all
6.
to
make
all
motions
simple by, for example, eliminating multimotion insertions. Avoid rotating or reorienting the assembly as well as releasing and regripping individual components.
result in increased
cost.
The
them
is
(along the
7.
Z axis)
is
ideal, especially
when you
Ensure ease of handling of parts from the bulk by eliminating the possibility of
nesting or tangling them. This
is
in the design. In
addition, avoid the use of fragile or brittle materials, as well as flexible parts like
maximum symmetry
If
in
symmetry
is
to de-
asymmetry
may
result in serious
sembly
in
many
and
toys.
experienced,
it
some of
signs
these products are not properly designed for easy assembly, and
It is
takes cus-
unassembled products.
assembled
parts.
These requirements
to parts
are dictated
by the need
to eliminate
mismatch or manufacturing defects. As a consequence, problems related to locating and inserting parts, though they need to be addressed, are not of primary importance. These problems require design changes to ease assembly; by revising the product design, each
for
Automatic Assembly
439
FIGURE 12.4
Facilitating
assembly
in
through reduction
"Automatic Assembly
Components and
Products,
"
Metal-
working Production,
April
8
Old (13 parts)
1964. Used by
New
(2 parts)
permission)
assembly operation becomes simple enough to be performed by a machine rather than by a human being. The most important concerns to address involve the orientation, handling, and feeding of parts to the assembly machine. The efficiency of performing these tasks has a considerable effect on the efficiency and output of the assembly sys-
tem and, of course, on the assembly cost. This approach is referred to as design for ease of automation. Here are the guidelines for product design for automatic assembly:
1.
Reduce
the
number of
is
different
components
in
An
ap-
performed by each part and finding out the simplest and easiest way to achieve those functions. An example is shown in Figure 12.4, where two products are contrasted,
one designed
to facilitate
in the parts
count
and the other designed without ease of assembly being taken into consideration. With the new developments in casting and plastics injection-molding technologies,
complex components can replace entire subassemblies. Nevertheless, the when combining parts so as not to adversely affect
the manufacturing cost. In fact, in order to reduce the parts count in assemblies,
asked
to fabricate
many
cases,
more
efficient
shown
in
FIGURE 12.5
Two methods
for
J.
D., ed.
r~\
r\
jD(Ml
Old (fewer parts)
New (many
parts)
440
12
Design
for
Assembly
FIGURE 12.6
Plate (steel,
Facilitating
assembly
2 required) \
through simplification
of design
Retainer
(2 required)
Plate (steel,
2 required)
(Redrawn
after Iredale,
1964.
Used by permission)
Shaft (steel)
J
Fan
(nylon)
n^
W
New
(3 parts)
One
and
-piece fan
shaft
(nylon)
\7
Old
(8 parts)
Use
self-aligning
of their
assembly. Considerable improvement can be achieved by using chamfers, guidepins, dimples, molded-in locators, and certain types of screws (e.g., cone and oval screws). Figure 12.6 is an example of how to facilitate assembly through simple
design modifications, while Figure 12.7 shows the types of screws that are suitable
for
3.
assembly operations.
is
both ex-
is,
therefore,
recommended
fit.
may
FIGURE 12.7
Types of screws
suitable for
assembly
operations (Redrawn
after Tipping, W.
V.
"Component and
Product Design for
Rolled
Mechanized Assembly,"
Conference on
Assembly, Fastening,
and Equipment,
Production Engineering
Research Association
of Great Britian, 1965.
Used by permission)
for
Automatic Assembly
441
repair, or recycling.
If
shapes.
4.
Make
use of the largest and most rigid part of the assembly as a base or fixture
parts are stack-assembled vertically in order to take advantage of
where other
remember
assembly operation
If this is difficult
one
that is
performed
blies,
in a
or impossible to
to divide the
apply the rule stated herein to each separately, and then plug
the sub-
assemblies together.
5.
Actively seek the use of standard components and/or materials. There should be a
commitment,
in
goal
group technology. Standardization should begin with fasteners, washers, springs, and other individual components. This translates into standardization of
is
to use standard
modules
that
Each mod-
number of
Avoid the
changes
A few
in the
geometric features
may
shows some
problem.
sufficient
Avoid
flexible, fragile,
have
assembly.
8.
Avoid reorienting assemblies because each reorientation may require a separate station or a machine, both of which cause an appreciable increase in cost.
Design parts
feeder.
to ease
9.
to the as-
sembly machine
minimum
The process
any position
number of
possible orientations of
its first
a part actually increases the odds of that part's going out of the feeder on
try.
number of
W.
V. Tipping,
two types of
oriented: parts that are symmetrical in shape (e.g., a sphere or cube) and parts with
clear
either in shape or
weight).
try to
make
parts
442
12
FIGURE 12.8
Parts that tend to nest
during feeding and
design modifications
that eliminate the
Open-ended spring
that
will
Closed-ended spring
that will tangle only
tangle
under pressure
"Nesting" of
Open up
pitch to avoid
springs
locking angles
Increase angle
"Locking"
Add flames
or ribs
angle
Decrease angle
for
Automatic Assembly
443
FIGURE 12.9
Effect of possible
Number
of
Types
of Parts
Required
Minimum
Required Rate of Feeding Parts/Hour
(into the feeder)
Orientations
Number
of
number
of orientations
Parts/Hour
(out of the feeder)
on efficiency of feeding
1986. Used by
permission)
y
Sphere
Symmetrical
600
600
Symmetrical
flat
cube
washer
600
Tapered washer
Parts that naturally
fall in
1200
one
of
two
possible positions
600
2400
in the
in full
sym-
injection-
molded
If
it is
tures
is
make
identification
and grasping
easier.
This approach
also
employed
and
orient,
shows some design changes or indicate hidden features, while Figure 12.12 shows metric features on the calculated values of feedability.
orientation. Figure 12.11
that exaggerate
asymmetry
(i.e., it
FIGURE 12.10
Examples
of design
full
C=
Difficult to orient
Easy
to orient
symmetry (Redrawn
after Lane,
1986. Used
by permission)
3
Usual design of dowel pin
^E
Redesigned dowel pins
3-
After
(1
orientation required)
FIGURE 12.11
Examples
of design
changes that
exaggerate asymmetry
or indicate hidden
1964. Used by
Flats
it
much
permission)
No
When
correctly oriented
rail
will
for orientation
hang from
makes
proper orientation to be
established
in
a vibratory feeder
in
and maintained
transport
rails
444
"
for
Robotic Assembly
445
FIGURE 12.12
Effect of changing
geometric features on
calculated values of
feedability
a
f
oo
oo
f
= 0.232
part
(Redrawn
al.,
Symmetric
has a higher
feedability
after
Kim
et
"A
Proceedings of the
International
Conference on Robotics
= 0.2
= 0.25
Asymmetric
part
has higher
ambiguous symmetry
Used by permission)
= 0.25
= 0.5
/\
tNtf
f
o
f
= 0.25
= 0.30
= 0.47
= 0.38
Also,
when such
a part
is
transferred
on a conveyor
belt,
it
be mis-
for ro-
as follows:
do so
Design parts so
that they
in
an orientation ap-
propriate for grasping. Also, eliminate the need for reorienting assemblies (or sub-
assemblies) during the assembly operation. Ignoring this rule will cause an increase
446
12
Design
for
Assembly
in
It
also will
us review
some of
the
in industry, in
America
and abroad, for evaluating and improving product DFA. Because so many methods,
systems, and software packages have recently been developed, the survey here will be
limited to the most
for
which substantial
infor-
no bias here
for or against
any
method
ficulty
been covered.
dif-
As you
will
soon
see,
with which parts can be handled and assembled together into a given product.
mean
that the
is
components
an analytical procedure
right
sign
the engineer,
a particular
DFA method
is
a survey of each
method.
DFA
in the late
1970s by Professor
of
DFA,
at the
University of Massachusetts
First, the
appropriate as-
sembly method
similar,
selected
by means of
charts.
is
there
is
a separate, though
is
a diagram of the
Boothroyd-Dewhurst
let
DFA
method.
the analytical procedure for
As an example,
as the
us
now examine
manual assembly
DFA analysis
much
different.
Note
is
used to evaluate and refine an existing design. In other words, the starting point
determine the assembly sequence
that are to follow
it
first
to
(i.e.,
is
to
be
placed
first
in the
together).
effective
cost.
When more
operation
is
to
be used
in
obtained by multiplying the assembly time for one part by the number of
"
12.6 Methods
for Evaluating
447
FIGURE 12.13
Stages of the
Boothroyd-Dewhurst
A Key Element
Design
for
within
Manufacture,
Proceedings of the
Institution of
Mechanical Engineers,
1989. Used by
permission)
448
12
Design
for
Assembly
FIGURE 12.14
The BoothroydDewhurst bookkeeping
worksheet
1
12.6 Methods
for Evaluating
449
The mechanism
of the worksheet in order to pinpoint components that can be eliminated and that have relatively high handling and insertion times. The number of components or parts must
then be reduced by eliminating
some
process
is
design)
is
obtained.
Because
it is
Boothroyd-Dewhurst proce-
DFA analysis
has been developed. The latest commercially available version is very user friendly and runs in a Windows environment. Again, note that the system does not make any
decisions for the designer;
it is
the designer
is
who, with
rational thinking
right
and appropriate.
count,
decrease the parts final note here: Although this DFA analysis would certainly can often result in the manufacture and use of complex components. Bearing cost, the in mind that the assembly cost is only about 5 percent of the total production manfinalized "optimal design" may be easy to assemble but expensive (or difficult) to system ufacture. In fact, the absence of a manufacturing-knowledge-based supporting
One
it
was
the main shortcoming of the initial Boothroyd and Dewhurst supplemented their
that
fact,
called de-
few selected manufacturing processes and is used to estimate the manufacturing cost on of the different alternative designs. The optimal design can then be selected based
both the assembly and the manufacturing costs.
method (AEM).
of tape recorder mechanisms in producing those subassemblies. order to develop an automatic assembly system for That pioneering and original work by S. Hashizure (a research engineer at Hitachi) and
It
was employed
his
coworkers was awarded the Okochi Memorial Prize in 1980. Although this method does not explicitly distinguish between manual and automatic assembly, this difference
is
accounted for implicitly within the structured analysis. Also, the method was subcomputerjected to refinement in 1986 with improvements to its methodology, and a
based version
is
now
available.
The Hitachi
AEM
approach
is
used to assess design quality or difficulty the of assembly operations. The procedure to compute is based on considering For more simple downward motion for inserting a part as the "ideal reference."
An
is
complicated operations, penalty scores that depend upon the complexity and nature of each operation are assigned. The Hitachi method uses symbols to represent operations,
and there are about 20 of them covering operations like the straight downward movement for part insertion and the operation of soldering, as shown in
Figure 12.15.
450
12
Design
for
Assembly
FIGURE 12.15
Elemental operation
Examples of Hitachi
Miyakawa,
S.,
and
Assemblability
Evaluation
Method
(AEM),
"
Proceedings of
the international
Conference on Product
Design
April
for
Assembly,
1986. Courtesy of
Institute for
Competitive Design)
12.6 Methods
for Evaluating
451
method
this
is
now commercially
Figure
cedure.
tional,
12.
DFA pro-
As can be
first
DFA
analysis.
In the functional analysis,
Functional analysis.
into
two
first
and, therefore, exist for fundamental reasons. These components are considered to
be essential, or "A,"
parts.
nonessential, or "B,"
nents that perform only secondary functions like fastening and locating.
compoThe design
FIGURE 12.16
The Lucas DFA
assembly sequence
flowchart (Redrawn
after Miles,
1989.
Used by permission)
452
12
Design
for
Assembly
efficiency
essential parts by the is the product of dividing the number of of parts and can be given by the following equation: ber
total
num-
design efficiency
x 100
Figure 12.16),
if
(12.3)
According
is
low,
it
should
be improved through design modifications aimed at eliminating most of the nonessenfunctional tial parts. A clear advantage of the Lucas DFA method is that performing the analysis separately, before the other two analyses, acts as an initial "screening mecha-
nism"
that returns
effort is
encountered
in the detailed
analysis.
For
60 percent.
The feeding analysis is concerned with the problems associated components (and subassemblies) until they are admitted to the assembly with handling system. By answering a group of questions about the size, weight, handling difficulties, and orientation of a part, its feeding /handling index can be calculated. Next, the
Feeding analysis.
feeding/handling ratio can be calculated by using the following equation:
,. ,,
feeding/handling ratio
,,.
,,. ., (12.4)
number
or essential
components
An
and one
Fitting analysis.
The
fitting analysis is
An
index
is
its
re-
High individual values and/or a high total value of which case the product should be redesigned with the goal of eliminating or at least reducing these operations. The fitting index is manipulated to yield the fitting ratio as given by the following equation:
these indices
means
fitting ratio
fitting
- index
,,-_,
(12.5)
number of
essential
components
fitting
ratio
should be
around
2.5.
Note that while the feeding /handling and fitting ratios can certainly be used as "measures of performance" to indicate the effectiveness of the design quality with respect to assembly, the absence of a mechanism to evaluate the effect of design changes
on the manufacturing cost
is
The
Some
other
System
was published
DFA
techniques, this
the completion of the detailed design, but rather as a tool to aid in obtaining a detailed
12.6 Methods
for Evaluating
453
FIGURE 12.17
The
Fujitsu
PES
A.
specification
(Redrawn after
Miyazawa,
Assemblability
Manufacturability
"Productivity Evaluation
evaluation subsystem
evaluation subsystem
System,
"
Fujitsu
Science Technology
Journal,
December
1993. Used by
permission)
how
easy to manufacture and assemble and also is cost effective. This method parts, excludis, however, limited to bench-type manual assembly of relatively small example, products like automobiles and refrigerators. As can be seen in Figing, for design that
is
PES (which
is
use of an expert system involving practical subsystems. manufacturing and design data and rules of thumb that are gathered from the finest industry experts. The software addresses a problem by carrying out a rough evaluation
full
that
can be followed by detailed evaluations made concurrently with the product development process. The system is capable of performing absolute evaluation of assembly time and cost, as well as comparative evaluation as a percentage of that of a
reference design. Figure 12.18 indicates the procedure for applying the productivity evaluation system throughout the product development cycle. Let us now discuss the
Assembly sequence specification subsystem. The function and the operation of the assembly sequence specification subsystem are shown in Figure 12.19. The designer
selects parts similar to those envisioned to be used in the product, according to the
conceptual design, and forms a library of parts and then specifies their assembly sequence. The system promptly retrieves previously stored values for assemblability and
manufacturability that can be used by the evaluation subsystem to obtain assembly
This tool
It is
is
employed
to estimate the
assembly
ule.
"mechanisms") and their number of essential parts that are stored by functional modThe printing module, for example, includes dot printing (10 essential parts), thermal printing (8 essential parts), and laser printing (15 essential parts). As soon as the
designer specifies the subassembly, a detailed drawing together with all the information appears on the screen of the monitor. The analysis addresses the handling and insertion of parts, specifies the target
number of essential parts, and identifies high-cost Figure 12.20 shows the operation of the assemblability evaluation
fact, the
system breaks
down
the assembly time of each part into handling time, insertion time, and so on, and
it
displays
as a bar chart, as
shown
in
semblability evaluation score for the whole product as well as for assembly and ad-
04
H
LU
454
12.6 Methods
for Evaluating
455
FIGURE 12.19
The assembly
Parts
Production tree
sequence
specification
subsystem (Redrawn
after Miyazawa,
1993.
Used by permission)
456
12
Design
for
Assembly
FIGURE 12.21
Assemblability
evaluation results for a
product: (a) assembly
Part
Assembly time
(s)
name
10
20
30
Part
(b)
12.6 Methods
for Evaluating
457
FIGURE 12.22
The manufacturability
evaluation subsystem
Rough evaluation
Input data
(Redrawn after
Miyazawa, 1993. Used
by permission)
Shape
Size
of part
Treatment
Detailed evaluation
Input data
FIGURE 12.23
(CONT.)
Example
of a product
PES:
(c)
(b) after
redesign;
product
estimation score
(Redrawn after
Miyazawa, 1993. Used
by permission)
Connect board
s
\
Connect board
Lower cover
(b)
Assembly costs
75
I
100 (%)
(c)
Before
After
(d)
458
459
Review Questions
JL
1.
What What
when
selecting an
13. 14_
Why
What
to
assembly method?
2.
your advice
if
parts
be symmetrical?
the available
3.
assembly methods?
Discuss some of the factors that affect the selection of an appropriate assembly method.
matic assembly.
16
How
self-
4. Define the
5.
What
as essential parts in a
Why?
method
in
18.
What
is
automatic
DFA?
three questions
assembly?
7.
What
with
inating a part
its
Why
neighboring part?
man-
ual assembly.
9.
assembly.
What
is
Why?
22.
What
are
the
methods
for
performing
DFA
10.
Why
What
analysis?
during assembly?
11.
effect does the concept of standardization
23. List
some of
tures,
sis
DFA analy-
methods.
Design Project
)
Choose a fairly simple product (e.g., a shower handle or coffeemaker), disassemble it, and make an assembly drawing or an exploded view of its parts. Next, study the function
questions (elimination criteria) of Boothroyd and Dewhurst to identify parts that are
candidates for elimination or combining with other parts. Finally, modify your design in order to reduce the parts count and provide an assembly drawing of the new design,
as well as a
workshop drawing
Chapter 13
vironmentally
nscious
esign and
K.J
anufacturing
INTRODUCTION
The increasing problems of
terial,
landfill
the greenhouse effect, and the decay of the ozone layer are
among
the
major environmental concerns that prompted the second environmental revolution that is
in
first
environmen-
tal revolution in
was aimed
at cleaning
up hazardous waste
is
ad-
dressing waste reduction at the source. This goal can be achieved through the
design of products that promote recycling as well as through the design of manufacturing processes that minimize waste, by-products,
therefore, utilize resources
more
efficiently.
ronmental problems
is
Agency
Washington, D.C., the United States generates 160 million tons of solid
year,
waste every
and most of
it
goes
full.
Further-
slightly less
landfills will
close before the turn of the century. The key to the solution of these problems
lies in
operations
Currently,
solid-
460
Introduction
461
Germany,
example, used to send 800,000 metric tons
every year, but as of January
1,
service
life
is
over.
for
of appliances
and computers to
landfills
1994,
in
way
waste gen-
erated annually
tive industry is
Specialists
environmental
problems are
interrelated
and,
same time
In
made on
all
fronts
in
one
wastes and
pollution
at the source should take the form of an overall process with the objective of
meeting
all
Design products
and
recycling.
emissions and to make efficient use of raw materials. Consider the waste,
not as an unavoidable result of the process, but rather as a factor that adversely affects the efficiency.
This
will
product
(i.e., failure)
dumped every
year.
management,
re-
You may think that meeting these requirements would be very expensive
and would, therefore, increase the production cost and make the products less
competitive. But companies that have successfully adopted such policies claim
direct
and
surpass expenditure.
It
over
50 percent
of the activities of
waste reduction
that
at the
means
money
is
saved
back period.
lic,
In
demands
of the pub-
462
13
in landfills
and junk-
new products.
(This
the aluminum
companies.
Improving yield and quality (as a consequence of reducing waste and scrap)
utilization.
manufacture,
let
us
first
solid
methods
of solid-waste
management.
modern
societies, there is
tronic equipment,
in landfills.
sooner or
later
have
to
be
dumped
The
ex-
Because parts of the used products are either reused, recycled, or recovis
landfills.
tremely high and ever-increasing annual disposal rates of solid waste can be attributed
to
first is
the
consumers every
is
The
service
become
ances to less than 4 years for personal-care items like hair dryers (50 million of which
are disposed of annually in landfills worldwide).
solid waste.
Automotive Industry
About 30 million vehicles
States,
Eu-
and then
to
shredders, where the various metals are easily separated and salvaged. Annually,
463
about
1 1
million tons of ferrous metals and 800,000 tons of nonferrous metals are reis left
unrecovered
in a land-
is
plastics
and
Fur-
may
look the
8).
same, they have many different chemical structural formulas (see Chapter
thermore, scrap plastic
terial.
may be
it
uted to the current trend of using more plastics in cars to reduce the weight of the
car,
Appliances Industry
Examples of appliances
that are
disposed of
in landfills at the
end of
include refrigerators, stoves, dishwashers, and washing machines. These major appli-
life
as personal care, entertainment, and coffeemaking are also included under this category.
fills
About 350 million appliances, both small and major, were disposed of in landin 1993. As in the case with automobiles, plastic components are rapidly replacing metal components previously produced by stamping, die casting, or
worldwide
machining.
compowould
is
component. Although
this
it
end of the
because plastic
and fiber-reinforced
solid
plastic
in
the housing
of
all plastic
was estimated that about 9 percent waste would come from construction. Examples of plastic parts curtiles.
rently
Consumer Goods
Consumer goods
represent the third largest use of plastics after the packaging and construction industries.
As of
all
plastic solid
waste was
esti-
mated as coming from scrapped consumer goods. Examples include disposable diapers and napkins and throwaway plasticware (utensils, trays, razors, lighters, pens, watches,
and cameras).
464
13
Furniture Industry
Plastic furniture
is
replacing
wood
and
and public places. In 1995, the disposed of in the United States was estimated
fices,
on beaches, in gardens, becoming very popular in homes, ofamount of plastic furniture and synthetic carpets
to
Packaging Industry
Packaging
(e.g., for
is
and the
This
is
largest source
due
to the very
low
packaging and
is
what makes
to
38 percent of
total landfill
volume
in the
which
Reuse
is
waste
An example
for
Recycling
raw material
may
or
may
A typical
example
obvi-
ture
and the
like.
Although,
may
Recovery
in
is
form
which and
by which
it
can be recycled.
An example
is
the pro-
cessing of scrap iron into pig-iron ingots that can be used as a raw material and
further processed into steel.
As we begin
to discuss the
main methods
for
managing
it is
of a particular method depends upon several factors, including public health and
It is
also important to
first
establish
demand
and
to then
necessary trade-offs so that the most appropriate method can be chosen. Following are
the
main methods
for solid-waste
management.
465
Disposal
in Landfills
is
Disposal in landfills
rate of
solid-waste generation,
in the
is
now open
United States will close by the year 2000 (according to studies released by the EPA, Washington, D.C.). In addition, about 70 percent of all U.S. landfills have already closed since 1978. Moreover, this method has the disadvantage of wasting land
result in a
Incineration
Although incineration eliminates the main disadvantage of landfilling (i.e., the limited finite capacity), it sometimes has serious drawbacks. For instance, there is the possibility
of dangerous gases being emitted into the atmosphere, thus creating a public health hazard. Also, the mere existence of an incinerator may discourage the general
public from recycling waste that
cessitates a very high
initial capital
would otherwise be recycled. Finally, incineration neinvestment. The cost of a modern incinerator can
has been developed for industrial and commercial applications by Molten Metal Technology, Inc.. Waltham, Massachusetts. The company's process is believed to offer significant
when hazardous
in the
or toxic materials
is
PCBs)
basically a re-
from waste
how
solids, liquids, sludges, and even gases) into a molten-metal bath that
usually molten
3000F (1650C). Highly reactive chemical catalysts are also inThe waste first dissolves into the molten iron; it is then broken up
its elemental building blocks. By controlling the parameters of the process and adding reactants to the bath, useful metals like nickel as well as fuel like carbon
into
and
CEP method
in greater detail.
in
The
CEP method
commercial-scale
tests
on
a variety of waste materials at the pilot plant of Molten Metal Technology, Inc., Fall River, Massachusetts. These waste materials range from simple compounds like paraffins to
pol-
yaromatic hydrocarbons.
materials and/or fuel
This process not only destroys the hazardous waste but also yields useful raw something that makes it particularly appealing in terms of
466
13
FIGURE 13.1
The waste material
cycle
in
the
CEP
method (Courtesy of
Molten Metal
Technology,
Inc.,
Waltham,
Massachusetts)
Wastes:
Solids
Liquids
Sludges
Gases
Gases
467
FIGURE 13.2
A sketch
of the
CEP
Products:
method (Courtesy of
Molten Metal
Technology,
Inc.,
Waltham,
Massachusetts)
Specialty
Inorganics
Reactants
Gases
Wastes:
economics.
cially
investment required
is
the cost of
modern
incinerators.
The
or rate of waste destruction will determine the appropriate range of applications for
the
CEP
method.
It
agement of
Recycling
Recycling
is
a well-established
a proven
not as
much
recycled. In fact, plastics currently pose the biggest recycling challenge. After
468
13
same products
strict
for
used. This
is
i
not,
food industr)
industry standards.
as a
how economically
can be. In
other words, there must be a financial motivation for recycling to be successfully used.
\.\
idently, this
is
is
the case
when
fuel) recov-
ered
more than
already
factors,
such as the particular material being recycled, the nature of the products, and the geographic location
at
which recycling
is
must be
been
in fact,
some extent, in Germany, which have United States, as shown in Figure 13.3.
a slight lead
To gain
involved.
now examine
Material retrieval.
terials
of materials
nants can be
must be subjected
Identification
fied
tics,
and separation.
(e.g.,
The
according to class
metals, glass, ceramics, plastics) and, in the case of plasis composed. As there are same but have different chem-
is
extremely
difficult
and
costly. In fact,
it
accounts for a high percentage of the recycling cost. After the identification operation
FIGURE 13.3
Solid
Solid
U.S.,
Waste Management:
of Total
waste
in
Waste
management
the
Waste
to
Landfill
Reuse
Energy
Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.)
13.3 Guidelines
for Environmentally
469
is
complete, the various materials must be separated for recycling. Whenever two dis-
appropriate
to separate
them.
Reprocessing.
then casting
it
When
dealing with metals, this stage involves melting the scrap and
not the
when
new
material having properties that are different from those of the original material,
and
this
recycled plastic.
Marketing.
is
The
of marketing
These same factors determine the applications for which the recycled
is
an essential step
in
new markets
cycled plastic. Marketing recycled metal does not present any problem because the
properties of the reprocessed metal are predictable and controllable.
should be clear from the preceding discussion that some slight changes
its
in the de-
recyclability.
As
a consequence,
several industries, including the automotive, electronics, and plastics industries, have
When
to the
but also to the concept of reducing or eliminating the waste material generated during production.
Design
for
Disassembly
(e.g., the
quired to take apart the different components). Accordingly, components and products
have
to
be designed so that they can be disassembled with ease, thus reducing the cost
of disassembly and making recycling economically attractive. This leads us to the concept of design for disassembly (DFD). which involves designing the product to be
amenable
in
to
DFA
DFD
(e.g.,
DFD
are not
comto
may
be an easy way
470
13
disassemble them, whether for maintenance or at the end of the service life of the product. The analysis and selection of joining methods that promote recycling will be
covered
in
more
Because product servicing and recycling are both based on the same premise (i.e., ease of disassembly), adhering to the DFD rules would certainly have a positive effect
on customers' satisfaction. This is a consequence of lower service and repair cost as a result of easier removal and replacement of components. Further advantages include
reducing insurance premiums for products, as well as extending the service
products and thus delaying their disposal in landfills. This
is
life
of
an indirect contribution to
Material Selection
most cases, is to come up with a The practical alternative is to minimize the number of different materials used and to make them clearly identifiable. In order to realize the extent of this problem, you have to bear in mind that there are about a hundred different kinds of plastics in an automobile and that most of them look similar to one another. Following are some guidelines to be observed when selecting materials for product design
one-material product.
for recycling:
1.
in
dealing with various kinds of plastics. This will sometimes result in overdesigning
some
same material
it is
as other parts
outer casing of a
PC
is
because of
its
ments of
this
good impact resistance properties that meet the functional requirecomponent. The internal components, however, are usually made of
if
ABS
in
recyclability
is
to
tion, all
an
initial
at the
that is
recommended
for cutting
down
the variety of
complex components out of only one kind properties depending on the molecular weight or deto design
made from
the
each case so as
same material but having a different degree of polymerization in to promote recycling. In fact, an appropriate candidate here would
be polycarbonate.
2.
When
because thermo-
also possible in
many
13.3 Guidelines
for Environmentally
471
3.
inevitable, strive to
make them
components
and
sorting.
that
Use
a molded-in material
each weigh slightly less than 1/4 pound (100 g) for name or logo (or better, use an
SAE
An example
of an
SAE
stan-
dard symbol
5. Factors
shown
in
Figure 13.4.
such as ease and cost of recycling as well as the potential markets for
when
new
prod-
particularly cru-
because,
without
it,
there
would be no cash
return
process. Therefore, there should be a clear "strategy" for marketing the recy-
cled plastic during the early design phase. If the anticipated production volume
is
commodity
material.
Recyre-
cling companies
would make
a
from the
is
large
volume of
relatively low.
it
On
the other
advisable to employ a
the price of the plastic
plastic of high
market value
design so as to
make
waste
cycling.
one of them depends upon the method of combining the components together
first
method
is
same
two com-
ponents are snap-fitted together during assembly, they would be similarly separated
during dismantling for recycling. This, obviously, will not work for dissimilar plastic
parts that are
welded
together.
the dissimilarity between components is employed to facilexample would be plastics and metals, which can be shredded separated by means of a magnetic separator because of their physical
when
A good
to decide
upon the method of disassembly during the method when preparing the design. It is also
fastening points accessible. Here are the pros
make
and cons of the different fastening and joining methods from the viewpoint of design for environment:
FIGURE 13.4
SAE standard symbol
for polyvinyl chloride
472
13
1.
Welded parts may or may not be easily recycled: Metals are recycled effectively after use, but this is not the case with plastics, where two dissimilar resins are
joined together by stacking, ultrasonic welding, and so on. Brute force is usually required to separate the components but may create problems unless considered during design.
2.
Screws are undesirable for both assembly and disassembly. You are advised to replace them with snap fits whenever possible. If these are not feasible, standardization of screw types, sizes, and head shapes is strongly recommended to facilitate
disassembly.
3. Adhesives, although they facilitate assembly, are undesirable for disassembly be-
brute force
is
when used
to
method
bonded
of these solvents
may
create environ-
mental problems.
4. Snap-fit latches are ideal for
DFA
facilitate recycling
The design
should,
how-
ever, ensure that snaps are easy to "unsnap," can withstand the anticipated service
Note
increase the complexity and cost of the mold, which must be considered in the eco-
nomic analysis
.4
ENVIRONMENTALLY CONSCIOUS
MANUFACTURING
The world
tal
is
the
environmental impact of manufacturing. The consequences of ignoring environmenconcerns are clearly evident in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union,
industrial hazardous waste has seriously affected the
grams
new awareness has led to the outgrowth of proand the administration and processing of industrial
the birth of environmentally responsible activities
in general,
hence,
and
able result of their processes, but as a measure of efficiency. In other words, the
more
is
it
is
the
in
manufacturing. The
to
473
2.
Understand the side effects of processes and equipment emissions, such as paint vapor and abusive molding. This is the first step in preventing pollution at its
source.
3.
Whenever
deed the case for some heat treatment operations. Manufacturing processes should be reengineered to generate less waste and/or to improve their environmental impact. Also,
life.
that
4.
Use
R&D and
a
rational analysis to
lubricants,
and cutting
Whenever
new
substance
is
used
in daily
production operations,
those used in circuit-board fabrication) have higher disposal costs than purchase
costs. 6.
Do
not allow solvents, catalysts, and reagents to cross the boundaries of the plant.
to
They have
hazardous nature.
7.
Always bear
orities for
in
mind
by the
EPA
8.
Try
and
that
packaging amounts to
40 percent of
important
now
to
become aware of
facility
and regulations so as
and/or
them
into consideration
when planning
manufacturing
when managing
duction plant. These laws and regulations differ for different countries. Only the U.S.
in this text,
474
13
country to learn about the equivalent regulations. A summary of each of the encountered federal environmental protection laws follows:
1.
commonly
is
main goal
is
to protect
(NAAQS)
Avoidance of significant
risks
from hazardous
a long
air pollutants
list
The amendments of
equipment and
to
the
CAA contain
of regulatory requirements to
make changes
The
CAA
It lists
189
chemicals,
many used
strict control.
The
list in-
chromium but
also
many
organic chemical
compounds.
2.
is
aimed
at regulating the
It
specifies the
amount of pollutants
may
It
oil in
quan-
determined to be harmful.
Liability
3.
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and (CERCLA), which is often referred to as the Superfund, provides
hazardous substances
the
in
Act
sufficient re-
sources, through the creation of an $8.5 billion fund, to facilitate the cleanup of
sites. Under CERCLA, owner or operator of such a site to clean it up. The EPA the go ahead and clean up the site and then compel the owner, operator, or
can also
requires the
EPA to
regulate
the generation, transportation, storage, discharge, and final disposal of solid and
5.
is
commercial
TSCA
is
famous
It
PCBs,
the
it
also
empowers
EPA
posure, to regulate existing chemical risks, and to identify and prevent future
risks.
475
6.
7.
the
CWA,
and by-products on human and animal health rather than on environmental concerns. The SDWA covers two areas: public water systems and underground sources of drinking water. The
to prevent
EPA
is
underground injection
that
Review Questions
)
What
11. Explain the term design for disassembly and
1.
and what
the magnitude of
How
these problems?
3.
tion of materials,
What
are
the
requirements
for
the
overall
at
13. List
some
guidelines to be observed
when
its
se-
Discuss each
briefly,
showing
impact
plastics
waste
5.
on
when
What
are employed).
are the
way does
and
joining the
feasibility
environment.
6.
Explain
the
following
terms,
showing
the
difference
recovery.
7.
between
them:
reuse,
recycling,
dif-
What
are
the
main methods
for solid-waste
briefly
16. List
and
What
some guidelines to be observed when plannew manufacturing facility and/or when managing the daily operation of a production plant so as to make these activities environning a
mentally friendly. Discuss each
briefly.
a particular solid-waste
management method?
17. List
9. Explain, in detail, the different stages involved
in recycling
some of
and
and
regulations
for environmental
protection
how
tions of each.
at its
Show how
slight
changes
in the
product design
Chapter 14
mputer-Alded
Manufacturing
__
^7
INTRODUCTION
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) has been defined by Computer-Aided
Manufacturing International (CAM-I) as "the effective
technology
cility
in
utilization
of
computer
fa-
through either direct or indirect computer interface with the physical and
of the
human resources
flexible
in
company." Although
this definition of
CAM
is
broad and
is still
and covers a
dominant application of
CAM
many people
sub-
CAM
NC
CAM may
CAM
is
has
its
roots
in
NC systems. Consequently,
well
a logical step
studying
CAM
to
discuss
NC systems as
NC
part pro-
NC and
.4.1
NC
systems,
how
how
Definition.
ma-
chine tools (or other sheet working and welding machines) by a series of coded instructions
program,
(numbers and
letters). It is
obvious from
sequence of events
is
476
477
both preplanned and predictable. In other words, any desired sequence of events can
be obtained by coding the appropriate instructions and can also be changed by changing those coded instructions. Therefore,
NC
The
veloped a method
to control textile
When
he applied
was denied
that right
it
fact, this
which
is
operated by a
roll
A
the
modern version of
to
NC
emerged
in
1947
at the
Parsons Engineering
Company
of Traverse City, Michigan, as a result of the need of John C. Parsons (the owner of
company)
fast
was awarded
a study contract
Command
its
to
The job was later MIT, and the machine they developed was successfully demonstrated in 1952. Between the years of 1953 and 1960, the rate of building and selling NC machines in the United States was very slow. This type of machine tool later
the subcontractor being the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
given in
entirety to
di-
mensions and
tighter tolerances.
To understand
assume
We
start
we
then crank the two handwheels of the two perpendicular slides to lo-
where the
if
left
press to
move by
0.10 inch,
obvious that
we need we
to
move
the table to
50
by
automate
servomotors that are operated by push buttons. Let us say for convenience
quick push of a button
(like a dot in the
that a single
at-
we need
to
that of the
order to position the center of the spindle exactly above the desired location of the
hole. After doing so,
tain a part that
we
will
be
in a position to
perform the
and ob-
conforms precisely
to the blueprint.
example shows
that the
machine
is
ues (a number of pulses or button pushes for each direction) and responds by converting these values to meaningful physical quantities. This
is.
in fact,
what
is
meant by
how
We
478
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
NC
system
is
Advantages
of numerical controls.
The advantages of
NC
machine
many
Following are some advantages that can be used as justification for employing
chine tools:
1.
NC
ma-
NC
the
machine tools ensure positioning accuracy and repeatability. In other words, if same program is employed to produce a number of parts, they will have identi-
cal dimensions.
2.
NC
machine tools can produce complex-shaped components automatically with which provides the designer
Because
to
NC
machine
tools
can be manufactured that require a long series of operations. Such parts are
com-
being programmed,
NC
machine
tools can
human
they can be employed to carry out operations in hostile environments, such as the
that
NC
tion part
systems transfer a substantial portion of the planning for the processing opera-
where
specialists prepare
is
NC
NC
machine tools have the capability of performing more than one machining operation by automatically changing the tool used without changing the location of
the workpiece. In other words, a sequence of
transfers of a workpiece beformed in a single setup, which reduces the tween different machine tools or machining departments. This capability is considered to be one of the major advantages of NC machine tools because the non-
number of
productive time used in setups and workpiece transfer amounts to a high percent-
age of the
is
total
it
worth mentioning
life
duction
7.
As
idle
time
NC
machine
tools
repeatability of
NC
479
9.
NC
systems reduce part scrapping due to machining errors and lower the inspection
result of the uniformity
and
reliability
duced by
this technology.
Elements of an NC System
This section will focus on the elements of a tape-operated
NC
many
of these systems exist in the United States now, an understanding of this basic
NC
NC
sys-
NC
system that
shown
in
Figure 14.1.
Two
sys-
one have
to
be used
when
the
is
controlled along
two
directions.
Following
NC
system.
Tape reader.
As previously mentioned,
coded instructions
(i.e.,
is
converted
into a series of
The program
is
then recorded
is
tape).
There
and
optical);
each has
method of operation.
tions
Machine control unit. The machine control unit (MCU) receives the coded instrucfrom the tape reader, decodes them by converting them into signals representing
the preplanned
ate the
it
Servomechanism.
ceived from the
The function of
the
servomechanism
to
re-
MCU
and
to provide
power
to
chine table) movements. These signals generally take the form of pulses, whereas
FIGURE 14.1
A sketch
system
of the basic
Machine
Electric or hydraulic
table
Electric
elements of an NC
feedback
unit
3=3Lead screw
(table-feed screw)
Circulating
ball
nut
Feedback-signal circuit
Command-signal
circuit
Machine control
unit
(MCU)
480
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
the
servomotor
a
is
often a dc electric
motor
machine
table)
through
Controlled element.
merically controlled.
A
It
controlled element
is
tool) that
is
nu-
can be a
NC
lathe, or the
machine
table for
an
NC
drill press.
The function of the feedback unit is to record the achieved movement machine bed) and then send a feedback signal to the MCU. The MCU compares the achieved position with the required or programmed one and automatical 1\ compensates for any discrepancy. Systems with feedback units are usually reFeedback
unit.
o\ the tool (or
Modes
As with any engineering
sian system,
the
application,
nate system (sometimes on the polar coordinate system as well). According to the Carte-
Kaxis
(i.e.,
its distances from the X axis and X and the Y coordinates, respectively). Also, the point of intersection
is
The coordinates of
point can be both positive, both negative, or one negative and the other positive, de-
pending upon the location of that point. The two perpendicular intersecting axes divide
the plane into four quadrants,
as
shown
all
in Fig-
all
is
the other
way
when
Y axis,
its
to the left
of that axis,
its
when
the point
it is
negative
FIGURE 14.2
The coordinate system and quadrant notation
481
by
axis,
which
is
more
We
two
are
now
types: absolute
and incremental.
all
machine zero
When
is
the incremental
mode
is
used, reference
made
which
cation to be the zero point for the next location. In other words, incremental pro-
new
one, together
with an associated sign indicating the direction. The following example will clarify
in Figure 14.3,
the centerline of the tool (e.g., a drill) coincides with the zero point, and
move
it
first
to point
A, then to points
in
we B and
are re-
C, and
in-
back
to the origin.
cremental modes:
Absolute Programming
482
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
positioning work.
NC
programs
modes
made of
NC Machine Motions
The Electronic
types of
Industries Association (EIA) lists in
its
RS-267A
NC machine motions or axes designations, whereas RS-267 indicates some 25 different NC machines. The single-spindle drilling machine is the simplest of all. It is can be program-controlled on two generally a two-axis NC machine tool because axes: the X and Y axes. The Z motion of the spindle (raising and lowering) is controlled manually or by using a system of cams. In some NC machines, a tape command calls a preset depth, but this cannot be considered as an axis of motion. A true axis of moit
tion
is
infinite
number of
machine bed)
can be obtained.
An
axis of motion
Y,
may
EIA
standards, the X,
b,
and
Z axes
the a,
and
axes, respectively, as
shown
As can be seen
Figure
hand
forms the center of rotation of the rotary motion under investigation) with the
important to remember that the X,
It
other fingers curved to indicate the positive direction of the rotary motion.
It is
Y,
and
terchangeable.
the
EIA and
NC
machine
tool.
Z axis
is
Consequently, the
tool. In
Z axis
the case of an
NC
lathe, the
axis
is
horizontal, whereas
it
is
The function of the spindle differs, depending upon The spindle is employed for rotating the tool on milling and machine, whereas it is the workpiece-rotating means on engine lathes and simmachine
tool.
Y,
machines.
In addition to the primary linear axes X,
and
Z,
are used that are parallel to the primary axes and are designated U,
tively.
and VK respec-
NC
systems that have both primary and secondary linear axes provide more
flexibility
when
program
it is
is
to consist of
to
common
V,
coordinates to absolute
and
common
to
have the controlled element be the machine table (or, in other tool. The controlled element then responds
considered to be negative. This
in fact,
command
in
it
is
the relative
movement of
even
workpiece that
is
actually considered.
three, four, or
five axes. In this respect, the
is
NC
axis
word
means any
truly
and
fully controlled
by the
NC
As
483
FIGURE 14.4
The right-hand
rule for
coordinate axes
+X'
(a)
+X,
Y, or
Z-*
*~X
(b)
(0
does not
fall
NC
is
a brief sur-
NC
Z)
machine.
In two-axis
NC machines.
NC
show an
NC
turret lathe
and an
NC
drill
by tape commands. Figures 14.5 and 14.6 press, respectively, that belong to this type of
of
machine. Notice
is
going away
from the workpiece and the positive direction of Z is going away from the headstock. It is also important to note the difference between the positive direction of the axes and
the
machine
table
movements
in
Figure 14.6.
Three-axis
NC machines.
Vertical
knee
mills, drilling
amples of three-axis
along the
NC
machines. In
this
controlled
484
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
FIGURE 14.5
A numerically controlled
turret lathe
FIGURE 14.6
A numerically controlled
drill
press
Manually controlled
(or preset)
cams
485
Four-axis
Y,
NC machines.
the
In four-axis
NC
machines,
in addition to
and
Z axes,
when
machine
table is rotated
by
command
at a controlled rate
NC
number of indexed
Five-axis
NC machines.
Five-axis
NC
surfaces because the machine head can swivel at a controlled rate (in addition to the
previously mentioned four axes of motion). The tool can, therefore, be brought per-
An example
head.
is
the five-axis
tilting
Types of NC Systems
There are three basic types of control systems for
straight-cut,
NC
machine
tools: point-to-point,
and contouring.
The point-to-point system is also referred to as numerical posi(NPC) and is usually used in NC drilling machines that are employed in drilling precise patterns of holes. The function of the NC system is, therefore, to move the spindle (or machine table) to the exact location, as given by a tape command, so that a hole can be drilled. As soon as the desired hole is drilled, the NPC system moves the spindle to the next programmed location to drill another hole, and so on. The spindle (or machine table) movement from one hole location to the next must be done as fast as possible to bring to a minimum the nonproductive time spent in movement. Accordingly, speeds of more than 100 inches per minute (2500 mm/min.) are quite common. Provided that our main concern is positioning the spindle on each of the desired locations, it is of no importance to control the path along which the spindle moves
Point-to-point system.
tioning control
it
amount of
time.
It
explained
later.
Straight-cut system.
The
straight-cut
system
is
tem, except that the feed rate of the spindle along each machine axis
to
controlled so as
(e.g.,
it
moves along
is
X and Y axes
of the
controlled by a separate
NC circuit
to the right,
is
sometimes referred
to as a picture-frame
The sequence of motions may not necessarily yield a rectangular path. Figsome tool paths that can be produced by this NC system and that are employed in machining rectangular configurations, in face milling, and in pocketing.
system.
ure 14.7 indicates
NC
machines
fitted
They
are, therefore,
more
versatile than
NPC
is
486
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
FIGURE 14.7
Some
cut
tool
paths
straight-
produced by a
NC system
487
made
It
as
many
is
is
MCU
the
and the tape always be compatible. In other words, they both must be based on the same coding format. Although punched tapes are not as commonly used as they used to be, a discussion of the coding and format of a punched tape will, nevertheless, provide an adequate and clear picture of how instruc-
NC
machines.
The punched tape used for NC systems is standardized by the EIA to have a width of .000 0.003 inch (25.4 0.076 mm) and a thickness of 0.004 0.0003 inch (0.1 0.008 mm). The tape can be made of paper, a paper-mylar sandwich, or an aluminum-mylar laminate. Paper tapes are cheap and easy to damage, so their use is limited to short runs. For high production and frequent use, aluminum-mylar tapes are more suitable because of their durability, but they are more expensive. NC tapes are
1
purchased
in the
form of
inches (200
mm)
in diameter,
each having a
main channels, tape length of up to 2000 feet (600 m). The tape is There is also a track or tracks (i.e., parallel to the edges), where holes can be punched. of smaller holes to the right of the third main track. These smaller holes fit the tapedivided into eight
feeding sprocket in order to ensure positive drive of the tape. Letters of the English aleach have a specific to 9, and symbolic signals to the phabet, digits from
MCU
in a line,
NC
MCU
is
numbers; a
some
A number
form a data
The block
is
NC
First, the
commonly
is
called the
involves a
list
of detailed
in-
NC
system.
The information
it
that
done by typing on a flexowriter or similar tapepunching piece of equipment. The result is not only the punched tape but also a printout of the program sheet that can be used to check for errors and make corrections.
stand for the required codes. This
Tape codes.
NC
(BCD)
system, which
is
a further development of the binary coding system. This system is based on considering the presence of a hole as on and its absence as off; each is called a bit. The presence of a hole in the first track means 2 (i.e., two to the power zero), or 1, whereas its
and fourth tracks mean the number 2 raised to the powers 1, 2, and 3, respectively. In other words, the presence of a hole in the second track is equivalent to 2, the presence of a hole in the third track means 4, and the presabsence means
0.
The second,
third,
ence of a hole
means
8.
(i.e..
number from
first
to 9)
can be represented
one row of
tour
Some examples
digit 3
first
second
The
digit 7 is a
combination of holes
in the first,
488
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
In fact,
each numerical
digit, letter,
its
own
its
designated combi-
When
4732.
it
electronic circuit,
ceeding
digits. In this
is
determined by
its
relative
Tape coding has to be standardized in order to facilitate interchangeability of tapes and communications between industrial firms. Two tape codes are commonly used: the EIA code and the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) sponsored by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Figure 14.9 indicates both
EIA code uses only six tracks of the eight odd (uneven) number of holes in any row. The fifth track contains a hole whenever the number of holes representing a character is even. This method of detecting errors in a punched tape is called a parity check. An EIA-coded tape must have odd parity as an indication that no punching mistakes have
standard tape codes.
As can be
seen, the
is
represented
Each block of information must be separated from the following one by a special character called the end of block (EOB). It is represented by a hole in the eighth track of the tape. The EIA code provides 63 different combinations of holes, which is both logical and sufficient for NC applications. The ASCII code was introduced to more appropriately meet the needs of computer
by a set of rows on the tape
(i.e.,
a data block).
It
(i.e.,
EIA
code.
Tape formats.
now, and
refers to the
way NC words are arranged in a data some common use, two of them are rarely used
only the third one, the word-address format, that has gained widespread
application in industry.
In the first type of format, called fixed-block format, words are arranged in the same sequence in all blocks throughout the program. In addition, not only blocks but also words within each block must have the same length (i.e., number of rows). If a word remains unchanged (e.g., in a motion parallel to the Y axis, the X coordinate re-
to another,
it
it
must be repeated
in the
second block.
rarely used
now because
complicated programming.
In
TAB
same
and
five
TAB
is
represented in the
EIA code by
is
holes in tracks 2 through 6. Although the order of words within the block
always the
is
due
word
reis
mains unchanged, as
in the
preceding block,
it
more
In
is
currently the
or
to
move
is
As an example, the value of the X coordinate of a point to preceded by the word code X. Similarly, the values of the Y
489
FIGURE 14.9
ASCII and EIA standard tape codes
Ok>+OJ-OrO
<>fo-k>k>f-o-f-
tO
Oi
kx
(period)
(comma)
/
K*
n
!
OfOf
K)+-
+ (plus) - (minus)
space
ret.
back space
tab
end of record
and
It is,
word
the
same
programming and checking even though neither the length of a block nor the order of words must be fixed. It is also important to remember that each data block must be followed by an EOB. Following are the word codes used in the word-address format:
490
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
1.
Word code N
number and
is It is
is
means of
identifying each
word code
the program.
common
to
number
the
blocks by tens
(e.g.,
NO 10.
can
Word code
digits.
is
mode
commands
list
the
MCU,
of the
commonly used
is
TABLE 14.1
Preparatory function
Code
Function
Rapid traverse, or straight-line travel at speed of about
codes according
Standards
to EIA
GOO G01
G02
minute (5 m/min.)
grammed
point
G03 G04
is
grammed
value
G33
Threading
Inch data input
(first
G70
G71
preparatory code
in
(first
preparatory code
G80
G81
moving down rapidly to a point above workpiece surface, spindle fed downward at preset feed rate, and rapid retraction of spindle upward)
Drill
slightly
G82
G83
Drill
Pecking cycle
G84
G85
drill
its
rotation
and
Boring cycle (similar to tapping cycle except spindle does not reverse
tion)
rota-
G90
G91 G92
Absolute programming
Incremental programming
Preset absolute register
G94 G95
G96
rpm programming
491
followed by two
3.
Word code
It is
is
digits.
sometimes referred
off
and the
in
like.
list
of the
commonly used
4.
5.
given
Table 14.2.
Word code
X Y
is
X coordinate
dimension.
Word code
is
Y coordinate dimension.
6.
Word code Z
is
for the
Z coordinate
dimension.
NC
by computer) preparing step-by-step detailed instructions on a program sheet. This task requires that he or she be familiar with the NC machine on which the part is
sisted
to
be processed. The programmer should know, for example, the location of the setup
point with respect to the machine zero point. Let us define these terms before
cuss manual part programming.
we
dis-
Zero point.
is
the point
Y,
where all coordinate axes meet. Therefore, at and Z values is equal to zero. Also, as is the
case in analytical geometry, the coordinate dimensions of any point are measured from
that origin or zero point.
TABLE 14.2
Miscellaneous function
492
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
machine
table)
On
some machine
case,
it is
necessary to
let
the
MCU
know where
first
(i.e.,
cremental).
It is
home
lected
program
point.
zero.
Setup
is
NC machine with a fixed zero programmer must know where the workpiece is
and thus be able
to write the
point.
to
It
be
lo-
cated on the machine table with reference to the zero point so that he or she can refer
all
dimensions
program. There
is,
there-
fore, a
known
is
can
in the
also obvious that the setup point can be a defined point on the fixture
how
if
known.
it is not enough for the program to be caThe goal of the programmer should also be to reduce the time spent by the workpiece on the table of the NC machine. The task of eliminating wasteful and unnecessary movements of the tools as well as reducing the setup time is not easy; it requires a lot of experience and skill. Here are some guidelines that the beginning programmer should follow:
Program preparation.
In
NC
programming,
1.
in a
way
FIGURE 14.10
Using coordinates of
the setup point to
obtain absolute
axis "
coordinates of any
point on the workpiece
~4
Setup
'II
Absolute
zero
'
point
Xs
^absolute ~ absolute
absolute
X Xv
+
axis
493
2.
Study the part blueprint and prepare process sheets indicating the details and
seset-
to
number of
tools to be used
Determine the most suitable fixturing method by studying the part configuration and correlate basic dimensions between the blueprint and the machine layout.
Prepare a tool layout, including the sizes and lengths of
all
4.
tools to be used, in
Prepare the program sheet using the information gained in the preceding four
planning steps.
6.
Have
The
printout of the
program
is
for
not
valid for
7.
modern
CNC
machine
tools.)
mode
to ensure
Run
them
make
sure that
range.
9. Correct the tape.
10. Prepare a folder containing the blueprint of the part, the fixture design, the pro-
gram
sheet,
and a copy of an actual punched tape (or a magnetic tape) for the part
down
the
NC
machine
tool that
can be used.
Program Example
simple example that involves a drilling job will demonstrate the basic method of
part
manual
programming.
to
shown
in
Figure 14.11.
FIGURE 14.11
A workpiece to be
drilled with
'
an NC
drill
<&~&
4>
4.75
in.
program
prepared
is
to
be
2.25
in.
4.25
in.
4.25
in.
6.25
in.
494
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
In ih
is
tion
would require
example, the holes must be drilled only. Any further reaming or boring operaa tool-change command given by the preparatory function code for
reaming or boring and the coordinate dimensions of the same points. Assuming that the feeds and speeds are manually set (that was the case with the early NC machines),
the
E0R%
(EOB)
In this
1. 2.
EOB
only punched
on the
3.
tape.
(i.e.,
remain
in effect until
canceled by a
new
4.
M5
No
is
that
drilling
5.
decimal point
movements of
the
machine
table.
CONTROL (CNC)
In
1
970, a
ical control
new era for NC systems began with the emergence of computerized numer(CNC) technology, which involves replacing the hard-wired MCU of a
conventional
plishes
all
NC
system by a microcomputer
that,
together with
its
software,
accom-
MCU.
control, buffering,
that are possible
CNC
is
ness of the
MCU.
Features of a
Ability to store
CNC System
There
is
programs.
no need
Once
later,
a tape as
is
run,
it
memory
of the computer.
It
can be recalled
many
memory and
A tape
reader fitted on a
CNC
maintenance
faster in ob-
NC
much
from
memory) than
use of
CNC
systems results
in
495
It is very seldom that a satisfactory part program is obtained on the first atEven experienced programmers need to make corrections, modifications, and improvements after running a program. The editing feature of CNC systems enables the programmer to make changes right on the factory floor. Also, all changes made go
Editing.
tempt.
directly to
computer memory without any reference to or use of the original punched needed in addition to a means of editing the
CNC lathe that has these features. The pro(CRT) that is similar to but smaller than that of a computer. The manual data input (MDI) device provides a means of entering programs into computer memory without any need for a tape reader.
gram
is
Ability to
program
After all necessary changes and improvements in the part made, a corrected punched (or magnetic) tape can easily be obtained by using an appropriate device that is plugged into the machine controller.
are
produce tapes.
Expanded
tool
offsets.
In
CNC
(i.e.,
deviations in the
lengths of the different tools from a reference value) are stored in the
memory
of the
is
NC
systems.
Expanded control of machine-sequence operations. CNC software usually handles machine operations for tool changes or control of the spindle or turret, thus making programming and operation of the machine much easier.
FIGURE 14.12
A modern
CNC
496
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Digitizing.
Digitizing
to
is
part
program
employing a
part. This is achieved by model while the CNC system monitors the movements and indicating the coordinate dimensions of points on the surface of the
model. Again, a punched (or magnetic) tape can be obtained if needed. This feature eliminates the time-consuming and cumbersome operation of manual program preparation.
Circular interpolation.
CNC
segments, calculate the coordinates of the endpoint of each segment, and establish a sub-
program
This
is
G02
or
G03
as appropriate, together with the coordinates of the endpoint of the arc (say,
its
X and
that
X and Y
and
J,
respectively. Following
a block of information
arc:
CNC
machine an
be machined
easily accomplished
program
variables. Parametric
programming can
employed
to
obtain very smooth curves, provided that their mathematical equations are known.
Do
loops.
is
A do
to
loop
is
it
involves an oper-
ation that
steps.
An example
of roughing
is
when
axis
The shape
is
G68
block, to-
Subroutines.
tern
on
different locations
of holes (bolt-hole circles), series of standard grooves on a shaft, and canned cycles
that are created
by the
user.
Diagnostic capability.
the
when
it is
CNC
a major advantage of
CNC
systems;
due mainly
computer systems
in general. In
most
tape
cases, error
may
CNC
may be connected
through
Program Example
simple example that involves a machining job will demonstrate some of the capaof
bilities
Clausing
sary for a
CNC technology. The part shown in Figure 14.13 CNC lathe Hydro NC 540, fitted with GE 1050HL
program
to
is
to
be machined on a
control,
and
it is
neces-
be prepared.
497
FIGURE 14.13
498
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
N040:
The G96 code is followed by an R word that always has the same value the X word. The S word in this block applies to the required surface speed. The M03 code moves the spindle forward.
This block positions the tool for the
the coolant on.
first
as
N050:
operation.
The
M08
code turns
N060:
is
movement. The negative sign toward the chuck. The F stands for the feed
per revolution.
mo-
word;
in this case,
in inches
N070:
N080:
The G81 code indicates a canned cycle the Z axis. The X and Z words indicate
tion,
in
which the
whereas the parameter PI indicates the incremental depth of cut and P2 indicates the value of Z at the root.
N090:
This block positions the tool for the third operation. This block involves another canned cycle to carry out the third turning operation. Notice
N100:
how
the
is
in the
Nl 10:
N120:
The job
to the
is now finished. This block is employed home position and to turn the coolant off.
It is
now
CNC,
It
(DNC)
is
a hybrid of both
NC
and
stor-
computer technologies.
program data
directly
lines. Fig-
system functions by employing an additional hardware between the mainframe computer and the machine tool controller. This piece of hardware is referred to as a behind-the-tape-reader (BTR). It is actually an additional source of data that does not depend on or make any use of the
shows how a
DNC
module
as a connection
tape reader in
its
functioning.
The
tape reader
is
when the DNC system breaks down. The main elements of a DNC system
chine tools. The operation of a
DNC
system
is
NC
NC
machine
tool
DNC
configuration forms
backbone of today's
flexible
manufacturing systems.
499
FIGURE 14.14
Structure and operation
of a
NC
in
programs
bulk storage
DNC system
of information
Information
NC
tape reader
transmission
line
Machine
control unit of
NC machine
NC
machine
tool
when
DNC
is
employed. This
is
due
to the
monitoring
abilities
problems of the tape reader and the cost of tapes, DNC offers a step-by-step approach for establishing an integrated system that starts with a few NC machine tools and expands as required.
PROGRAMMING
There are generally two methods of regenerating an NC part program: by manual programming or with computer assistance. In manual part programming, the programmer prepares a set of detailed instructions by which the desired sequence of operations is performed.
He
all
directly in a
arranged
in a
MCU
of the
NC
machine language
can be
di-
NC
and only a few different types of NC machines are employed, the task of manual part programming becomes time-consuming and cumbersome. When programs are to be prepared for complex parts requiring contouring or having complirelatively simple
it is
almost impossible, or
at least impractical, to
do
all
the re-
made of that
magic data-processing tool, the computer. Computer-aided part programming becomes a necessity when programming three-, four-, or five-axis NC machines that are used for
500
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
is
required. Also,
its
NC
gramming codes and format, computer-aided part programming is the right solution. As can be expected from this discussion, computer-aided part programming much easier and faster than manual part programming. All a programmer has to do
define the desired operations using the Englishlike
words of the
NC
computer
lan-
guage that he or she is using. Once the part program is loaded into the computer, the computer takes care of all calculations and converts the input statements into a machine language compatible with the particular NC machine to be used. Typing errors
can be corrected by means of the editing routines before a program
is
compiled. Pro-
gramming
error
when compiling
may
still
contain
some undetected
ferent
NC
the
computer
in
system are always used to obtain a plot of the part geometry and the tool path
to verify that the
order
program
will indeed
part.
One of
most im-
programming
is
program
verification bein
cause
the
it
results in
at the
debugging
program
machine
tool.
of simplicity, reducing the time needed for programming, and accuracy due to the
elimination of any cumulative errors in calculations.
Internal
Computer Operation
into
is,
NC
two
general
the post-
in turn,
composed of
now
see what
is
As mentioned,
to
a part
used
gram involves
guage such as
(written in a general-purpose
APT
into an equivalent
programming lancomputer
necessary be-
to as compilation, is
own machine
is
program
is
all
geometry
(ALU) of
cessing unit
The output of these calculations adequately defines the tool path or cutter location (CL). The tool path indicates the center of the cutting tool and not the boundaries of the workpiece. Therefore, some of the calculations are concerned with offsetting the tool path from the desired part outline by a disthe computer.
(CPU) of
NC
machine
tools
systems use different control-tape codings and formats. Also, NC have different characteristics, depending upon the builder. Therefore,
501
form of
the output
is
in the
CL
data)
must be reprocessed
so that the precise output codes and format required for the given
NC
is
carried out
by a subprogram called the postprocessor. The output from the postprocessor is a tape image that can be converted to a punched (or magnetic) tape that can be employed to
operate the given machine tool.
The postprocessor
and
try,
is
output from the processor) to operate only a particular combination of machine tool
NC
controller.
the postprocessor
Because there are a large number of such combinations in indusis divided into two distinct parts in order to facilitate the task
and
controller.
The control-system part of the postprocessor is developed mainly to in a way to be received and understood by the NC controller.
the postprocessor
is in
(e.g.,
is machinedepends upon the features of the individual machine tool and changes from machine to machine). In order to better understand the relationship be-
and the
dependent
let
us consider the
identical types
Figure 14.15.
As can be seen
in the figure,
two
of controllers operating two different machines require two similar but not identical
postprocessors. Also, two different
quire two different postprocessors.
NC
We
controllers running
two
identical
machines
re-
have
to
remember, however,
in
each case will always be exactly the same as the coded man-
program prepared
machine
tool.
FIGURE 14.15
A computer-aided
programming system
involving various
Postprocessor
-(Three different postprocessers-
combinations of
postprocessors and
controllers
Part
program(source)
502
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
NC Programming Languages
Since the emergence of computer-aided part programming in the 1970s, numerous NC programming languages have been developed. Most of them have found limited use, and only a few are commonly used in industry. Therefore, the survey of NC programming languages is limited to the more or less general-purpose languages.
APT.
APT
Programmed
Tools.
originally developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), is the most widely used and most comprehensive language available. An APT part program is
written in Englishlike
geometry, the desired operations, and the machine (and tool) characteristics. Each
statement consists of a major
word followed by
a slash and
APT
language.
APT, although capable of producing sculptured surfaces, requires a large mainframe, which has limited the use of the language in the past. APT is the parent of two other NC programming languages that eliminate the need for a large computer. Recently, a simplified PC version of APT that is capable of driving a two-axis NC machine has be-
come commercially
ADAPT.
available.
for Air Material
ADAPT stands
is
APT
much
smaller computer.
it
ADAPT
mainly
is
limited
UNIAPT.
UNIAPT
is
APT
language. Al-
though
it
can be used for programming three-axis and most of the four- and five-axis
NC
machines,
UNIAPT was
specifically
developed
to
be run on minicomputers.
SPLIT.
lated.
SPLIT is the acronym for Sundstrand Processing Language Internally TransSPLIT was developed to be used with Sundstrand machine tools. Therefore, its processor was dedicated and machine-dependent, and there was no need for a separate postprocessor. Accordingly, SPLIT could not be used with any type of machine tool
other than Sundstrand, which had markedly limited
its
industrial use.
It is
ACTION.
ACTION
is
COMPACT
II.
COMPACT
II
is
a child of
ACTION
It
COM-
PACT
II
language has the advantages of being simple and easy to learn, and
it
satisfies
programming requirements. In addition to availability on a timesharing basis from M.D.S.I./APPLICON in Ann Arbor, Michigan, there is now a version that can run on a VAX 785/11, as well as another new version that has been specially developed to run on a microcomputer. Many of the microcomputer CAM systems now available are similar
their
to
COMPACT
detail.
II.
way
into manufacturing
us
is
now
study
the
COMPACT II
language in more
published
503
Ann
greatly appreciated.
Details of the
COMPACT
II
Language
series of statements,
A COMPACT
followed by a
II
program consists of a
performed by the system, whereas minor words provide details about the location and manner in which that operation is to be accomplished. Minor words are also used to
indicate tool description and to define cutting speeds, feeds,
and the
like.
Guidelines.
In a
COMPACT
II
some guidelines
The
initialization statements
must come
the program.
If the
BASE
NC)
is
to
be used as a
ref-
to its use.
in defining the
and
circles
must
first
part geometry.
4.
A tool-change
is
used.
5.
END
must be the
last
Syntax.
tax that
1. 2.
Like any computer language, the COMPACT II language has a certain synmust be followed. Here are the rules for punctuation and arithmetic operations:
is
The comma
The
used
slash operator
is
geometric element.
3. Parentheses are
employed
to
combine a
set
unit.
They
the
programmer
to
in
word
5.
The percent
the input
sign (%)
is is
is
mode
for dimension. If
mode
is in
millimeters.
6.
The
dollar sign
used
in pairs to
enclose
comments
that
may
be continued up to
three lines.
Structure.
The
structure of a
COMPACT
II
program involves
in the first
five different
groups
of instructions, each group consisting of one or more statements. The five groups of
instructions serve different purposes.
The statements
al-
ways given
at the
groups are used for defining the geometry of the workpiece, giving tool-change
504
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
initiating and defining tool motion, and terminating the program. A toolchange statement can be given as many times as required, depending upon the number of tools needed. In addition, each time a tool-change statement is given, it must
commands,
be followed by the corresponding tool-motion statements. Following of each of these kinds of statements:
1. Initialization
is
a discussion
state-
ments:
a.
The
MACHIN
It
is
always the
first
statement of a
COMPACT
II
pro-
gram.
name of the machine tool and consists of the major word MACHIN, followed by the name of the machine-tool link for example,
provides the
MACHIN,
b.
MILL
The IDENT statement is the second statement in the program. It is used for identifying the program (or the machine-control tape) and consists of the major word IDENT, followed by the part name or number or any alphanumeric combination
for example,
IDENT,
c.
TEST
PROGRAM
is
used mainly
to specify the
home
position of the
gauge-length reference point (GLRP), relative to the absolute zero of the machine tool, at both the beginning and the end of the program. The
tually the point
GLRP is
a
ac-
tool
(e.g., for
statement
is
machine
tool, this
SETUP,
where 3
4.5
is
3LX.
4.5LY,
10LZ
is
the dimension
is
the dimension
from the absolute zero along the from the absolute zero along the Y axis
axis to the
to the
the dimension
(3, 4.5,
numbers
from the absolute zero along the Z axis to the and 10) are arbitrary and differ from program
in
program.
mind
that the
home
position
is,
at the
same
time,
when using
a lathe,
home
is
position of the turret should be selected such that the longest tool
clear of the
maximum
LIMIT
SETUP
statement
machine
tool
by specifying the
parameter, as follows:
SETUP,
For a
10X,
20Z.
LIMIT
XO/15 ZO/30)
,
lathe, the
SETUP
SETUP,
where 5.75
similar to
is
5.75X,
7.5Z
from the spindle centerline
to the
the dimension
GRLP and
7.5
is
SETUP X
Z axis.
505
d.
The
the
BASE
statement
is
aim of facilitating programming task. Here, BASE is a datum point located on the part blueprint and from which the part blueprint has been dimensioned (similar to the
from but
parallel to the original coordinate system, with the
It is
always advantageous
it
to reference the
BASE
points.
Following
is
BASE
statement where
means absolute
(as
opposed
to
XB,
BASE,
2.
3XA,
4YA,
2ZA
precisely defined by defin-
Geometry
ing
a.
its
definition.
geometric elements
is
and planes):
(define point).
point
DPT
Any
is
how
As
the case
BASE)
or by specifying
lines, a line
is
two
and
a circle,
or two
two
cases, a selector
required because
two
defining a point in
this chapter.
COMPACT
points:
6ZB 5ZB XL
the selector,
XL
is
meaning
axis
is
line is defined
DLN
(define line).
Any
associated
line
making
two defined
one of
PT1. PT1.
30CW
PT2
4XB
for defining lines in
COMPACT
DCIR
II
circle is defined
the case
when
methods used
its
are adopted
be defined by
from analytical geometry. A circle can by three points through which it passes,
circle, or
by being tangential
to
two
506
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
in defining
1.5R
LN3, PT2,
2.5R
PT3
CIR3/5R
for defining circles in
COMPACT II
appendix.
A plane is defined by using the major word DPLN (define plane), followed by any associated minor words. One of the methods for defining a plane involves specifying three points through which that plane passes. A plane can also be defined as perpendicular to an axis by programming its axis intercepts. Following are
in defining planes:
DPLN1, DPLN2.
PT2,
PT3
10ZA
is
started
major words
ATCHG
or
MTCHG,
fying the tool configuration, feed rate, spindle speed, and so on.
The
ATCHG
to
(au-
tomatic tool-change)
spindle
is
to
stop
and move
the
re-
returned to
placed by the
new
tool
whose number
is
The
MTCHG
to stop the
machine function so
is
a typical tool-
in milling applications:
ATCHG,
T00L4,
GL6,
.5TD.
300RPM.
.01IPR
in this statement
TOOL4
is
command
that tool
it
in the spindle.
b.
GL6 means
the
(i.e.,
beyond
GLRP)
of 6 inches.
that tool
c.
.5TD means
d.
300RPM
it is
indicates the
rpm of
is
mounted. Sometimes,
(e.g.,
80FPM).
In this
case, the
system automatically calculates the rpm using the tool diameter and
in inches per revolution.
(e.g.,
rate in
used instead
1.5IPM).
X and
the
Z axes
(i.e.,
reference point
at
and
507
.05TLR.
ATCHG.
4.
3GLX.
6GLZ,
T00L2.
100FPM,
.015IPR
mo-
followed by minor words that specify and terminate the path of the The major and minor words used for linear motion are different from those
that generate linear
is
motion are
MOVE
and CUT.
MOVE
to a cut-
(A clearance must be
to
left
between the
final position
of the tool
avoid accidents.)
CUT generates
MOVE, OFFLN1/0.3XS, 0FFLN2/YS CUT, PARLN1. 0FFLN3/XL CUT, PARLN2, PASTLN4 CUT, PARLN8, T0LN7 CUT, PARLN11, 0NLN12
In the preceding statements,
YS), which
b.
is
and PASTLN are determined relative to must be followed by a modifier (XL, XS. YL, sometimes accompanied by a tool offset (OFFLN 1/.3XS).
TOLN
OFFLN
The
three major
words
motion are
OCON. They
indicate the location of the path of the tool center with respect to
As can be seen
on the
arc,
Figure 14.16,
CONT is
falls
while
OCON
(out-
side contour)
and
ICON
all cases, the major words are followed by minor words indicating the direction of motion and its start and finish locations. An
COMPACT
II
language
is
motion from
FIGURE 14.16
Major words for circular
motion
in
COMPACT
II
CONT
ICON
508
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
the current tool location to the start location of an arc need not be programmed and is automatically included in all circular motion statements. Following are
509
length of 4 inches.
shape:
in
COMPACT
II
MACHIN, MILL IDENT, CONTOURING JOB SETUP, 8LY, 5LX, 10LZ BASE, 2XA. 2YA. 2ZA DLN1, OXB DLN3, 2.9YB DLN2, LN1/.25XL, LN3, 60CCW DLN4, 5.9XB DLN5, OYB DCIR1, LN3/.5YS, LN4/.5XS. .5R DCIR2, LN4/.5XS, LN5/.5YL, .5R DCIR3, LN1/.5XL, LN5/.5YL, .5R ATCHG, T00L1, 4GL, 600RPM, 2IPM. .875TD MOVE, 0FFLN5/.1YS, 0FFLN1/XS, .1ZB ;-.60ZB CUT, PARLN1, 0FFLN2/XS PARLN2, 0FFLN3/YL OCON, CIR1, CW, S(TANLN3), F(TANLN4) OCON, CIR2, CW, SCTANLN4), F(TANLN5) OCON, CIR3, CW, SCTANLN5), F(TANLNl) END
;
This program
fined:
is
self-explanatory.
However,
it is
important to notice
how
circle
is
de-
DCIR1.
LN3/.5YS,
LN4/.5XS,
.5R
it.
Actu-
ally, this line is the locus of the centers of the circles tangential to LN3. The unit LN4/.5XS represents the locus of the centers of the circles tangential to LN4. The intersection is, therefore, the center of the circle tangential to both lines, which is CIR1 This concept is
.
brought to a point 0.1 inch above the surface of the workpiece and
programming
in
COMPACT
II
very useful features, including programming patterns of holes, do loops, and macro routines. Interested readers are advised to explore this advanced level in the COMPACT II Programming Manual published by
many
Graphics
Graphics
NC Systems
systems, which have been developed for machining centers and lathes,
NC
CNC
shows
NC
capabilities.
When
510
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
FIGURE 14.18
A machining center
having graphics
NC
capability (Courtesy of
MAZAK
Corporation,
Florence, Kentucky)
FIGURE 14.19
A
lathe having graphics
NC
capability (Courtesy of
MAZAK
MAZAK LLJAlsJ
511
programming these
CNC
A message
to
each po-
CRT screen.
Depending upon
programmer
menu key
shown
in
menu
NC
systems takes
program.
magazine or
FIGURE 14.20
A
controller for a
graphics
NC system
(Courtesy of
MAZAK
Corporation, Florence,
Kentucky)
512
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
4.
A tool
program zero
BASE
CRT
COMPACT
II).
6.
Check geometry of
the part
and the
tool path
(the
and
if
an error
is
observed
Advantages of graphics NC systems. Following are some advantages of the graphics NC systems as exemplified by the MAZAK systems (i.e., these advantages are experienced
1.
in but
may
MAZAK systems):
NC
data input
Graphics
NC
and
efficiency.
3.
optimum
tool
inter-
Programming and
controller.
computer
is
controlling the
ma-
chine tool. The prepared program can be checked on the graphic display of the
5.
The
CRT
screen
higher speed without the need for actually running the machine tool. This
It
eliminates the danger of collision between the tools and any obstacle.
the actual
6.
also allows
machining time
to
CRT screen.
The systems have the capability of automatic machining-accuracy compensation for the tool wear that occurs during machining and that depends upon the workpiece machining time and the number of workpieces machined. The systems
are highly reliable as a result of full adoption of the latest microelec-
7.
tronics technology.
Programming.
let
commonly used
graphics
NC
languages, the
MAZATROL
language. Only slight differences exist between the version of the language used for programming a machining center (CAM-M2) and that used for programming a lathe (CAM-T4). MAZATROL for CAM-T3 will serve as an example here. As mentioned, programming is accomplished through interactive data entry using the controller. Questions from the computer are indicated on the CRT screen in the form of a message. The answer is then provided by the programmer by pressing the
appropriate
menu key
is
A MAZATROL program can be broken up into units. The first unit, which is given the
serial
number 0,
its
ma-
513
terial, its
way
it is
mounted on
the lathe.
Process data. These data define the kind of operation to be used when machining
a portion of the product
is
(e.g.,
menu keys
program
MODE
and
MODE
is
chosen
to
be
BAR
and the
PART
to
be
OUT,
the current
external turning to be performed on this portion of the workpiece (this does not in-
Sequence data. These data define the final shape of the preceding portion of the product after machining. The shape of this portion of the workpiece (or any other shape) can be broken up into a group of geometric entities such as lines or convex or concave curves. Radii, chamfers, and relief ways can also be included. Depending upon
the kind of machining operation required, the sequence data
may be
given in a single
block or (usually)
in
as
is
FIGURE 14.21
Structure of a
PNO
MAZATROL program
514
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
Figure 14.2
the
MAZATROL program
is
always
the
number of pieces
to
machine
NC
by manual or computer-assisted part programming. now have a port that accepts an electronic tape image in However, up-to-date models
code.
EIA
CAD/CAM Systems
The
recent trend to establish a direct link, through electronic channeling, between the
is
aimed
at
When
employed to establish the geometry, dimensions, and tolerances for the desired part design, which can be displayed on the CRT screen. The geometry of the part design can be stored in the memory of the computer in the form of digital data that can, in turn, be adopted as a database for preparing an NC part program. By entering the tool data and employing an NC processor and postprocessor, a tape image for the part program can be obtained. These CAD/CAM systeractive graphics software is
tems are particularly advantageous when the shop includes different types of
NC
machine
tools.
CAM
machine
parts.
Following
is
a brief discussion of
some other
CAM.
new product
is
efficient at information
it is
new
to a
minimum. This
application of
CAM
has recently been used in computerized automated manufacturing systems (see Chap-
of
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
515
computer
is to
provide the
feed and speed that should be used to machine a given workpiece material by a given
tool material. This
is
em-
9).
of Manufacturing
quisition and
tive control.
Computer-aided monitoring involves a variety of applications, ranging from data accomputer process control to computerized numerical control and adapAdaptive control has special important applications
let
in
modern automated
result in
manufacturing systems, so
us discuss
it
here in
some
detail.
We
previously
came
to the
NC
machines
an ap-
preciable reduction in the overall production time, the actual machining time remains
virtually identical to that for conventional
fact that
machine
tools.
This
is
a consequence of the
an
search Laboratories developed an adaptive control system in the early 1960s to operate
more
efficiently.
system
is
taken as
in
machining opera-
The adaptive
machined and adjusts the feed and the cutting speed to account for that variability and to maximize the performance index. The variability can take different forms, such as hard spots, which require reduction in feeds and cutting
the condition of the workpiece being
speeds, or the presence of air gaps in the workpiece, where the feed should be doubled
or even tripled to minimize the idle time during which the tool travels across the air gap.
Figure 14.22 shows a typical adaptive control system used in industry for controlling
on
NC
machine
tools. In this
is
system monitors the spindle deflection (or the horsepower consumed) and keeps
below
trol
by controlling the
system
practical
and
is
is
referred to as
(e.g.,
measured variable
it
in-
process time, which usually accounted for less than 5 percent of the production cycle of
a part.
either
when
the actual
to a high
percentage of the
ability in the
production time or
when
there
is
were
especially in
Computer
Integrated Manufacturing
is
inter-
application in chipless manufacturing processes like sheet metal working and welding.
516
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
FIGURE 14.22
A
typical adaptive
control
system used
in
industry
Estimation of the feed rate that maintains the cutter force at the same preset value
Review Questions
1
1. 2. 3. 4.
Define
CAM.
the
10.
An NC machine
tions
What What
is is
dominant application of
CAM?
11.
be considered
as a
machine axis?
When
emerge
How
do you
identify the
axis of an
NC
maem-
modern times?
chine tool?
5.
NC
12.
What kind of
NC
machine
tools can be
machine
6.
tools.
What
are the
main elements of an
NC
system?
this
NPC. What
is
the
main application
for
kind of system?
is
briefly.
What
the difference
14.
What What
the difference
between the
NPC
and
picture-frame systems?
8. Explain the
9.
NC
machine axes.
15.
NC
system
How many
axes does an
NC
have so
machine have?
What do we
call
NC
system?
517
16.
What
is
the function of a
punched tape?
41.
Of what
guages.
is
a postprocessor usually
composed?
lan-
17.
What
What
materials are
NC
tapes
made
of? Give an
42. List
some
NC
computer programming
18.
is
system? Explain
languages you
Question 42.
NC
tapes.
44.
row,
bit,
word,
and block.
tracks does an
20. 21.
How many
COMPACT
in
II:
comma,
slash,
parentheses,
What
COMPACT II
in
22. 23.
Why Why
is is
the
word word
the
EOB EOR
used? used?
BASE
COMPACT
24. Describe
some
tape formats.
48.
25. Explain the basic concept of word-address pro-
How
can
we
gramming.
26. Explain the meaning of the N, G, and 27. Describe manual part programming.
M codes.
49.
and
MTCHG
in
COMPACT
in
50.
What
data does
II
a tool-change
statement
28.
What
is
COMPACT
51.
include?
29. Differentiate between the fixed zero and floating zero points.
What
is
the
GLRP?
home
position.
30.
What
is
53.
What
statement in
COMPACT
II
follows the
tool-change statement?
CNC.
the features of
be used
in that
statement?
some of
CNC
systems and
54.
What What
is
COMPACT
II
program?
55.
is
34. Define
DNC.
graphics
NC?
BTR
is.
What
a part
DNC?
graphics
NC
program.
37. In what
way can
program?
are the advantages of computer-assisted
briefly.
NC
is
systems.
38.
What
part
58.
Why
programming a graphics
NC
system
MAZATROL
it
program.
60. Differentiate between the process data and se-
What
and the
61.
quence data
postprocessor?
these systems?
518
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
62.
What
63.
What
is
why
is
it
now
aided manufacturing?
Problems
J.
I
1.
one mentioned program example on earlier in the chapter in the CNC machining, write a program to produce the
Using a
lathe similar to the
CNC
a.
Home
10LZ.
position
is
located at 8LY,
5LX,
corner of
b.
BASE
is
left
part
shown
in Figure 14.23.
tool
c.
the part
part.
left
Absolute zero
cor-
Write a program in
COMPACT
to
contour
The
to
tool is an
The rpm
is
is
equal
to
chine
it
using the
instructions:
FIGURE 14.23
The part
for
in
Material to be
Problem 1
removed
which a
is
CNC
to
program
prepared
be
Program
zero
&
Z=
Chuck
jaw
Z=
3.4375
X=1.0
= 4.4375
T777Z7771
3.0625
Z=
4.8125
Chapter 14 Problems
519
FIGURE 14.24
The workpiece
Problem 2
for
II
6.5
in.
in
which a
is
3.0
in.
COMPACT
program
to be prepared
^\0.5-in.
0.5-in.
ffj/\
j.
625/?
0.5
i
0.75
in.
n-
R^
1.75
in.
0.75-in
4.0
in.
6510'15"
Base and absolute zero
4.5
in.
Base
0.5
in.
0.5
in.
Absolute
zero
/
Table top
520
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
CHAPTER 14 APPENDIX
The following appendix
in turn
depicts various
entities,
which can
be used to adequately describe the geometry of a workpiece. All of the figures are reproduced courtesy of M.D.S.I./Applicon, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Chapter 14 Appendix
521
G-
ZB
XB
DLN1, PT1.30CCW
522
14
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
YB
^7XL
1.5RTyp.
CIR6
fe~XB
XL
YB
ll
YL CIR 18 j^s>
YB
1
CIR 36
PT40
PT
*-
XB
Chapter 15
dustrial
Robots
<j
INTRODUCTION
This chapter
will
It
is
aimed
at providing the
manu-
facturing engineer with an introduction to, yet complete picture of, this emerging kind of automation.
Readers interested
in
in
book.
Let us begin by defining the
word
many
definitions;
some
some
of which
memory and an
thus
replacing
appropriate
mechanism
perform
motions automatically,
human
gave a
1.
Japanese
Industrial
Robots Association
(JIRA), Tokyo,
Manual manipulator,
a manipulator that
is
worked by an operator.
2.
3.
Variable-sequence robot, a manipulator that repetitively performs successive steps of a given operation according to a predetermined
sequence, be changed.
easily
initially
oper-
523
524
15
Industrial
Robots
in
All
sequence,
is
When needed,
memory.)
NC
commanded
software used for these robots includes punched tapes, cards, and
switches. This robot has the
6.
same
control
mode as an NC
machine.)
Intelligent robot, a
tile)
changes by
itself in
dition
and use
its
own decision-making
facility to
proceed with
its
operation
accordingly.
A narrower
Robot
Institute of
America
(Rl),
Dear-
manipulator designed to
move
is, in
fact, in
sequence robots,
chine.
alike,
In fact,
it
is
NC machine
circuitry in
We
dis-
cussing robots.
environment, and
is
believed that
depending upon the kind of industry robots will form the nucleus around which
To Work
in
Hostile Environments
were developed
operators
to carry out operations in hostile
Historically, robots
environments that
create danger to
human
(e.g.,
when handling
placing hot components) or that are not appropriate for operators ac-
15.2 Methods
for Classifying
Robots
525
reality,
thanks to Henry Ford. Assembly lines resulted in an appreciable reduction in the cost of automobiles. Nevertheless, there were also some adverse social and psychological
in
same shape and size of nut or picking and placing the same components. Although the pay was good, many workers became alcoholics or suffered nervous breakdowns. A robot seemed to be the most suitable candidate to carry out such dull and monotonous jobs.
simple, repetitive jobs for prolonged periods of time, such as tightening the
To
Lift
Whenever heavy
"steel-collar"
human must be
lifted
and the
like are
considered by
is
many workers
to be
NC
machine
tools,
which cannot be
mon
for the
is quite commost recent models of robots and ensures consistency of product dimen-
mm)
would not be able to perform similar tasks. It must be understood, therefore, that to means to group them based on similar characteristics that facilitate our choosing specific robots to meet certain demands for required applications.
classify robots
Classification by Control
System
Based on the control-system method of classification, industrial robots can be grouped into only two categories: nonservo-controlled and servo-controlled robots. Following
is
Nonservo-controlled
robot,
robots.
this
group
fall
under the
first
526
15
Industrial
Robots
JIRA
definition of robots.
to set
up and pro-
gram, have reasonable precision, and provide a "Start simple" approach to robotics. Like other robots, a nonservo-controlled robot is composed of a mechanical unit
(manipulator) and a control unit (controller).
that
its
The mechanical
unit has
moving
parts
perform the work, and the control unit directs the mechanical unit in carrying out task. Nonservo-controlled robots are usually air-powered and operate by employing
on a point-to-point
basis.
The
differ-
ent points throughout a cycle are fixed through the use of mechanical or electro-
mechanical stops, but the actual path between those points cannot be defined or
controlled.
rotators
is
provided by
pitch,
either
on or
off,
because
stroke.
off)
is
executed through the use of a four-way solenoid-actuated valve that controls the
air
flow of pressurized
cylinder of the
and
b.
is
in a certain
volves preparing a table that includes the sequence as well as the duration of the on-off
commands
events.
motion
in
The program plan is then fed into the control unit, which usually involves solid-state programmable controller for nonservo-controlled robots. When the robot
operated, on-off
commands
are
conveyed
cording to the program plan. Simple cycles, like pick-place or pick-dip -place, can be
easily
programmed. Complex motion patterns can also be programmed, provided programming capability.
that
FIGURE 15.1
Working principles of a
solenoid-actuated
valve: (a) stretching of
arm;
(b) retraction
of
arm
4 Compressed
air inlet
T
'*
Solenoid
Compressed
Exhaust
ajr jn)et
(b)
15.2 Methods
for Classifying
Robots
527
Servo-controlled robots.
NC or CNC machines two groups: point-to-point robots (types similar to numerical control positioning machines) and continuous-path robots (types similar to numerical control contouring machines). The path of the gripper of a point-to-point
Servo-controlled robots are basically
into
programmed
to
make
any one of an
is
infinite
number of
points en-
point nonservo-controlled robot, where positive stops must be used to define the
It
MCU
of an
NC
machine
is
tool are
NC
machines,
this
type of robot
provided
with a positional feedback system to detect any deviation of the achieved position from
the
programmed
one.
A hydraulic
power source
that
is
of
the high
its
power density
it
characterized by
is
programming
fairly
easy because
NC
word-address programming.
Continuous-path robots have a wide range of capabilities, including driving the
manipulator along a controlled path. Consequently, a continuous-path robot can be
programmed so
that
its
As
is
with numerical control contouring systems, the control unit involves a microcomputer with software capable of providing linear and circular interpolation. In addition, the
feedback system continually monitors not only position but also velocity
type of robot, which generally tends to be
after
each short increment of time. Therefore, greater precision and repeatability are
this
the
smaller in physical size than the point-to-point type of robot and has lower load capacity as well. Recently, there has been a trend to use electric motors and drives
in
mo-
tion
and
to
in
oil
problems
some
industries.
Cartesian-coordinate
Cartesian-coordinate
is,
robots,
arm can move up or down, in or out, and in a motion perpendicular to the plane created by the previous two motions. The work envelope of a Cartesian-coordinate robot (i.e., the volume in space within which its grippers can move) is a parallelogram whose sides are the maximum strokes along the X, Y, and Z axes. Figure 15.2 shows a nonservo-controlled robot
along three linear perpendicular axes. That
the robot's
528
15
Industrial
Robots
FIGURE 15.2
The mechanical
unit of
coordinates (Courtesy
of
MACK
Corporation,
Flagstaff, Arizona)
**1^^C
FIGURE 15.3
A
cylindrical-coordinate robot (Courtesy of Prab Robots,
Kalamazoo, Michigan)
15.2 Methods
for Classifying
Robots
529
based on
this
arm motion
is
is
The motion of
ro-
That
is,
the robot's
arm can move up or down and in or out, and it can also shows a cylindrical-coordinate robot, and
motion and working envelope. Notice
is
that the
the
maximum
and the
internal diameter
is
the distance
FIGURE 15.4
The motion and working
envelope of a
cylindrical-coordinate
Robots, Kalamazoo,
Michigan)
Working
envelope
r~r~!
w.
C:
530
15
Industrial
Robots
when
the
arm
is in its
retracted position.
Because of
used
in material
Polar-coordinate robots.
In polar-coordinate robots,
to
motion.
Two
is linear.
is,
body of
a polar-
and
its
or retracted
its
in.
motion
and working envelope. Notice that the working envelope is a sector of the volume between two concentric spheres; the radius of the external sphere is the maximum reach along the linear axis, and the radius of the internal sphere is the shortest distance be-
(i.e.,
when
it is
retracted)
and the
vertical axis.
The volume
is
Articulated-arm robots.
humanlike motion.
It is,
therefore, quite
to their
common
to
sometimes
motions) by their
FIGURE 15.5
A polar-coordinate robot (Courtesy of Prab Robots, Kalamazoo, Michigan)
15.2 Methods
for Classifying
Robots
531
FIGURE 15.6
The motion and working
envelope of a polarcoordinate robot
(Courtesy of Prab
Robots, Kalamazoo,
Michigan)
human-body counterparts (e.g., shoulder and elbow). Figure 15.7 shows an articulatedarm robot, and Figures 15.8 and 15.9 illustrate the working envelope for two different models. Notice that the working envelope of an articulated-arm robot depends upon its design and model and that the geometry, or configuration, of this type of robot enhances
its
in applications
such as
MIG
welding. Moreover, reachability can be further enhanced by mounting the robot over-
in Figure 15.10.
Classification by Degrees of
The term degrees of freedom
tion.
Freedom
number of
linear and/or rotary axes of into account
refers to the
However, the
must be taken
mowhen
defining the degrees of freedom of a robot. Motions along two parallel linear axes cannot be considered as two degrees of freedom because one of these two axes of motion
is
redundant. Similarly, two rotary motions around the same centerline (or parallel cen-
maximum
532
15
Industrial
Robots
FIGURE 15.7
An articulated-arm
robot (Courtesy of Prab
Robots. Kalamazoo.
Michigan)
possible
is
six (three
and three rotary motions, each around one of these linear axes) but not
six degrees of
robots have
of
in
emulating a
human
More-
sometimes mounted on a
the robot
rail,
lope by
moving
This
is
Classification by
Method
of
Programming
We
dustrial robots in
have previously discussed the programming method for nonservo-controlled inwhich a programmable controller is used to give a sequence and duof on-off
ration
commands
for each
axis of motion
determines the
final
is
As
controlled robot
methods
different
in
15.2 Methods
for Classifying
Robots
533
FIGURE 15.8
The working envelope
for
one model of
articulated-arm robot
(Courtesy of Prab
Robots, Kalamazoo,
Michigan)
working
envelope
Walk-through programming.
In the walk-through
programming method,
the operator
manually drives the robot's manipulator by a hand-held pendant through a series of desired positions and "teaches" the robot control unit by pressing a "teach" button after
each position
(grippers)
is is
obtained.
An
auxiliary function
to
command
to control the
end effectors
also
programmed corresponding
each position.
been stored
in the
memory
in industry today.
the lead-through
continuous-path advanced robots, the operator physically drives the manipulator through the desired path and sequence of moves, which are stored in the magnetic
534
15
Industrial
Robots
FIGURE 15.9
The working envelope
for
another model of
articulated-arm robot
(Courtesy of Prab
Robots. Kalamazoo,
Michigan)
memory
tools).
of the control
unit.
When
the robot
is
painting.
Off-line
programming.
prohibited or at least
The preceding two programming methods are not suitable where the presence of human operators in the work area not recommended, such as when handling radioactive billets
is
telerobotics,
or off-line
programming.
In the off-line programming method, the cycle of events and the tasks to be performed by a robot are accurately defined with the aid of a separate computer without
15.2 Methods
for Classifying
Robots
535
FIGURE 15.10
A robot mounted
overhead (Courtesy of
Prab Robots,
Kalamazoo, Michigan)
involving either the mechanical or the control units of the robot in the programming process (this is similar to computer-assisted part programming and DNC). Detailed in-
is
required.
Because a
CAD
(or
CAM)
database
is
usually
can be utilized to "teach" the robot. Other databases defining the relationship between the robot and its surroundings in the manufacturing environment (e.g., location, geometry, and operational characteristics of the machine tools) are used. The
manipulator's path must be simulated on a
CRT
is
powerful and sophisticated software such as that commercially available from GCA Corporation, Cincinnati Milacron, McDonnell Douglas Automation, and others. Al-
though as yet no standardized telerobotics programming language exists, there are signs that such a language will be developed in the future. Off-line programming is a necessity for the implementation of a computerintegrated manufacturing
dustrial robots
(CIM) system
emerging role of
in-
makes
full
have very
little
gramming include
its
utilization
536
15
Industrial
Robots
FIGURE 15.11
A gantry robot (Courtesy of Prab Robots, Kalamazoo, Michigan)
COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT
Several basic components must be included in any servo-controlled robot of the current generation.
They
are the
main body
feedback de-
and the power supply. The main body carries the manipulator
motions (a separate one for each axis of motion).
The manipulator,
the obedient slave that performs the desired task, carries the
end
ef-
fectors (or grippers) that hold the workpiece or tool. Positional feedback devices are
required for detection and correction of any discrepancy between the desired position
(given in the
command) and
is
As previously mentioned,
which
power supply
robots have evolved with sensors, computers, and advanced controls. Based on the
signals received
537
As
can adjust to
its
level
which
is
some
detail before
we
END EFFECTORS
End
effectors are devices
mounted on
the
that pick
to suit
must be selected
to
tailored to
in-
When
transfer or
used, deit is
ef-
may
End
material handling because processing tools and attachments have been previously dis-
Grippers
Grippers are perhaps more commonly used than other end effectors. Generally, the
types of grippers include the two-finger, the three-finger, and the soft blank-finger
grippers.
Two-finger grippers.
geometrical shapes (prismatic). Depending upon the design, they can be used either for
external or internal gripping.
the index finger. For this reason, this type of gripper can be used for
in a closely
packed group.
modified version
has two parallel fingers with replaceable inserts that can be machined to suit special
shapes. Figure 15.12a and b illustrates the conventional two-finger (angular) gripper
and the
of revolution because they simulate the motions of the thumb, index finger, and middle finger. Figure 15.13
shows
538
15
Industrial
Robots
FIGURE 15.12
Two-finger grippers: (a)
conventional type;
parallel type
(b)
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 15.13
A nonservo-controlled
robot with a three-finger
gripper (Courtesy of
MACK
Corporation,
Flagstaff, Arizona)
539
permanent-magnet end effector involves a permanent magnet that travels through is guided by an aluminum cylinder, as shown in Figure 15.14. When the actuator pushes the magnet to the front end of the aluminum cylinder, it can pick up a ferrous object. When the magnet is withdrawn into the aluminum cylinder, the magnetic field is broken and the object is then released. Although the permanent-magnet end
and
is suitable for handling only ferrous objects, it has the advantages of rapid cycle times, the ability to handle parts with irregular shapes, and the ability to handle several parts simultaneously (provided that they are mounted on a special
effector
adapter).
is
in the
system (such as a
can be handled by
slight mis-
type of
end
effector.
surface
to
it.
There
the desired
is
also a need
vacuum
Vacuum-cup end
effectors are
most
light bulbs,
and large
They
stock.
FIGURE 15.14
A permanent-magnet
end effector
Permanent magnet
I
M
'//////////M'////A
m
Guiding
cylinder
540
15
Industrial
Robots
SENSORS
As mentioned, an
surrounding
tect,
it.
intelligent robot is
one
environment
In order to
do
this,
it
must have
or sense, the presence of parts and monitor the handling and processing parame-
ters
of the various industrial applications. The electronic devices that provide these
senses are called sensors. Following are examples of the sensors used.
artificial
Tactile Sensors
Tactile sensors are devices capable of defining the features (and/or orientation) of an
This type of sensor usually involves piezoresistive elements whose electrical resistance
increases with increasing contact pressure (or force). Matrix-type compliant tactile
sensors have been developed to provide information not only about the force but also
about the geometric shape, center of gravity, and area of the object pressed against the
sensor.
They
are basically
provides an electrical signal proportional to the deflection of the elastomer and that
conditions and processes that signal to provide the necessary information. Because tactile
when
Distance Sensors
Distance sensors are employed
pacitive sensor, for example,
in
A ca-
electric circuit
as a result of the change in the position of an electrode with respect to the metallic object.
Ultrasonic waves are also used to detect the location and size of objects
when
unknown
sometimes used.
They convert
light reflected
by employing photocon-
ductive elements
whose
from the
object.
seam by
is
A new
terial
Data
AB
in
Sweden.
It is
called magnetic
wave control
(MWC) seam
tracking
and involves a sensor transmitting and receiving high-frequency magnetic waves. Any
change
field.
in the
When
the field
processed,
it
15.6
Industrial Applications of
Robots
541
(i.e.,
performance
is
parameters).
It
is
arc welding
(SAW)
processes.
Visual Sensors
Visual sensing in industrial robots can be divided into three
main
is
categories: laser
gauging, structured
light,
based on laser
that object. that
in-
terferometry; any slight change in the position of an object results in a change in the
pattern of the interference fringes of a laser
beam
reflected
from
The
method of using
structured light
resembles
human
Any
computer algorithm
(in the
same way as in descriptive geometry). The method of using pattern recognition is based on using a connectivity analysis program that breaks a binary image into its connected components (units) and then builds a description of each unit when processing the image. Because visual sensors are used
edges and create a picture of the object
to identify
and measure the positions and posture of workpieces, they are a key ment when using robots for the assembly of parts.
ele-
may be
capable
of adequately performing the same job. In other words, the decision of selecting a robot for a certain application should be based not only on the features and characteristics
We
would
all
a controlled-path robot for pick-and-place applications is overkill. In this respect, it is worth mentioning that 70 percent of Japan's 50,000 robots (in 1988) were pick-and-
place types, and they were meeting the required demands. Following
is
a survey of
some of
repeatability,
tools.
and the
ability to
be synare
Consequently,
they
the
unchallengeable candidates for workpiece and tool loading and unloading in turing cells. A single robot can efficiently load and unload two or more CNC machine
tools in a properly planned flexible manufacturing cell (see
manufac-
Chapter
16). Industrial
542
15
Industrial
Robots
robots are also used for this purpose in flexible manufacturing systems, and
ticipate that intelligent robots will play a
ture,
we can
anfu-
key role
in the
where they
human
is
setting
up machine
The
CNC
include sheet- working presses, rubber- forming machines, magnetizers, testing equip-
like.
ticulated-arm geometries and can be controlled through four to six degrees of freedom.
Spot Welding
Excellent repeatability of weld location and consistency of weld quality
attractive for spot welding,
make
robots
turers all
and they are thus widely used by automobile manufacover the world. Reachability and interchangeability are further advantages
of robots that cause these manufacturers to favor them over the hard-tooled, dedicated spot-welding line that was previously used in the automotive industry. Generally,
recommended
Arc Welding
The arc welding environment is hazardous to the same time, the arc welding process requires highly
costly to produce high-quality welds
health of
human
operators.
At the
skilled labor.
It is,
therefore, rather
growing
Continuous-path robots of the articulated-arm type with six degrees of freedom are
generally employed in arc welding.
electric
As can be seen
in
servomotors and actuators to provide smooth motion and eliminate the proboil
lems of
leakage.
They
It is clear that the use of industrial robots for arc welding not only has economic advantages (labor-cost saving) but also results in con-
weld
quality.
Material Handling
The material-handling
conveyors. Almost
all
and unpacking,
pil-
ing and unpiling, palletizing and depalletizing, plus transferring products to and from
ranging from the simple polar-coordinate type to the articulated-arm robot with six degrees of freedom, depending upon the particular application required.
Material Processing
Robots are employed
nents.
in
They
welding applications
(i.e.,
15.6
Industrial Applications of
Robots
543
FIGURE 15.15
An arc welding robot (Courtesy of Prab Robots, Kalamazoo, Michigan)
effec-
tively
ing.
is
and polish-
Such applications
common when
the workpiece
is
very heavy or
when
it
Investment Casting
Repeatability, consistency, and accuracy are real advantages
when employing
of a robot used
robots in
number of
is
rejects
when making
in
the molds.
An example
in invest-
ment casting
shown
Figure 15.16.
Painting
Painting
is
fumes and the possibility of explosion. Therefore, it was one of the earliest areas in which industrial robots were applied. The velocity and path of the manipulator are important factors affecting the quality of the painted surface. Consequently, they must be
adequately controlled
in
is
also re-
544
15
Industrial
Robots
FIGURE 15.16
A robot used
in
The
spray-painting robots
is
The most appropriate method of programming where a skilled painter guides the
gun
to paint a
sample part
Assembly
The assembly of
0.002 inch (0.05
industrial
components represents
mm)
devices are required to detect and thus compensate for any discrepancies. Current applications of assembly robots are simple and include insertion of rivets, pins, washers,
and rubbers, insertion and tightening of nuts and boards, and other assembly work.
bolts, insertion
of parts in circuit
545
Review
jTT^iinTTP
3
1.
What
is
16.
be
point-to-point
servo-controlled
robot
and
nonservo-controlled robot?
2.
What
is
the
maximum
possible
number of de-
Compare
the
JIRA
RI definition.
3.
What are the reasons for using robots? Can a human be a substitute for a robot in all these
cases?
What do we
freedom?
call a robot
19.
How
can
we
flexibility
4.
5.
How
What
What
of a robot?
two main
units that
make up
nonservo-controlled robot?
6.
is
gramming
for nonservo-
robots.
the usual
power source
21.
controlled robots?
7.
CIM? What
How
advantages
does
that
programming
grammed? What
the form of a
8.
commands? What
is
method have?
22.
program plan?
What What
What What
are the
What What
are
the
controlled
9.
robots?
the
similarities
as applied to
are
between a servo-
robots?
NC
its
machine tool?
servo-controlled
24.
are
is
10.
Why
is
the
point-to-point
25.
robot characterized by
and grippers?
26. For what are two-finger grippers suited? 27.
How
What do
suited?
controlled?
What
three-finger
grippers
specially
12.
How
What do
robot?
30.
What
What
is
13.
Why
continuous-path robots?
14. List the four robot geometries (coordinate sys-
illustrate the
working
effectors.
What
robot?
is
546
What What
used?
15
Industrial
Robots
34. 35.
are tactile
some
different
working
princi-
What makes
applications?
42.
Why
What
human
43.
38.
What
sors?
recommend
for arc
what
field
welding?
44. List some other applications for industrial ro-
mostly used?
39.
Do you recommend
purchasing an advanced
is?
Why?
Chapter 16
tomated
Manufacturing
J
new machines
ex-
Systems
INTRODUCTION
Since the Industrial Revolution, U.S. industry has been undergoing a process
of continuous development. During the nineteenth century,
panded the
the form of
mass
more and
of
became a composite
of different departAl-
ments, each separate from the others and dedicated to a certain task.
been increasing steadily since the early 1950s, barriers of understanding and
methods
blue-collar
among
in
order to
tie
them
together.
It
is,
tasks
in
productivity.
It
is
The solution
is
in
a corporation
547
548
16
FIGURE 16.1
Types of information
transfer
between
computerized
departments
(a)
of a plant:
7^
Design, drafting,
departments
channeled
and analysis
electronically
(CIM)
7^
Business planning
CAM
and support
system
(a)
cess to
all
arrangement ensures
how
many companies
paperwork
to
to another.
efits of
CIM. But
let
us consider
some
definitions of CIM.
Eugene Merchant
[CIM
is]
whose prime
quirements and product concepts and whose prime outputs are finished prod-
549
FIGURE 16.1
(CONT.)
Types of information
transfer
between
fli
Design, drafting, and analysis
computerized
departments of a
(b) white-collar
plant:
workers
passing documented
information between
departments
Business planning
CAM
system
and support
(b)
comprises a combination of software and hardware: product design, production planning, production control, production equipment, and producucts.
It
tion processes.
Another
definition, given
III
by Richard G. Abraham
in his
paper presented
at the
AUTOFACT
(SME).
It
Conference, was adopted and published by the Computer and Automated Systems Association (CASA) of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers
stated the following:
truly integrated
CAD/CAM
or
CIM
to all
embraces
have been classified as "business systems" applications, what including order entry, bill of material processing, inventory control, and
material-requirements planning; design automation, including drafting, design,
routing and rating, tool design, and parts programming; and shop floor applications
process automation.
CIM
sys-
customer-order
servicing,
and
finished-goods
inventory
management.
It
is
550
16
important to note that both definitions apply not only to engineering activities but also
to
of engi-
neers involved in design, manufacturing, and production planning will change. Product design not only will be dictated by the desired functions but also will be affected
by manufacturing considerations. It is, therefore, anticipated that the boundaries now existing between the design and the manufacturing phases will disappear, or at least fade. Consequently, the engineers who carry out the process of product design and development
will
need
to
ing. Similarly,
an increase in the
will
become responsible
more
maintenance and
initial
setup
work
instead of just the simple, repetitious, and boring tasks involved in transfer or assem-
make
tems
appropriate decisions. In
is
all
cases,
is
an absolute necessity.
CIM
whole, from order entry to shipment of the finished product. In addition to a wellstructured database,
goal.
are
employed
to achieve this
Among
and
Benefits of
CIM
(CADD) and
computerproduct
aided manufacturing
(CAM)
in increasing productivity
by reducing the
total
coming from the implementation of CIM and replacing white-collar personnel and their paperwork with computer control. Following are some of the anticipated benefits
of CIM.
Improved product
quality.
is
a result of the
CIM
concept of
developing the product within the computer, thus basing the product development
process on rational and profound analysis instead of today's
"build and test." Prototypes will
still
be
built,
common how
philosophy of
a product per-
forms. Instead, they will be used to verify the results of the analysis carried out by the
computer. Other factors that contribute to improving the product quality and consistency include lower probability of
tributes
human
error
at-
Any
551
lead to a reasonable decrease in unit cost because the total costs for a typical highly
(in the
to 6 per-
and about 75
percent for materials and machines. (You can see that paperwork costs more than the manufacturing work.) Also, increasing the efficiency of information transfer will result
in
more
effective
management.
better utilization of
Improved equipment productivity. Equipment productivity is improved because of the machines when CIM is implemented. Factors like programmability of equipment and computerized monitoring and control of the entire manufacturing
facility will largely
utilization.
Lower costs
of products.
Higher labor and equipment productivity will certainly reis added to the advantages of designing the product
(i.e.,
which
iest
CAD
it
and
CAM. The
use of
(DFM)
and cheapest methods, thus reducing its that take into account only the product and
profit.
By
its
very nature,
it
CIM
of the manufacturing
facility,
is is
thus enabling
that
much
develop a product
corporation where
CIM
moment
at
until the
moment
the product
is
manufacturing
Implementation of CIM
It is
development of a
totally computer-integrated
manufacturing system
the implementation
is
commitment. However,
of CIM can be accomplished gradually because a computer-integrated business organization consists of computerized modular subsystems that are interconnected through a network. The nature and basic functions of each of these modular subsystems depend
primarily upon the products and the activities of business corporations and differ from one company to another. It is, therefore, impossible to purchase a turnkey CIM system
backbone of a
CIM
CIM system can be purchased, but the system has to be established within the corporation or at least taimanagement should
be performed
take in order to implement
in
The
first
step that
CIM
is
to study
each subsystem, the type and amount of information flowing to and from that subsystem, and the interaction between the different subsystems in the business organization. Second, rational development of a
activities to
CIM
system has
to
be carried
out.
552
16
performed
to establish the
is
Each subsystem is then integrated into the system directly implemented, according to the main plan, with the end result being a fully
same
set
of factual
The
typical architecture of a
CIM
sys-
CAM,
and others), a
to convert
to a
computer system
local data into neutral data (free format) and vice versa, and, finally, a database
man-
DBMS
is
ements (such as the terminal or machine controller) automatically receive the updated version of data when any user alters data in his or her local system or element. For example,
if,
for
some
CAM
department changes
modifications
made
will be trans-
CAD
department.
CIM
database,
it
facturing data, production control and operational data, and business data. Product data
involve the attributes and geometries of the objects to be manufactured. Manufacturing data deal with
how
schedules, routes,
and the
to
The
and pro-
gramming methodologies
these
or, in
concerned with.
On
the
other hand, the physical database relates to what hardware personnel see. However,
two concepts, though distinct, are interrelated, and, therefore, it is advisable separate them, making each more flexible regarding its own functions and demands,
to in
CIM
database that
is
and users' needs. Because the logical and physical structures are
essary to define a concept of the
is
nec-
CIM
is
completely
use of data standards that control the meanings of data and are defined using a data-
modeling
ties
tool (like
and
attributes of entities
data dictionary.
A data
Data-
CIM
CASA
553
Communication Networks
A CIM
complex system involving communication networks (i.e., a large communicate with one another through many computer networks). These can be different from the viewpoint of computer system structure or configuration and can incorporate different computers, operating systems, and interfaces. However, the computers must be able to communisystem
is
number of
to process
one annot
may be
in
is
(LANs) used
CIM,
of
many
individual
LANs
CIM
set
system.
The
con-
structure of a
own
of advantages
LANs
Network structures.
nels,
Network
first
each one connecting a pair of nodes or interface message processors (IMPs), which are the switching elements. Figure 16.2 shows some topologies of network structure. The star configuration (Figure 16.2a) was used in the early days of networking. But because star-type
centralized,
LANs
suffer
ring
topology (Figure
16.2b)
its
until they
bypass
is
provided.
On
IMPs
by any
IMP
ceived by
ure 16.2c)
all
other
it
IMPs
is
is
to whom the message is being message not intended for itself. This is achieved by providing a piece of information (in the message itself) that specifies who the message
when
used
is for.
it
insert splitters
facilitating
network reconfiguration.
Network architectures. Because of the complexity of the system and the different communication needs of nodes, CIM networks are organized as a series of layers or levels. Each layer is built upon its predecessor and is designed to provide certain services to the higher-level layers without involving
them
in the details
of
how
those ser-
vices are implemented. According to this architecture, a layer with a certain level
(order)
other machine.
on one machine communicates only with a layer having the same order on anThe set of rules and conventions stating how these two layers
is
known
554
16
FIGURE 16.2
Some
topologies of
User
network structure:
User
(a)
User
bus type
User
User
User
User
IMPf~H
~JlMP
QjlMP
|~~
|lMP
IMP[_
n~iiMP
[]imp
i~~1imp
User
User
User
User
(0
communication between two machines takes place only at the lowest layer, whereas communication between higher layers on two machines is only virtual. What happens is that each layer passes data to the layer directly below it until it reaches the lowest
where physical communication is possible. This idea is illustrated in Figure 16.3, which also indicates the need for an interface between each two successive layers to define the primitive operations and services that are offered by the lower layer to the upper one. It has been agreed to call the set of layers and their protocols the network
layer,
ISO
(MAP),
the
network architecture
as illustrated in Fig-
555
Host
FIGURE 16.3
Layers involved
in
Host
II
network architecture
Layer n
Virtual
Layer n
I
Layer 3
-*>
Layer 3
Layer 2
Virtual
Layer 2
communication
Layer 1/2 interface
(Layer 2 protocol)
Layer
Layer
Physical
communication
1
(Layer
protocol)
FIGURE 16.4
Network architecture
556
16
.6.2
GROUP TECHNOLOGY
(GT)
Group technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy that involves identifying and grouping components having similar or related attributes in order to take advantage of
their similarities in the design
came
when Fred1920s,
erick Taylor supported the concept of grouping parts that required special operations.
He was
in the early
tools.
machine
Their man-
GT
is
implemented
through the application of well-structured classification and coding systems and supporting software to take advantage of the similarities of components.
Reasons
for
Adopting GT
industries are facing
Modern manufacturing
ternational competition
many
are exemplified in
and fast-changing market demands. These challenges, which the following list, have and can be successfully met by group
technology:
1.
There
is
lot sizes)
of a
meet
the rising
demand
products in today's affluent societies. In other words, the share of batch-type prois
it
is
manufactured
parts will be
2.
As
zation
departmentalization by process)
is
becoming
inefficient
and obsolete,
with wasteful routing paths of products between the various machine tool
departments.
3.
There
is
short the lead time, thus achieving competitiveness in the international market.
Benefits of
Benefits
in
GT
In product design, the principal benefit of
product design.
GT
is
that
it
enables product designers to avoid reinventing the wheel or duplicating engineering efforts. In
other words,
it
was
pre-
facilitates
is
storage
and easy
is first
retrieval
of engineering
When
an order of a part
designs that match that code are retrieved from the company's library of designs stored
in the
memory
files,
a design close
A further
advantage of
GT
is
that
it
557
as corner radii
work-holding device
it
(jig or fixture)
Because parts are grouped into families, a flexcan be made for each family in
member
number of
machine setup
can be made once for the whole family (because of the similarities between the parts of a family) instead of several times for each of the individual parts.
More
tools
When
is
based on
GT
principles,
cells,
more
This
contrast to the
"messy" flow
by-process layout. For comparison, both layouts are clearly illustrated in Figure 16.5a
and
b.
common. There-
only
mass production
to
be achieved.
into families facilitates the task of scheduling
part.
Easier scheduling.
because
this
work
time result directly from reduced setup and material-handling time. Parts are not repeti-
carried
minutes of machining
creased WIP, which adversely affects inventory turnover and the cash-flow cycle. Also,
lead time for a product manufactured in a plant designed according to
far shorter than that of a product
GT principles
the
is
manufactured
in a plant
way
for auclassifi-
is
stored under
is
necessitates rearrangement of the existing physical equipment (machine tools) and in-
cumbersome work
that is
sometimes
difficult to justify.
558
16
FIGURE 16.5
Flow of parts
processed
(a)
in
a plant:
when
is
departmentalization
by process; (b)
when
L
(a)
559
Accordingly, an appropriate approach for solving the problem of the up-front work
quired
is
re-
to
do
it
As
to
a result, the
number of
new (uncoded)
workshop tends
Natural resistance to anything new. As human beings, we naturally shy away from anything risky or unknown. For this reason, many managers and administrators avoid the adoption of new concepts and philosophies such as group technology.
In order to
implement a
clas-
GT
principles, parts
must be
classified accord-
ing to suitable features, and then a meaningful code must be assigned to reflect those features. The process of retrieving or grouping parts with similar features is rather simple.
As an example, consider
it
code indicates a geographic location by progressively into subdivisions, starting with the state and proceeding to county, city,
street.
A zip
neighborhood, and
in reality,
Codes
geographically close.
is this
formation of a family of parts based on codes, without the need for physically examining the parts or their drawings.
Although many classification and coding systems have been developed all over the world, none of them as yet have become universally standard. The reason is that a system must meet the specific needs of the organization for which it has been developed. The right approach, therefore,
is
to
develop a
GT
classification
tem based on the specific needs of the client or to tailor an existing turnkey system to
meet those needs.
While there are many benefits for group technology, they fall within two main areas of application: design and manufacturing. Although it is always the ultimate goal to combine the advantages in both areas, it is usually very difficult to do so, and the result is either a
A coding
or
it
can be alphanumeric.
When
system can be based only on numbers or letter codes are used, each position (or
digital location)
has 26 different alternatives; when number codes are used, position values are limited to 10. Consequently, letters are employed to widen the scope of a
it
more
flexible.
There are basically two types of code construction: monocodes and polycodes. A monocode, also referred to as a hierarchical or tree-structure code, is based on the approach that each digit amplifies the information given
therefore, obvious that the
in the
preceding
digit.
It
is,
meaning of each
it.
digit (or
what a
digit indicates) is
depen-
Monocodes tend
to
hi-
erarchical structure. Consequently, they are usually used for design storage and re-
560
16
In contrast, the
meaning of each
is
digit in a
polycode
to as
is
completely independent of
its
any other
For
indicates
digit
that
code.
this reason, a
sometimes referred
how
a polycode
structured.
We
generally
manufacturing oriented because the easily identifiable attributes help the manufacturing engineer determine the processing requirements of parts. Moreover, a polycode in-
structure that
makes
it
computer
and a
must be reserved
whether or not
Com-
mon
two basic types of codes while eliminating their disadvantages. In first digit divides the whole group of parts into subgroups,
in order to eliminate
of error
when coding
computer program
employed, where the computer asks questions and automatically assigns a code for the
part based
this
at the
computer terminal.
system), which
was developed by
decade.
FIGURE 16.6
Structure of a polycode
External
Class of feature
Internal
Number
of holes
Hole
types
Gear
teeth
shape
shape
\
Possible
//
Spur
values of
a digit
Cone
Central
1-2
Cross
hole
Axial and
cross
Helical
Multiconcave
3-5
Multiconvex
Example:
This code indicates that the part cylindrical, with a central hole, with 3-5 holes, that are axial
is
561
we
see
how
we need
to understand a
all
new
of the pro-
all
be employed
is
to pro-
that family.
Any
part that
member
of that
re-
quired for producing the composite part. Figure 16.7 illustrates the concept of a composite part.
The next
step
is
to design the
machining
cell to
provide
all
machining capabilities
based on the processing attributes of the composite part for the family of parts that is to be manufactured in that machining cell. The number of each kind of machine tool
in a
manufacturing
cell
depends upon
how
is
needed. In other words, the number of each kind of machine tool in a machining cell
is
same
machine
of machines
cell.
planned
to
Of
raw stock
out.
Production-Flow Analysis
Production-flow analysis (PFA)
is a method in which parts families are identified and grouped based on the analysis of the sequences of operations for the various products manufactured in the plant. Parts that may not be similar in shape but
machine
tools are
to
form
FIGURE 16.7
The concept of a
composite part
^^^^^^ ^^^^^^
Part
1
Part 2
Part 3
Part 4
The composite
all
part consisting of
562
16
FIGURE 16.8
Establishing machine cells using PFA: (a)
initial
for
each
pack; (b) PFA chart after arrangement with possible cells of machine tools
Pack identification
letter
Pack identification
letter
= 10
o 11 12
563
documented on a route sheet. The routing must be production cost of a part to a minimum, thus making the prodis
is
determined primarily by the experience and the opinion of the planner. In other words, if ten process planners are asked separately to develop a process plan for a given part, they will probably come up with ten different plans. Moreover, it is possible that none of these plans is opti-
is
mum
dence
it
commitment
to
and educational
backgrounds.
In order to rationally design a process plan for manufacturing a product eco-
nomically and competitively, a planner has to study all possible alternatives (i.e., different combinations and/or sequences of operations, machine tools available, process parameters, and the like). Obviously, such a task requires thousands of lengthy calculations. Consequently, a
if that
task
is
to
be accomplished
within a reasonable period of time. timal process plans do not usually remain static but change with changing conditions, such as lot sizes, available equipment, and any emerging new technology. In short, a
is
And
time
developed for a part today may be different from the plan that would be developed after a year for the same part in the same manufacturing facilfor any variation in ity. It is, therefore, a major advantage of CAPP that it accounts
is
Benefits of
CAPP,
CAPP
together with group technology (which helps pave the way for it), bridges the gap between engineering design and manufacturing and is a key factor in integrating the activities in a manufacturing organization. Some of the benefits of CAPP are as
follows.
Improved productivity.
Improved productivity
is
due
to the
more
efficient utilization
is based on acof resources such as machines, tooling, stock material, and process planning, where curate and lengthy computations, as opposed to conventional
labor,
which
personal experience, preference, and sometimes even prejudice are the determining
factors.
Lower costs
tooling,
of products.
lower product
Because the plans are based on the same analytical will logic, with every planner having access to the same updated database, planners because of the elimicome up with the same plan for the same part. This also occurs nation of human error during the lengthy computations performed with a computer.
As a result of computerizing in time required to develop a process plan. work, a job that used to take several days can now be done in about 20 minutes. the
Reduction
564
16
Consequently, increased volumes of work can be easily handled with CAPP, which
not the case with conventional manual process planning.
is
in
The
memory
CAPP more
When CAPP
used,
it
takes the process planner a few minutes to input updated data, such as lot
size,
modified optimal
is
man-
because
its
cialized planners)
is
CIM
in
Types of
approaches.
CAPP
generative, are based on
two completely
different
Variant type.
The
dard process plans, one for each of the parts families produced by the plant. The parts
families should be identified based on
sification
GT principles
and stored
in the
its
memory
sociated
late
it
asre-
GT
When
new
part
is
to
an appropriate family. Next, the standard plan for the parts family
discussion about the composite part concept).
edited
member our
because
variant
it
The computer
is
employed
to
CAPP
is
limited to that of a
word
processor.
CAPP
to establish the
may
production re-
quirement or parameters.
of
CAPP has
been developed.
In the generative approach, the
Generative type.
computer
is
What
is
stored
memory
of the computer are rationales and algorithms that permit the appropri-
be made. The
human
system
GT
is
the
computer
It is,
that
manufacturing parameters.
565
sum
to
finally, to
these
CAPP
to
system,
it
is
important to
company
company and
that, therefore,
conform
to the practical
man-
it
is
some attempts
Gener-
Corporation,
Georgia,
is
among
logic included in
GEN-
PLAN's
sign by
the process planner, the software quickly accesses the different alternatives
and
makes the appropriate decisions to establish an optimal process plan for a generative
CAPP.
Another successful attempt
is
the
approach
is
based on using a
hier-
common
reference, to
which process
parameters and part-attributes information trees are compared and evaluated. These
trees take the
still
GT codes.
much
R&D
cepts in computer science, such as artificial intelligence, in order to achieve the goal of a complete and truly generative
CAPP
system.
now
look
at
machine
tools
there
is
and manufacturing personnel are available, because can be manufactured. It is, therefore, of supreme imporif
tance to
tion
is
manage
produc-
to run uninterrupted.
MRP
is
computerized method
update
all
The
function of
MRP
software
is
to continually
be available when
required, and to issue purchase orders whenever necessary. MRP software packages can be obtained from various vendors, but they have to be tailored to the specific needs of the client. Major computer producers also provide
MRP packages
MRP
packages
in
developed for their machines. Software houses that can be run on different types and
makes of computers.
basis.
It
is
even possible,
some
cases, to obtain
MRP on
a time-share
recent trend in
MRP development
in
financial
566
16
MRP MRP
MRP
is
II
(MRP
II).
Whether
late
MRP or
orders and
WIP
inventories are
among
the benefits of
systems.
further benefit
is
that
MRP
ing systems.
.6.5
IN
MANUFACTURING
word
to
root of the
intelligence
is
"intelligere,"
which
literally
means
to gather,
to assemble,
and then
that in-
If
we
as-
sume
that
among
is
facts
based on sound
artificial intel-
we have
indeed an
The desired artifact or reasoning machine must have the special capability of processing knowledge information at very high speeds. In fact, this was the goal of the Japanese who, in 1982, established the Institute for New Generation Computer Technology (ICOT) to guide a ten-year research program aimed at developing hardware and software for the fifth generation of computers, or the knowledge information
processing systems (KIPS).
Let us
now
look
at the
all
fourth-generation computers
is
CPU
memory, an arithmetic unit, and a controller) and input/output devices. A characterizing feature of all von Neumann machines is that they operate in an orderly sequence (serial fashion). The difference is not, therefore, in the working principles but in the building unit of the hardware or central technology. Whereas first-generation computers were composed of vacuum tubes, the second generation was transistorized, the third involved integrated circuits, and the fourth is based on very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits. Fifth-generation computers, however, involve new computer architectures, new memory organizations, and new programming languages. These computers are designed to handle and process symbols and not just numbers, like the von Neu-
mann machines.
(i.e.,
same
time).
gramming languages; the most commonly used are PROLOG and LISP. PROLOG has become the favorite in Europe and Japan and was also selected for the Japanese ICOT project. LISP has been widely used in the United States and has become the
R&D
dominant language.
So, what role can artificial intelligence play in the future of advanced manufacturing systems? In order to
answer
this question,
we
should keep
in
mind
that
AI proIt
is,
grams are mainly concerned with symbolic reasoning and problem solving.
therefore, anticipated that fields of
AI technology such
Artificial Intelligence in
Manufacturing
567
sion,
and
in
manufacturing. Following
in
is
AI technology applications
manufacturing.
Expert Systems
Definition.
An
(i.e.,
difficult
problems
that
system
is
called a knowledge engineer, and his or her job involves acquiring knowlit
into an
number of if-then
edge base.
Applications
in
rules,
perhaps as
AI program. The program usually consists of a large many as a few thousand, in addition to a knowl-
manufacturing.
It
is
spread application in
CIM
systems.
DNC, and
who
damage
volving
is,
in
problem
in-
many
factors, alternatives,
and constraints.
tem
is
needed.
Artificial Vision
Artificial vision is currently the
ing.
Although
artificial
vision
is
can be
aimed at locating, identifying, and guiding the manipulacomponents. As research continues in computer science to develop a
we would
commercial and
Intelligent
Robots
The intelligent robot has always been the dream of manufacturing engineers in terms of making the fully automated factory of the future attainable. It is artificial intelligence that will make this dream come true. By definition, an intelligent robot is one
that is able to think, sense,
learn
fall
and perform so as to cope with a changing environment and from experience. Because thinking is a brain function, it is obvious that it would within the domain of artificial intelligence if it is to be performed by a computer.
An
would unify
artificial in-
telligence
final
outcome being an
intelligent robot.
568
16
SYSTEM (FMS)
Flexible manufacturing
In order to
is
understand
this concept,
we must
first
As
we know, mechanization
went beyond
it.
when machines
per-
labor. Automation included mechanization and With the twentieth century came the new concept of mass production. The automation technology then available (i.e., the assembly line) markedly increased the productivity of workers, and the United States grew to lead all other nations both in productivity and prosperity. Both the assembly line and the transfer line belong to the domain of fixed automation, in which the sequence of processing
operations remains unchanged throughout the production run because the sequence
of operations
is
equipment
in the
line,
which
is
it is
its
is
in-
in the prod-
uct design.
In contrast to fixed automation,
programmable automation
this
is
flexible
is
A good
example of
kind of automation
CNC
new
machine
is
tool,
where new
its
tomation
characterized by
and
ability to tol-
and the
capital cost
of fixed automation.
An
interesting
is
way of
tomation
to plot the
number of
automated system can tolerate versus the annual production volume. This
dicated in Figure 16.9, which also shows the
clearly in-
recommended
successful
domain
for each
of the two automated systems. Notice that a gap exists between the high-production
transfer lines (fixed automation)
flexible, individual
CNC
medium
it is
ited variety
fact,
this
is
required most
today because of the need for insurance against unexpected circumstances, which calls
and tailored products demanded by customers in quantities that are not mass production. A reasonable solution to this problem is to develop a hybrid of fixed and programmable automations that combines the best features of both. This new production system should be responsive to the changing needs of manufacfor flexibility suitable for
turing, yet highly automated.
It is,
manufac-
16.6
Flexible
569
FIGURE 16.9
Areas of application of
the different automated
High
NC machine
(highly flexible
manufacturing systems
automation)
800
lanufacturing
cell
100
Average
40
Flexible
manufacturing system
Transfer-line
(fixed
automation)
Low
25
500
2000
Average
5,000
High
Low
Annual production
FMSs may
all
they are
An example
of
an
FMS
for the
is
shown
in
Figure 16.10.
We
can easily
actually based
two elements
elements.
in
Figure 16.1
is
FMS
tools
Machine
tools.
An FMS
consists of a
machine
mixed range of CNC machine tools. The chardepend upon the configuration of the comflexibility
of the system.
some manufacturing experts tend to divide FMSs into two categories: dedicated and random FMSs. Dedicated FMSs possess a low degree of flexibility and are built to meet long-term, well-defined manufacturing requirements. Such systems can,
therefore, tolerate only a limited variety of processing needs. Special
machine
tools
570
16.6
Flexible
571
FIGURE 16.11
Elements of an
FMS
572
16
NC
and the
in the
A flexible
(or
manufacturing
cell
(FMC)
CNC
machining centers
with each
other as well as with their tool storage area through an industrial robot. Figure 16.12
design of an
it
FMC,
its
productivity
is
can
FMCs
are, therefore,
FMS
fills
yet cannot be
the gap
met by
FMCs
between
FMSs
The domain of successful application for FMCs, therefore, involves a production volume between 20 and 500 pieces and a variation in configuration ranging between 30 and 500 different shapes. The economic advantage of using FMSs and FMCs can easily be realized by comparing each system with individual machine tools in relation to the production
and individual stand-alone
CNC
machine
tools.
FIGURE 16.12
Example
of an
FMC
(Courtesy of
Fritz
Illinois)
16.6
Flexible
573
in Figures 16.13
and 16.14.
As can be seen
in
when employing an
is only 72 percent of that cost when the piece is produced in a plant including machining centers with a pallet changer. Figure 16.14 indicates that the production cost per piece when an FMC is used amounts to only 69 percent of that cost
FMS
six
when
workshop consists of three machining centers with a pallet changer. Although these figures indicate particular cases, we must not forget that the production volume plays a very important role in determining the cost per piece. Figure 16.15 shows the cost per piece versus the production volume for each of the different kinds
the
FIGURE 16.13
Characteristics and cost comparison to determine productivity of an
FMS
(Courtesy of
Fritz
Werner
Machine
Tool
Illinois)
6 machining
centers with
pallet
4 machining
centers with
pallet pool
flexible
changer
manufacturing system
/T\
System
configuration
DO
DO
No. of machines in system No. of tools in system No. of workpiece storage
positions
DDD
6X
60
4X
4 72
4 568
40
6.0
40
6.6
per year (hrs.) Degree of utilization (%) No. of jobs processed simultaneously No. of operators during
1st
16,205 80
16,034 82
8
2
17,285
86
12
2
and 2nd
shifts
Capital investment Tool costs Fixture and jig costs Total system costs
machine costs
(DM)
921,672 2,039,744
16,205
307,224
1,613,182
307,224
1,752,634
utilization
16,034
101
17,285
101
(DM)
125
182 100
154 85
132 72
574
16
FIGURE 16.14
Characteristics and cost comparison to determine productivity of an
FMC
Machine
Tool
Illinois)
2 machining
centers with
pallet pool
1
duplex
cell
changer
System
configuration
3X
30
2 2 X 60 2 X 16
200
32
8
c 2
8,130 77
8,751
79
9,173 83
and 2nd
shifts
Capital investment
Tool costs
Fixture and
jig
costs
1,367,550
1,407,560
1,715,200
machine costs
system costs
hours of
utilization
(DM)
85
86
31
45
100
(%)
36 80
69
575
FIGURE 16.15
Cost per piece versus
production volume for
different
automated
manufacturing systems
576
16
32. 33.
What
is artificial
intelligence?
What
18.
Is
What
tion
between fifth-genera-
coding system?
19. 20.
Why?
code construction?
four generations
How
What
of computers.
35.
intelligence?
the term expert system
36. 37.
What does
mean?
21.
22.
What
What
is
is
What
What
What
plain.
manufacturing?
is
based on
GT
meant by
artificial vision?
What
is its
on old-fashioned concepts?
23. Explain the meaning of a composite part.
24.
main function?
39.
deis
the difference
between an
intelligent
What What
is
when
25.
is
meant by
computer-aided process
it
40.
What
are the
planning?
technology?
26.
How
is
linked
with
group
List the
main
How
do you compare
CAPP
CAPP.
to
performed today?
Briefly
Why
What What
gap
describe
systems?
43.
are the
main elements of an
FMS?
Briefly
28.
What
are the
main types of
CAPP?
available
describe each.
29. Give
44.
are the
CAPP
30.
FMSs enough
can
this
to
fill
the
What What
ment?
ning? What
31.
is
function?
in
automation?
If not,
how
gap be
filled?
the
recent trend
MRP
developof imple-
How
does
fill
this gap.
menting
CIM?
Appendix
aterlals
Engineering
^J
INTRODUCTION
This appendix
is
aimed
at
for manufacturing.
It
is
not meant as a
who want
more comprehensively.
Industrial
engineering students
find
it
helpful to
is
lv
now
scratch the surface of each of the three basic classes of materials to obtain a view
level.
Metals
Metals can be elements or alloys (combinations of elements). As you studied
istry,
in
chem-
atoms of a metal are relatively large and heavy. Therefore, the attraction forces that keep the electrons circling in the outer orbits are not strong enough to susthe
tain that
dynamic equilibrium. As
move
On
It is,
577
578
Appendix
Materials Engineering
is
composed of atoms
(that
good
abundance
when
a wire
subjected to a magnetic
field.
Other proper-
of metals include their ability to undergo major permanent deformation and their
opacity.
can see from the preceding discussion that metals take the solid form when a bond (positive atoms with positive charges in an electron mist) exists between the component atoms. This type of bonding is referred to as a metallic bond. The atoms of a metal are arranged in a repetitive three-dimensional pattern to form tiny (usually) microscopic crystallites or grains. The smallest arrangement of atoms that,
certain
We
when repeated
cell.
produces a grain
cells,
is
shown
in
cubic (BCC), face-centered cubic (FCC), and hexagonal close-packed (HCP). Each metal (element) has one of these types of atomic arrangements; for example, iron and
chromium are BCC, copper and aluminum As we will see later on, the properties of a
tal
are
zinc are
HCP.
structure
In a
it
has.
one
at
room temit
room temperature
is
non
called allotropy, and change from one type of unit cell to another
called al-
lotropic transformation.
The
its
ability to dissolve
other elements) also change before and after the allotropic transformation.
When
slide
is
over one another along planes and directions where the atom population density
is
known
as slip.
On
form of impurities or
distortion,
which
is
referred
FIGURE A.l
The most
common
R..
7\
v.
Face-centered
cubic
^7\
Askeland. D.
The
Science and
Engineering of
Materials, 3rd ed.
^Y
Body-centered
cubic
Boston:
PWS
1994)
Publishing,
rC^t
tS^
Hexagonal
A.l Types
of Materials
579
can be a result of deformation in distortion in the crystal lattice that impedes more deformation a specimen of metal undergoes, the first place. In other words, the
the
more
difficult
it
is
to
is
usually referred to as
work-hardening and is encountered when forming metals in their cold state. Workhardening can, however, be eliminated or inhibited if the temperature of the metal is
raised.
movements and activity of atoms at elevated temperatures and create new grains or crystals that are distortion-free. The eliminate dislocations process of creating new crystals is known as recrystallization, and it always takes
The reason
is
that the
place above a certain temperature, called the recrystallization temperature, which differs for different metals.
Ceramics
ceramic can be defined as a chemical compound including one or more metals with nonmetallic element. The atoms comprising a ceramic body are bonded together with a atomic either ionic or covalent bonds. As you studied in chemistry, these types of
bonding are very strong and rigid as compared with the metallic bonds
metals. Therefore, the
that exist in
mechanism of
metals, but rather the separation or cleavage failure that characterizes brittle materials.
That
is
ceramics and
is
accompanied by very
or no deformation.
Because of the absence of any ability to undergo plastic deformation and the strong bonds between atoms, ceramics possess high hardness. Also, because the electrons are tied up in that strong type of bonding, ceramics are chemically inert (i.e., do
not react with other materials) and are
ics include
good
electrical insulators.
Examples of ceram-
nitride,
Polymers
Polymers
plastics.
is
the scientific
name
commonly known
as
The word polymer stems from two Greek words: "poly," many, and "meras/' which means parts. Polymers are composed of long chains, each being a giant molecule that, in turn, includes many small molecules linked together. For instance, if many molecules of ethylene (C 2 H 2 ) are linked together, the many result will be a long molecular chain of the polymer polyethylene, which has
applications in our everyday
life.
which means
As can be seen
in
FIGURE
A.
580
Appendix
Materials Engineering
in
ethylene have unsaturated valence bonds (carbon has a valence of 4, and hydro1).
Therefore,
if
of that molecule, the valence bonds on the carbon atoms in the molecule will be
satisfied.
ments, numerous ethylene molecules must attach to one another and form long
chains.
When
the chains
to a
grow
ene
is
analogous
bowl of
Polymers are
classified into
their
thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. In thermoplastic polymers such as polyethylene, the only force that binds these molecular chains together
is
attraction bond,
which
is
this reason,
mechanical loads. They soften, melt, and viscously flow when heated, then solidify
when
As
when heated
moplastics can withstand. Also, thermosets do not melt and flow, but rather char and
burn.
Still,
is
in
chains
is
ROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
There are hundreds of properties
that
in the laboratories.
The
when
plications
that material.
material for certain applications, the properties play a major role. In order to handle the
main
categories: phys-
chemical, and mechanical properties. Physical properties are those that pertain to
the science of physics and include, for example, the color, the density, and the
netic characteristics.
magvari-
Mechanical
when
that material is
for
581
Tension Test
The simplest way
tension
a
test. It is
is
by a
carried out by
employing a
Figure A.3
machine
that incorporates
means of applying a
specimen
like that
tensile force
that force.
standard
test
shown
in
used.
It
gripping in the machine and a uniform cross section in the middle. Gauge marks are scribed on the middle section so that the extension can be measured during loading.
typ-
steel is
shown
in
Figure A.4.
As can be
reason,
we
rely
specimen markedly affects its load-carrying capacity. For this on using the concept of stress or load intensity when making com-
The engineering
stress
is
given by
"i
where
(A.l)
is
On
it is
not
diffi-
same
dependent upon
It is,
unit length
is
neering strain
and
is
given by
(A.2)
where:
is
is
time to plot the relationship between the engineering stress and the engineering strain. It will look like the load- extension curve; the difference is the scale of the X and Y axes, as shown in Figure A.5. Looking at the graph in Figure A.5, we
Now,
it
is
FIGURE A.3
A standard
specimen
tensile test
2.25
in.
minimum
T
_0.5_0J)10_in.
>
_
_
in.
2 0.005
tx
/2
in.
minimum
582
Appendix
Materials Engineering
FIGURE
A
A.
typical load-
Extension
1.
Region
I,
in
stress
and the
is
As
is
stress
and the
be ex-
=E
where
gion
I
(A.3)
is
Young's modulus of
strain is
elasticity
stress.
Re-
ends
point
beyond which
is
the relationship
between
strain.
the stress
and the
no longer
accompanied by appreciable
The point
2.
at
which
this
process
Region
II,
in
which major
plastic
hardening or work-hardening
(i.e.,
is
for Obtaining
Mechanical Properties
583
FIGURE
A.
The engineering
stress-strain curve
584
Appendix
Materials Engineering
A 2A -
x 100
(A.5)
where:
A A
is is
Resilience
called the
is
more
correctly
As you can
impor-
when
Toughness
it
breaks.
A quantita-
modulus of toughness, which is the whole area under the engineering stress-strain curve. The modulus of toughness is a measure of the ability of the material to withstand shock loading. Machine components that are subjected to sudden loading during their service life must be made from materitive indication of
toughness
is
the
als that
Hardness Test
Hardness
tation.
ity
is
It is
and qual-
control of
raw stock
as
numerous ways of measuring hardness, the most commonly used hardness-testing methods are the Brinell and the Rockwell hardness tests.
Brinell
hardness test.
The
into a metal
ter)
specimen under a
size (diameis
Hardness Number,
ball has a
is
by the
The hardened-steel
duration
is
diameter of 10
mm,
is
its
at least 10 seconds, for ferrous metals. For nonferrous metals, the load
its
is
duration
is
at least 30 seconds.
The diameter of
from
the impression
usu-
Number corresponding
need
test,
the
Rockwell hardness
involves forcing an indentor into a test specimen under static load. However, in the
testing
Rockwell
is
and a secondary
measurements or calculations, and the Rockwell Hardness Number is readily shown on a dial indicator. The Rockwell hardness test is, therefore, commonly used in industry
because of
its
which
it
can be performed.
for Obtaining
Mechanical Properties
585
Two
standard indentors are used with two hardness scales to determine the Rock-
well Hardness
Numbers
common
mm)
and a diamond
tip
0.2
mm
and they are used with scales designated as B and C, respectively. The working is used for nonferrous metals and annealed low-carbon steels,
measurement accuracy, when the hardness of you must switch to scale C; if the hardness is less than R B 0, another appropriate Rockwell hardness scale should be used. The useful range of the C scale, which is used for hardened and tempered steels, is from R c 20 (equivalent to R B 97) to slightly above R c 70. Owing to inherent inaccuracies
from
to
RB
RB
RB
100,
ness below
Rc
on the
specimen
is
is
at the
ing screw.
imen
is
in contact
By
slowly applied
in
order to
is
seat the
specimen
firmly.
At
this
moment,
set to
kg (90 kg
on the B scale)
is
applied by
means of
will
a release handle
mounted on
The
total
major load
now
Obviously, the application of this load forces the indentor into the specimen to an additional depth. Still, this depth
cause
load
it
includes an elastic as well as a plastic deformation. Therefore, the additional released without removing the minor load, and the hardness index
the dial indicator.
is
is
shown on
The reading
reflects the
permanent or
plastic
increment of
FIGURE
Procedure
A.
Dial
for
Rockwell hardness
measurement
performing a Rockwell
h,fe
Initial
load 10 kg
minor load
still
applied
586
Appendix
Materials Engineering
penetration depth resulting from the increment of load between the minor and major
loads.
It
total
is
the case
must be taken
its
the test
specimen
(its
flatness
and
standards.
Impact Test
Impact strength, a measure of a material's
joules per cubic centimeter).
ability to
is
de-
volume of material (the common unit pendulum-type impacting machine is commonly em-
FIGURE
tests
A.
initial
Length
(55mm)
for Obtaining
Mechanical Properties
587
ployed when measuring the impact strength of metals and polymers. There
ever,
are, howtwo types of impact tests that find widespread application: the Charpy and the hod impact tests, which are shown in Figure A. 7. Usually, the impact specimen has a notch at the spot where it is desired to promote
fracture. In
is
V
to
when
is
no need
naturally low.
Note
als
that the
is
affected by temperature.
Some
it
met-
at
low temperature.
In fact,
has been
was
the
well as
many
War
II,
in the chilly
Fatigue Test
We
test
component
to
be subjected
to
dynamic
alternating loads.
The
test
how
shown
in
which a component or a specimen can withstand an alternating load primarily depends upon the magnitude (or amplitude) of that load. The higher the magnitude of
the alternating load, the smaller the
number of cycles
after
which
it
fails. It
has also
that the
much
different
is
from one
which
specimen
is
phenomenon
due
to initiation
and
FIGURE
A
typical
A.
dynamic
alternating load
5)
Time
588
Appendix
Materials Engineering
FIGURE
A.
Endurance
limit
Number
In order for a
machine component
to
be designed properly
infinite
to carry
an alternatat a partic-
ing load,
ular
it
number of cycles
level
is
maximum
cy-
alternating load that the desired material can withstand for an infinite
cles.
number of
Such a load
is
S-N
ing each to a different magnitude of alternating stress, and recording the cycles until failure occurs in each case. Higher magnitudes of load
number of
a smaller
mean
number of cycles, and vice versa. By plotting the magnitude of the stress (S) versus the number of cycles to failure (N), we can obtain the S-N curve, as shown in Figure A. 9.
The
S-N
curve
is
stress,
which
is
affected by
many
such as
the surface roughness of the test specimen or the presence of stress raisers that pro-
mote
S-N
curve
is
plotted
on semilogarithmic scale
limit. In addition,
durance
an increase
applied also influences the endurance limit, especially in the case of polymers, where
the dissipated energy reappears in the
form of
Creep Test
Creep can be defined as
load.
It
plastic
deformation
at
is
temtern-
perature.
room
for Obtaining
Mechanical Properties
589
FIGURE
A
typical
A.
10
Rupture
creep curve
Time
Rupture
time
The creep characteristics of a material are determined by means of a creep which involves subjecting the specimen to different constant stresses at elevated temperatures and observing the corresponding strain. For each condition of a constant
perature.
test,
stress
strain) is
measured as a function
shown
in Figure
A. 10.
As can be
and a
seen, the
initial
final
stage
final
at
stage continues until failure. For design purposes, the creep data are presented in the
straight lines
life,
on a log-log scale
Figure A.
and rupture
shown
FIGURE
for
A.
11
20,000
Stress-rupture curves
an iron-chromium-
10,000
1994)
200 100
1,000
100,000
life
Rupture
(h)
590
Appendix
Materials Engineering
.4
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Phases and Components
Before
we examine phase
diagrams,
we
is.
phase can be defined as a portion of material that is chemically and physically homogeneous and is separated from other portions by a well-defined surface (interface).
Now,
if
we have
is
ice
and water
in
H 2 0),
it
not physically
is
homogeneous (one
is
a solid
and one
is
a liquid). In fact,
ice
what we have
(i.e.,
the ratio
between
continue to be the same until an external factor such as pressure or temperature acts to
disturb that state of equilibrium). There are different types of systems based
upon the
sin-
that
component (like the preceding example), a binary system is generated or by two components, and a ternary system involves three components.
initiated
on materials science such as The Science and Engineering of Materials by D. R. Askeland (see the reference list at the end of this book).
A phase
at different
diagram
is
like a
road
map
in that
it
is
temperatures.
By
is
component
vertically. An alloy having a composition of x percent of at a temyou can see that it has (100 - x) percent of component B perature T is represented by a point. Zones or regions in which specific phases exist are bounded by lines or curves. Phase diagrams are useful tools in studying alloying and
tally
The shape of
a binary phase
tually soluble, partly soluble, or totally insoluble in their solid state. Let us discuss
in the
following sections.
An isomorphous
example of
A.
this
case of two elements that are completely mutually soluble in their liquid state as well
A typical
shown
case
is
in Figure
12.
The
first
an alloy containing
100% Cu and 0% Ni
it
(i.e.,
per indicates the boundary between the two phases for pure copper:
liquid copper phase, and below
is
same
is
591
FIGURE
Copper-nickel
A.
12
1500
equilibrium phase
diagram (From
Askeland, 3rd ed.,
1400 -
1994)
1300
1200 -
1100
Cu
20
40
Weight percent
60
nickel
area below
it
the
two
a
curves
is
a transition
zone
in
which both a
liquid
and a
we draw
60% Cu
and
40%
Ni),
it
will intersect
at
and
which
that alloy
is
becomes comfill
pletely solid.
The
two temperatures
in
mold completely before solidification occurs. Now, let us take a closer look at how various alloys containing different percentages of nickel solidify. This is achieved by plotting the temperature-time relationship when the molten alloy is left to cool down naturally. The graph is referred to as a cooling curve.
As can be seen
in Figure
FIGURE
A.
13
Pure
>^nickel
Pure copper
Time
592
Appendix
Materials Engineering
plateau, indicating that solidification takes place at a constant temperature over a pe-
Cu-40% Ni
is,
where
solidification is gradual
and there
first,
is
no
and the
Next,
ties
we have
to
How
answer
tice,
FCC
lat-
and so does
nickel.
When
As
some
for
copper atoms
lattice
in the lattice.
becomes
distorted.
is difficult
atoms
to slide or slip
the strength of the alloy will be higher than that of pure copper (or nickel), while the
ductility will decrease. This type of solid solution
is
solution,
and
it
is
common when
same
is
and more or
less the
size of atoms.
On
phenomenon known
shown
it is
in
Figure A. 14.
Note
known
As
the
FIGURE
A.
14
593
name
suggests, atoms of the alloying additive occupy the interstitial cavities in the
is
nitro-
gen, which both have smaller atoms, dissolve into metals having
iron at elevated temperatures like
FCC
lattices,
such as
1673F
(slightly
above 912C).
to the case of
eutectic phase
diagram corresponds
two
neg-
components
ligible or
that are
no
cadmium (Bi-Cd)
figure, alloy
I
Figure A. 15.
As can be seen
at
homogeneous
rich in bismuth.
When
As
below the
is
bismuth
alloy
supersaturated in bismuth).
have
less bismuth.
When
it
is
further cooled,
more
solid
and the concentration of cadmium continually increases in the molten fraction that remains after the precipitation of the solid bismuth crystals. On the other hand, if a
molten alloy rich
in
mium
precipitate
first,
cadmium, such as alloy II, is supercooled, solid crystals of cadand the remaining liquid fraction will become richer in bismuth.
is
guessed, there
which solid crystals of both bismuth and cadmium precipitate simultaneously when that molten alloy is supercooled below the liquidus. When solidification is completed, the solid constituents will form a mechanical mixture that can be revealed by microscopic examination.
can be seen
in
III
temperature that
is
this reason,
both the reaction and the alloy are referred to as eutecfusible"). After
solidification, alloy
I
will consist of
will consist of
cadmium
crystals
FIGURE
A.
15
Bismuth-cadmium
binary phase diagram
Bismuth
Cadmium
594
Appendix
Materials Engineering
FIGURE
A.
16
system
300
200
100
Time
we need
The
to see
how
the
com-
impedes the
slip
of atoms (each phase forms an obstacle to the next one), thus resulting in an in-
As
possess strength higher than that of alloys containing less of the eutectic.
typical
in
example of
this
case
is
shown
two
Figure A. 17.
As
two
anel-
ticipated, this
phase diagram
is
types. Instead of
in this case is a
is
mechanical mixture of two solid solutions. As can be seen in Figure A. 17, there
line
known
as the solvus.
19% and
decreases to only
2%
at
tin
room temperature. As
cools
a consequence,
2%
and 19%
down
of
tin precip-
itates in the
form of a
type
which
is
referred to as
the
erties
this
controlling
characteristics of the
phase. If
we can make
alloy.
it
distributed all over, then slip and deformation will be inhibited, and the result will be
known
phenomenon
is
very important
Now,
it
is
containing from
tion
19%
to
61.9%
will
solid solu-
alloy
known
as a hypoeutectic alloy, as
opposed
to
one
that contains
from 61.9%
to
595
FIGURE
A.
17
400
Lead-tin equilibrium
1994)
Pb
20
40
Weight percent
60
tin
80
99%
tin,
which
is
ERROUS ALLOYS
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
must become familiar with the phase diagram. The iron-carbon (Fe-C) phase diagram is slightly more complicated than the ones we have covered so far. Iron and carbon form an intermetallic compound (iron carbide, Fe 3 C) that contains 6.7% carbon. The phase diagram has,
In order to thoroughly understand ferrous alloys,
we
first
therefore,
two components:
is
iron
It
is
practical purposes,
is
the percent-
We
just trim
6.7% carbon
(i.e.,
the percentage at
which
the intermetallic
compound
is
formed).
Figure A. 18 shows the iron-carbon equilibrium phase diagram. Alloys containing more than 2.1% carbon are known as cast irons. They have a low melting point 2100F
(1148C) and a wide freezing range because of the eutectic reaction that takes place carbon are at 2100F (1148C) and 4.3% carbon. Alloys containing less than 2.1%
596
Appendix
Materials Engineering
FIGURE
A.
18
10
Composition
(at
% C)
20 25
Iron-carbon equilibrium
15
1600
1538C
1994)
1400
2500
1200
4.30
2000 2^
%
CD
1000 h
y+Fe 3 C
1500
727C
a+
a, Ferrite
FeX
1000
Cementite (Fe 3 C)
400
3
(Fe)
6.70
Composition (wt
% C)
referred to as steels.
They
are
shown
in the
and know
stable
it
by
to
heart.)
Now,
The
first
let
shown
in the iron-carbon
lattice
phase diagram.
phase
a-iron, or ferrite.
It
has a
BCC
and
is
is
up
1673F
soft
and
ductile, is fer-
maximum
of 0.02% carbon
BCC
It
unit cell
is
phase
is
y-iron, or ciustenite.
has an
FCC
lattice
to
2%
carbon (because the center of the unit cell has no atoms). Austenite appears as a result of an allotropic reaction at 1673F (912C). It is stable up to 2543F
(1394C), where another allotropic reaction takes place. Austenite
but
it
is
is
not ferromagnetic.
The
intermetallic
It
compound Fe 3 C
brittle
(iron
its
carbide)
is
is
hard and
because of
complex crys-
at
structure. As can be seen from Figure A. 18, the microstructure of carbon steels room temperature is usually a combination of these phases. There is, however, a
about 0.8%. This reaction involves the decomposition of austenite into a mechanical mixture consisting of lamellar alternate layers of cementite and ferrite. This mi-
597
croconstituent
is
known
as pearlite because,
it
looks like
referred to
is
it from the eutectic reaction that involves liqgood strength and toughness because the cementite
and
carbon steels contain pearlite to varying degrees. Steel that contains less than 0.8% carbon is known as hypoeutectoid steel and has a microstructure that consists of
surrounded by ferrite. Steel that contains more than 0.8% carbon is called hypereutectoid steel and has a microstructure that consists of pearlite surrounded by
pearlite
cementite.
rate is very
slow and
diffusion of carbon atoms can take place, thus emulating equilibrium conditions.
Howto
to
sudden cooling of austenite, the crystal structure changes from FCC body-centered tetragonal (distorted cube). Carbon atoms do not have enough time
diffuse and get trapped in the lattice, producing a supersaturated solid solution of car-
bon
is
in oc-iron.
Because the
lattice is
not
BCC,
does not appear on the equilibrium phase diagram) and is known as martensite. In practice, sudden cooling is achieved by quenching (i.e., dropping the heated steel part into water or oil at room temperature). Only pearlite undergoes the
metastable
(i.e.,
is
quenched,
is
its
microstructure will
its
hypereutectoid steel
quenched,
microstructure
and martensite.
is
to control their
as hardness, strength,
and
ductility).
which
it
is
service
life.
now
briefly
Hardening.
ture until
all
steel,
keeping
it
at
an appropriate temperait
rapidly in
water (or
oil).
The temperature
which austenitizing rapidly takes place depends upon used (and can be obtained from the iron-carbon equiA. 18). The heating time should be
in-
shown
earlier in Figure
creased with increasing component size to ensure that the core will also be fully
As previously mentioned,
is ferrite
and
martensite for hypoeutectoid steel, martensite for eutectoid steel, and cementite and martensite for hypereutectoid steel. As a consequence, there is no real gain in hardness
steels
(e.g.,
0.1% or 0.2%
component, as
will
be explained
later.
598
Appendix
Materials Engineering
FIGURE
A.
19
Temp.
(F)
Temperatures
appropriate for
austenitizing
2300
2100
1900
Appropriate austenitizing
1700
temperature region
1500
(1341F)
700
1300
% Carbon
Tempering.
steel that
to a temperature lower than 1340F (727C) for an adequate period of time so that
is
decomposed,
re-
strength
embedded and distributed in a matrix of ferobtained depend upon the temperature at which
below 1340F (727C),
will
tempering
result in
high ductility but low strength and hardness; low tempering temperatures
will
produce low ductility but high strength and hardness. In practice, metallurgical
engineers
make
temperature in order to select the appropriate tempering temperature that will produce
the desired level of hardness and strength. This operation
steels that
is
performed on
all
carbon
in order to
used.
Annealing.
steel
up
to a temperature high
it
enough
to
transform
perature.
ity
very slowly to
room tem-
The
performed by heating a
temperature, and then
that stock
component
soaking
it.
it
at that
in
It is
always recommended
599
steel
in
order to restrains
undergo large
temperature range,
it
keeping
it
at that
in air.
The
re-
sulting microstructure
ite
and
is
known
ductility.
Normalizing
be subjected to
It has higher strength and hardness than pearlite but lower performed on structures and structural components that will machining because it improves the machinability of carbon steels.
as bianite.
is
Surface Hardening
In
many engineering
applications,
it
is
hard enough to resist wear and erosion, while having the core ductile and tough
order to withstand impact and shock loading. This can be achieved through one of two
mechanisms: local austenitizing and quenching for medium- and high-carbon steels and diffusion of hardening elements like carbon or nitrogen into the surface of lowcarbon steels. Let us now discuss the various processes that are used in industry.
Flame hardening.
quenching. Flame-hardened parts must then be tempered after hardening. The tempering temperatures used depend
upon
process
is
usually
to
from 0.4%
Induction hardening.
Induction hardening
is
ence
is
which an alternating
current flows induces current in the part to be hardened. This induced current alternates
at
As
well as the resistance to current flow, the outer layer of the component heats up very
rapidly.
level of hardness.
Carburizing.
component of
is
achieved in
component
in a
carbon-rich
medium
salt.
at
elevated temperature.
and
in a steel container and comby a mixture of granular charcoal and barium carbonate. At ele-
the
component
vated temperatures, a series of chemical reactions take place and finally produce
atomic carbon that penetrates and diffuses into the surface of the low-carbon steel component. As a consequence, the surface layer becomes rich in carbon to a depth that depends upon the carburizing time as well as the temperature at which the part is
soaked.
Once
is
hardening
performed.
600
Appendix
Materials Engineering
Gas carburizing
is
carbon is a hydrocarbon gas such as natural or propane. The carburizing time is more or less the same as in pack carburizing, but this process provides the advantage of al-
at the
carburizing temperature.
It is
Salt carburizing is performed in a heated molten-salt bath. The typical salt used is sodium cyanide (NaCN), which is an extremely poisonous chemical compound and represents the major drawback of this process. On the other hand, its main advantage is the short heating cycle achieved through liquid convection. With today's strict envi-
problem
in
is
to as cyaniding or
Nitriding.
cyanide case-hardening.
monatomic nitrogen
that is
is
by
major advantage of
this
operation
that
is
performed
tem-
is
required.
is
is
dissociated
am-
between 925 and 1050F (500 and atomic nitrogen that diffuses into steel and
hydrogen
that is
(not having
these alloying elements) are, therefore, not well suited to this surface-hardening operIt
it
may
rosion resistance.
Carbonitriding.
Carbonitriding
is
operation
alloy steels.
Steels
Let us
now review
the different types of steels that are used in industry and discuss the
is
classification
system that
used
in the
to contact their national standards organizations for information regarding the systems
601
Carbon
and carbon, with up
Carbon and
alloy steels.
to
2%
carbon and only residual amounts of other elements except those added for deoxidization (such as
aluminum). There are also limits for various additives, such as silicon
steels are also referred to as plainsteel
carbon
steels
and low-carbon
steels.
all
These
steels
and
having a
total alloy
commonly used
(i.e.,
for structural
components
erties.
Note
be hardened
their hardenability) is
air
Some
instead of water or
In the
oil.
United States, the commonly used designation system for carbon and alloy
steels is the
Institute (AISI)
employed for identifying any steel. The first digit indicates the major alloying element, as shown in Table A.l. If the first digit is 1, the major alloying element is carbon, and the alloy is accordingly plain-carbon steel. The second digit indicates the relative percentage of a primary alety of
digits are usually
is
identified
is
is
nickel,
and
its
about
The
last
two
tent in
fixes
and suffixes
Tool steels.
Tool steels are actually alloy steels having a high content of alloying
is
el-
much lower
alloy steels because tool steels are always melted in electric furnaces. Tool steels are
cleanliness.
The AISI
classification
steels is
There are basically four categories, plus one for special purposes.
used to indicate the use category. The prefix
is
prefix (letter)
is
The first category is shock-resisting The second category is hot-work tool steel for use in forging dies and plastic molds; the prefixes H and P identify this group. The third category is cold-work tool steel, which is divided into four subgroups depending upon the quenching media. The prefixes W, O, and A are used for
identify the specific alloy within the category.
tool steel,
and
it
is
identified
by the prefix
S.
water,
oil,
and
air,
steel.
therefore, the
steel for
its
cold-work
its in-
The
last
category
(i.e.,
is
high-speed tool
which derives
name from
tended application
steels
at
can have either molybdenum or tungsten as the major alloying element, and
series
and the
series, respectively. In
602
Appendix
Materials Engineering
TABLE A.l
Major groups
in
Class
603
Still,
cookware.
is
1.2% and a chromium content of 12% up to 18%. This steel can be hardened by heat treatment. Sharp tools and knives can be made of martensitic stainless steel.
which contains nickel as a major alloychromium, and carbon. Nickel is added as an austenitestabilizing element that promotes the formation of an austenitic structure (y-iron) at room temperature. Austenitic stainless steel is hardenable only by cold-working and is
The
third type
is
used for parts that require good chemical resistance, such as piping and tanks.
A
PH
stainless steels
steels pos-
and
are, therefore,
used
in structural
components
and springs.
Other types of steel.
Other types of
manganese
steels.
LUMINUM ALLOYS
Aluminum
formability.
limits
its
possesses high electrical and thermal conductivity and good ductility and
It
has poor tensile properties and poor rigidity (low value of E), which
It
of 2.7 g/cm
cellent,
and
is
its
specific strength
it
(i.e.,
strength-to-weight ratio)
therefore, ex-
which
why
finds
widespread application
in the aerospace
and automotive
industries.
Aluminum
the
alloys, corresponding to
method of
we can
Each group
wrought and
a four-digit alloy-designation system that indicates the major alloying element (e.g.,
2024 is a wrought aluminum alloy with copper as the major alloying element). For wrought alloys, the alloy designation is followed by a suffix that can have a number
after
it.
The
Aluminum
Association and
is
used mainly
in the
United States. International readers should consult with the national standards organizations in their countries.
alloying elements in aluminum alloys are copper, manganese, magnesium, and zinc. An aluminum-copper alloy with 4% copper is a typical example of a heat-treatable alloy. The procedure involves heating the alloy to a temperature of 930F (500C) in order to form a homogeneous a solid solution. The
silicon,
piece
is
then quenched, resulting in a metastable phase because copper does not have
is
the time to diffuse out of the solid solution. Next, the piece
subjected to
artificial
aging by holding
it
at
as
Copper
will be separated
of tiny particles impedes deformation of the matrix and increases the strength. This
604
Appendix
Materials Engineering
to as dispersion strengthening,
is
OPPER ALLOYS
Copper was one of
its
the
first
it is
metals to be used by
humans because
in its
it
could be found in
it is
metallic form.
Now,
seldom
to find
copper
usually exalloys
tracted
from ores
5%
its
have
its
make copper
alloy forms.
copper produced
in the
used in many
tin,
and nickel.
When
brass
known as brass. Depending upon the (70% Cu, 30% Zn) or (3 brass (60% Cu,
formed by various forming processes,
its
40%
(3
Zn).
is
Whereas a brass
is
brass
lack of ductility.
is
When
known
as bronze.
In fact, bronze represents a family of alloys with varying percentages of tin that also have elements other than tin as the major alloying additive.
may
Nickel is completely soluble in copper. If it is the only alloying element, a singlephase solid solution will form, no matter what the percentage of nickel is. This family
of solid solutions
sistance
is
referred to as cupronickels.
They possess
and can be hardened only by cold-working (because the copper-nickel phase diagram is isomorphous). A common cupronickel alloy is one
and good
ductility
containing
70% copper and 30% nickel. Nickel and zinc together are added to copper as alloying elements. With the right combination of nickel and zinc, alloys can be obtained with the appearance of silver.
They
are, therefore, called nickel silvers
cutlery,
and fake
jewelry.
Some
of these alloys have good strength in the cold-worked condition and are,
components.
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cepts
Chenot. Fundamentals of
wood
Cliffs,
New
Metal Forming.
New
Abrasives, 404-405
Bulging, 237-238
Burnish, 214
Burr, 215
Acetylene, 108-109
Bending
blank development, 222-223
classification of
Adhesive bonding
adhesives, 128-129
joint design, 129
bending
Calendering, 297-298
Alumina, 351-352
Aluminum
cast alloys,
miscellaneous bending
61-63
190
105
operations,
224-225
Carbon dioxide process molding, 46^47 Cast irons, 59-61 Castability, 75-76
Castings
classification of,
for
forgeability,
34
welding
of,
defects
in,
68
wrought
alloys,
603-604
defined, 33
design
testing
for,
68-72
of,
and inspection
75
Brass
cast alloys, 63
gas-metal, 105-106
Brazing
fluxes, 125
joint design,
127-128
submerged, 103-105
Artificial intelligence,
techniques, 126-127
Group technology Cement-bonded sand molds, 46 Cemented carbides, 351 Centrifugal casting, 54-56
Ceramics, 351-352, 579
Chatter,
Broaching
advantages and limitations,
356
408
machines, 408
Bronze, 63
CIM, 548-550
29
Classification and coding,
435^36
Bug
chart,
Automation, 568
559-560
610
Index
611
extrusions,
169-170
154-155
Electromagnetic forming,
forgings, 191
rolled sections,
240-241
Electron
beam
welding, 110-112
260-261
Embossing, 236
372
Design for
adhesive joining, 129
End
effectors,
537-539
Compaction, 254-256
Composites. See Fiberreinforced polymeric
Environmentally conscious
manufacturing,
472^73
Environmental protection
legislation,
composites
68-72
473-475
Computer-aided process
planning, 562-565
427
Computerized numerical
control,
494-498
20-21
17-18
Concurrent engineering
benefits of,
definition,
design
for,
170-175
forging, 192-201
mechanics
of,
166-169
Coordinate system
for
292-294 manual assembly, 436^438 powder metallurgy, 268-269 robotic assembly, 445-446 turning, 377-379 welding, 85-87, 117-120
injection molding,
types, 160-166
Face
plate.
37
Facing, 373
Fibrous macrostructure,
76
NC
machines,
480^82
Design
the process of,
for robots,
527-53
10-14
Fits,
290 5-6
Copper
alloys,
604
498-501
Dividing head,
Draft
in casting,
in forging,
572-575
398^00
568-572
37
Forging
closed die, 182-188
defects
in,
194-197 147-148
in rolling,
191
212-220 348-350
Drilling
design
for,
for,
192-201 190-191
Cutting tools
basic geometry,
life,
352-353
materials,
350-352
wear, 352
388-389 machines, 388-392 tools, 383-386 Drop forging, 183-185 Dry sand molds, 45^6
design
Elastomers, 289-290
open-die, 177-182
recent developments. 188-190
castings,
68
parts,
409-411
235
Electrohydraulic forming, 240
deep drawn
91-92
612
Index
Mandrels, 371-372
Manipulators, 536
291-292
Interchangeability, 6
Manufacturing
concept of design
defined, 1-2
effect
for,
14-16
Gas welding, 108-110 Gas metal arc welding, 105-106 Gas tungsten arc welding,
106-107
Gating system, 39-40
on standard of living, 2
Jig boring,
392
Manufacturing Automation
Protocol,
Job shop, 3
Knurling, 376-377
554-555
Material handing, 57
Laser
cutting, 123
Metal cutting
chip formation, 334-335
of, 356-358 339-342 general, 331-333 oblique cutting, 343-348
welding, 112-113
economics
forces,
Lathes
and coding of
Metal powders
manufacture
of,
properties of,
249-25 251-253
370
tool holding,
turret lathe,
365
98-99
561
production flow analysis,
364-365
types,
362
393-395
machines, 397
types,
120-121
393-400
Heading, 202-203
Heat-affected zone. See
Molding
carbon-dioxide process,
Metallurgy of fusion
143-144
46^7
cement-bonded, 46
ceramic, 47-48
core-sand, 46
welding
forming, 203-204
drawing, 157
1
in extrusion,
69
350
261
Hot
Hot
isostatic pressing,
tears,
in
50
68
in rolling,
153-154
loam, 47
permanent, 51-52
Machinability, 353-354
plaster,
47
precision,
shell,
48-50
92
Machining
centers,
398
See Cast
47
architecture,
structure,
266
Magnesium, 63
Malleable cast
iron
iron.
Injection
molding
design
of,
292-294
Network Network
553-554
553
Index
613
26
Nondestructive testing
of castings, 75
Pert chart,
defined,
Powder metallurgy
advantages and disadvantages,
end
effectors,
523-524 537-539
of forging, 183
industrial applications,
270
alternative consolidation
541-545
reasons for employing,
Numerical control
advantages, 478179
coordinate system, 480-482
defined,
476-477
258-263 270-274 basic process, 254-258 design of powder metallurgy parts, 268-269
techniques,
applications,
sensors,
524-525 540-541
Rolling
load and power requirements,
148-149
lubrication
mills,
in,
elements of an
NC
system,
porosity in
parts,
479-480 graphics NC, 509-514 machine motion, 482185 manual part programming, 491-494 tape coding, 486^-91 types of systems, 485-486
Oblique cutting, 343-344
Orthogonal cutting, 332
153-154
149-151
secondary consolidation
operations,
principles,
147-148
Product
cycle,
7-8
design, 14-16
development, 23-24
Production
turn,
405-406
Seam
welding, 96-97
6-7
Gas welding
Phase diagrams, 590-595
types,
3-4
561-562
Progressive dies, 214
Programming of
NC
machines.
See
47
Patterns
101-102
Shrinkage, 37
Silicones,
allowances, 37
types,
500-501
36-37
214
140-142
289
Perforating,
Sintering,
256-258
260
342
Sizing, 201
Rake
Slip casting,
Plastics
geometry
Slip-line filed,
Slitting,
additives,
290-291 279-281
Reamers, 387
Redrawing, 228-229
Refractory metals, 273-274
394
382
classification of,
Slotters,
299-303
machining
of,
Soldering, 123-126
298
Ribs, 197
579-580
Riveting, 84
Solid-waste
sources,
Robots
classification of,
462164
welding
of,
298-303
components
of,
525-535 536-537
614
Index
Thermosetts, 281
defects
in,
113-116
Thread
Tin, 53
taps,
387-388
Titanium, 273-274
Tolerances, 4-5
107-108
Tools
Steady
Steel
rests,
370
geometry, 348-350
life,
94
friction,
91-92
92-93
fusion,
98 92
wear, 352
induction,
inertia,
Trepanning,
drill,
384-385
laser
welding, 120
metallurgy
Submerged
arc welding,
oxyacetylene, 108-110
103-105
Surfacing, 120-121
372-376
projection,
resistance,
machines, 362
speeds and feeds, 376-377
tools,
Swaging, 201
366-369
Tape
coding, 487^188
format,
103
testing of joints,
116-117
488^91
486-487 352-353
thermit, 93
ultrasonic,
material,
Vacuum
casting process,
56-58
90-91
Taylor's equation,
Warm
forming,
88
Work
envelope, 527
Thermal
cutting,
121-123
Thermit welding, 93
Thermoplastics, 280-281
Zinc, 63
im
econd Edition