DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, SILVER JUBILEE GOVERNMENT COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), KURNOOL 518002

Kinds of Words
Lexical Grammatical Words Words 1. Determiners 1.Nouns 2. Pronouns 2.Adjective 3. Auxiliaries s 4. Intensifiers 5. Prepositions 3.Verbs 6. Conjunctions 4.Adverbs Structure of Sentence
Sentence: Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase Noun Phrase: Determiner + (Adjective Phrase) + Noun Verb Phrase: Auxiliary + Verb + (Noun Phrase) + (Adverb Phrase) + (Prepositional Phrase) Examples: A beautiful lady married a famous doctor in Kurnool yesterday. Noun Phrase Verb Phrase

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The Relation between the Parts of Sentence and Kinds of Words

S. Part of Kind of Word Noun (Pronoun) Verb Noun (Pronoun) Noun/Adje ctive Adverb No. Sentence 1 Subject 2 3 4 5 Verbal Object Compleme nt Adverbial

The Relation between the Structure of Sentence and the Kinds of Verbs

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S.

Kind of Verb

Subj ect Rani Rani Rani

Verb ran beca

Objec Objec t-1 ___ t-2 ___ ___ ___

Comple ment ___ a doctor ___

Adverbial (Optional) very fast. last year. last month.

No. 1 Intransitive 2 Linking 3 MonoTransitive 4 5 Di-Transitive Complex Transitive

me marri a ed docto r Vani her son

Rani Rani

sent nam ed

a gift ___

___ Bharani

by post. yesterday.

NOUNS
VARIABLE NOUNS
1. Regular Singular: Plural ball: balls noun: nouns owl: owls 2. IRREGULAR SINGULAR: PLURAL
WOMAN FOOT

INVARIABLE NOUNS
4. FOREIGN NOUNS SINGULAR: PLURAL
ALGA: ALGAE ALUMNA: ALUMNAE AMOEBA: AMOEBAE

3. Compound Nouns Singular: Plural man-of-war: men-of-war son-in-law: sons-in-law notary public: notaries public

WOMEN

FEET

1. Always 2. ALWAYS Singular PLURAL stationer y SCISSORS machiner y TWEEZERS scenery FORCEPS news
PLIERS

GOOSE

GEESE

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economi grant-in-aid: grants-in-aid ALUMNUS: ALUMNI cs PINCERS inspector-general: photo: photos OX : OXEN inspectors-general BACILLUS: BACILLI physics BINOCULARS dynamo: mouthful: mouthsful, dynamos LOUSE : LICE mouthfuls FUNGUS: FUNGI billiards GOGGLES cargo: spoonful: spoonsful, cargo(e)s MOUSE : MICE spoonfuls BACTERIUM: BACTERIA mumps SPECTACLES gentleman farmer: halo: halo(e)s DEER : DEER gentlemen farmers DATUM: DATA bread PANTS tornado: man servant: men tornado(e)s SHEEP : SHEEP servants AGENDUM: AGENDA soap KNICKERS volcano: HUNDRED : woman doctor: women volcano(e)s HUNDRED(S) doctors CRITERION: CRITERIA paper SHORTS assistant director: informati belief: beliefs HERO : HEROES assistant directors PHENOMENON: PHENOMENA on PYJAMAS cliff: cliffs MANGO : MANGOES girl friend: girl friends ANALYSIS: ANALYSES business TROUSERS chief: chiefs THIEF : THIEVES boy friend: boy friends CRISIS: CRISES work PEOPLE fountain pen: fountain proof: proofs LOAF : LOAVES pens THESIS: THESES furniture POLICE woman-hater: womansafe: safes GLASS : GLASSES haters APEX: APICES glass GLASSES iron: irons BATCH : BATCHES grown-up: grown-ups MATRIX: MATRICES iron IRONS Note: Do not use a(n) before plural nouns and always singular nouns. Do not use a plural verb after a singular noun and a singular verb after a plural noun. Do not use an always singular noun in the plural form and an always plural noun in the singular form. Be careful with the irregular plural forms, foreign plural forms and the plural forms of compound nouns. zebra: zebras
CHILD

CHILDREN

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PRONOUNS
Personal Subject Object I We You You He She It They me us you you him her it them Reflexive /Emphatic myself ourselves yourself yourselves himself herself itself themselves Possessi ve mine ours yours yours his hers its theirs PreDetermi ners all all of Both Both of some of A few of Many of A little of Much of ...

DETERMINERS
Central Determi ners my our your your his her its theirs a(n), the this /that these/th ose Post Determiners ordinals first second third fourth fifth sixth . . . fifteenth . . . seventieth ... twenty sixth . . . last cardina ls (definit e) one two three four (indefi nite) few Much of several many

Impersonal Pronouns One It one it oneself itself ones its

Reciprocal Pronouns

Each other (for two) Cardinal Numbers

One another (for many) Noun Sequence of Determiners and

PreDeterminer s

Central Determine rs

Ordinal Numbers

Adjective Classifie s rs

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fans All Those first Five beautiful Usha

others before a noun

ARTICLES
GENERAL
a(n) / the Countable (Singular) eg: cow Countable (Plural) eg: cows --Uncountable eg: milk Examples: A cow gives milk. The cow gives milk. Cows give milk. Milk is good for health. A cuckoo sings sweetly. a(n)

PARTICULAR
INDEFINITE
Countable (Singular) eg: cow Countable (Plural) (some/any) eg: cows Uncountable (some/any) eg: milk A noun is indefinite if is known only to the speaker but not the listener. Examples: 1. I saw a cow and it had one horn. 2. I saw some cows and they were grazing on that wasteland the the the

DEFINITE
Countable (Singular) eg: cow Countable (Plural) eg: cows Uncountable eg: milk

A noun becomes definite when it is known both to the speaker and the listener. This happens in two ways: i) A noun becomes definite when it is referred by a sentence/ clause/phrase before or after itself (noun). Examples: ii) A noun becomes definite when it is used either in general or specific context. Examples:

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The cuckoo sings sweetly. Cuckoos sing sweetly. Music is enjoyable. Note: Here the article almost conveys the following meaning irrespective of its physical presence or

3. Have you drunk any milk? 4. I haven't seen any films recently. 5. He bought a house last Other Meanings: 1. She reads 3000 words an (=per) hour. 2. Please get a (=one) cup of tea. 3. Satya wants to marry a (=any) cook.

1) I saw a cow. The cow had one horn. (Already referred by a sentence) 2) The cows that Gopi bought give much milk. (Referred by a clause later.) 3) The milk of his cows is very good. (Referred by a phrase later.)

(1) The sky is blue. (general) (2) The earth moves around the sun. (General) (3) Please open the door. (Specific to your classroom) (4) The principal will take your class tomorrow. (Specific to your college.)

USAGE OF ARTICLES APART FROM LOGICAL RULES

(A) Usage: We should use the before the following:
Oceans, seas, rivers, canals, lakes & water falls: Mountain ranges, Deserts & Forests: Plural names of countries & groups of islands: National monuments & museums: the Pacific Ocean, the Red Sea, the Nile, the Suez Canal, the Chilka Lake, the Niagara Falls etc. the Himalayas, the Alps, the Sahara, the Nallamala etc the Netherlands, the U.S.A., the Andamans etc. the Tajmahal, the Salarjung Museum etc.

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Cinemas & theatres: Epics & holy books: Instruments:

the Maheswari, the Anand, the Ravindra Bharati etc. the Ramayana, the Iliad, the Bible, the Gita, the Koran the violin, the piano, the flute, the guitar etc.

(B) Usage: We should not use the before the following:

Games & Sports: Diseases: Meals: Languages: cricket, tennis, basket ball, running, long jump etc. diarrhoea, jaundice, malaria, typhoid etc. breakfast, brunch, lunch, tea, supper, dinner (generally speaking) English, French, German, Hindi, Italian, Telugu

('C) We use the before the following Nouns when they refer to the building but not to its primary purpose: school, college, chapel, church, hospital, court, prison, market, bed, sea, work I go to college (Primary purpose: to study). My father came to the college to see me. The injured man is taken to hospital. His kin went to the hospital to see him. John never goes to church, Though the church is very near to his house. Repetition of Articles: Non-Repetition of Articles: The poet and the novelist (two people) are The poet and novelist (one person) is coming to our college. coming to our college.

VERBS
The Three Forms of Regular and Irregular Lexical Verbs Irregular Verbs Irregular Verbs - Irregular Verbs I Irregular Verbs - II II III Regular Verbs

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VV bet bid bur st cas t cos t

-0 ed1

V V V V V V V bet lent calle bet lean lent spit spat spat rise rose risen call d called bid leap leapt stri stru strike disli dislik dislike bid leap t get got got ke ck n ke ed d bur leav shi sho stri stro strive drea dread dread st burst e left left ne ne shone ve ve n d ed ed cas mea mea sho writ wrot writte ente enter entere t cast n nt meant ot shot shot e e n r ed d cos slee slep figh foug t cost p t slept t ht fought fly flew flown hate hated hated swe swe sta stoo heate heate cut cut cut ep pt swept nd d stood do did done heat d d wee wep stri stro wen hit hit hit p t wept de de strode go t gone like liked liked -0 -ed1 (1) V = Plural Present Tense / Infinitive; (2) V = Past Tense; (3) V-ed2 / V-en = Past Participle(V & Adj.). (4) V-ing = Present Participle(Adj.) / Gerund(Noun); (5) V-s = Singular Present Tense.
-0 -ed1 -0 -ed1 -0 -ed1 -0 -ed1

V-ed2 / V-en

V-ed2 / V-en

V-ed2 / V-en

V-ed2 / V-en

V-ed2 / V-en

MODAL AUXILIARIES PRIMARY AUXILIARIES Present Past (to) Present Past can could infinitive Tense Tense Participles dare dared am / is / was / been / (to) be are were being may might had / must(hav SNe Auxili Non-Finite Verb have has Voic Modal Aspect (to) / have had having to) had to 0 need ary e done / ---1 ought to V-ing (Present (to) do Be Continu Acti Nondoes / do did doing ---shall should used --to will would TWO DAY WORKSHOP ON GRAMMAR FOR COMMUNICATION DURING 27-28 MARCH 2006

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2 3 4 5

Have Be Do

Participle) V-en (Past Participle) V-en (Past Participle) Vo (Infinitive)

ous Perfect Simple Simple Simple

Modal Vo (Infinitive)

ve Acti ve Acti ve Acti ve Acti ve

Modal NonModal NonModal NonModal Modal

TENSES
ASPECT Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous Non-Modal Tenses (Factual Actions) ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE V be + V-ing have + V-en have + been + V-ing Modal Tenses (Imaginary actions) ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE FUNCTION Single/Regula r Continuous Just completed Action of Duration

be + V-en (M) V (M) be + V-en be + bing + Ven (M) be + V-ing --have + been (M) have + + V-en (M) have + V-en been + V-en (M) have + been --+ V-ing ---

Number Non-Modal Present Singular / Plural He writes / They write a letter every day.

Non-Modal Past He / They wrote a letter yesterday.

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He is / They are writing a latter now. He has / They have written a latter just now. He has / They have been writing a letter for 3 hours. A letter is /Some letters are written. A letter is /Some letters are being Singular / Plural written. (Passive Voice) A letter has /Some letters have been written. Modal Present He/They will write a letter tomorrow. (Active Voice) He/They will be writing a letter now/ (at Singular / Plural this time) tomorrow. (Active Voice) He/They will have written a letter by now/ by this time tomorrow. He/They will have been writing a letter for 3 hours by now/ by this time tomorrow. A letter / Some letters will be written. Singular / Plural (Passive Voice) A letter / Some letters will have been written.

He was / They were writing a latter when I went to his room. He / They had written a letter when the postman came. He / They had been writing a letter for 3 hours when the postman came. A letter was /Some letters were written. A letter was /Some letters were being written. A letter /Some letters had been written. Modal Past He/They used to/would write a letter every day last year. (Past Habit) He/They would be writing a letter then / when she would get there. He/They would have written a letter by then / when she would get there. He/They would have been writing a letter for 3 hours when she would get there. A letter / Some letters would be written. A letter / Some letters would have been written.

PREPOSITIONS AND PHRASES

A preposition goes before a noun or pronoun and these words form a phrase called prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase functions mostly as an Adverbial. It conveys the place (the position

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when there is no movement and the direction when there is a movement), the time (no movement in time), the duration (movement in time) and the manner of an action. Example: My friend went to Hyderabad on Monday by train. (place, time & manner). At away from Point of Place (SPOT): He stands at the bus-stop (near) and away from the lamp-post (far) (when there is no movement.) He goes from from / away from the bus-stop to/ towards the the lamp-post (when there is a movement.) from movement) on road. (horizontal movement) along across The hero jumped upon his horse. His horse ran along the street, He jumped off his horse onto the ground. Jack and Jill went up the hill, got a pail of water and came down the hill. (vertical movement) There is a bridge over the river. The river is flowing under the bridge. Over upon off There is a hill above the town and the town is below the hill. onto behind Enclosed Area / jumped over the wall and reached his house. off A man is walking along the road and a boy is running across the to Line/Open Area: He stands on the pavement and off the road. (no

Volume: There is a triangle in / inside the box and

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in beside Garde diamond is out of / outside the box. There is a garden out of into Post House School a school beside the out of the house through down between to the house. office and the school. window. (a)round the sun. (circular movement) (movement) Hotel up

the behind the house, a post office / house, a tree in front of (tree) in front of and a hotel opposite

The house is between the post opposite toAn arrow passes through the The earth moves (a)round

The triangle comes out of the box and the diamond goes into the box.

We use at / on / in before TIME when there is no movement of the action in time:

We use at before Clock Time (Grammar): at 10 o clock, at 5 o clock, at dawn (sunrise), at noon (midday), at dusk (sunset) . . . We use at before night and festival (Usage): at night, atDiwali, at Christmas, at Ranzan . . . We use on before days: on Monday, on Sunday, on Christmas Day, on New Year Day, on the morning of Monday . . . We use on before dates: on 15th August 1947, on 11th June 1954, on 18th October 1972, on 3 4 2006. . . We use on before parts of the day: in the morning, in the after noon, in the evening . . .

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We use on before months & seasons: in April, in June, in Spring, in Autumn (British) / Fall (American) . . . We use on before years, decades, centuries & millennia: in 1950, 1956, in the first decade, in the 21st century, in the 3rd millennium

We use from / since / till / to / until / for before DURATION when there is movement of the action in time:
We use since for the beginning of the duration, till/until for the end of the duration and for for the total duration of of time in perfect tenses: We have been ruling our country since 1947. He has been watering the garden till now. They have been here for ten days. We use from for the beginning of the duration, till/until/to for the end of the duration and for for the total duration of of time in other tenses: She works at the office from 10 o clock in the morning till 5 o clock in the evening every day. She works at the office for 6 hours every day.

Mode of Travel: We go by bus / by car (by road), by train / by tram (by rail), by plane / by helicopter
(by air), by boat / by ship (by water). But we go on foot / on horseback. We use in / on with an article before a vehicle if there is something special / specific about the vehicle. We travel on / in a public vehicle but in private a vehicle.

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Mode of Writing: We write in ink / in pencil. But she wrote him a letter with the pen presented to
her by him on her wedding day (when you write with a special pen / pencil).

Boarding / Alighting: We get into / onto a public vehicle (bus/train/plane) (boarding) off / out of a
public vehicle (bus/train/plane) (alighting). We get into a private vehicle (private car/bus . . . ) (boarding) off / out of a private vehicle (private car/bus . . . ) (alighting).

CONJUNCTIONS AND CLAUSES

Kind Compound Sentences Coordinating Conjunctions Kind
Noun Clause Adjective Clause Adverb Clause Structure of Sentences Clause/Phrase Clause Phrase Independent (Coordinate) Clause Independent Clause Independent (Coordinate) Clause

Complex Sentences Subordinating Conjunctions

what, who, whom, which, where, when, why, how . . . who, whom, which, that, where, when, why, how . . . where, when, why, how, whereas, while, as, because, till, since, before, after, if, unless, so that, in order that, than, such that, so that, as as, lest, though, although . . .

Cumula And, both and, not only but tive also, as well as Alternat Or, either or, neither nor ive Illative So, hence, for Adversa But, yet, otherwise tive Senten ce Simple Compo und

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Comple x Examples:

Dependent (Subordinate) Clause

Independent (Main/Principal) Clause

Simple Sentences
Because of his studying hard, Rama got a first class. In spite of his running fast, Venu could not catch the bus. You must pay the fees in order to write the examination. I saw a man with one eye. Bhima is too weak to lift a monkeys tail. Hanuma is strong enough to carry a hill.

Compound Sentences
Rama studied hard so got a first class. Venu ran fast but could not catch the bus. You must pay the fees otherwise you cant write the examination. I saw a man and he had one eye. Bhima is very weak so he cannot lift a monkeys tail. Hanuma is very strong so he can carry a hill.

Complex Sentences
Because Rama studied hard, he got a first class. Though Venu ran fast, he could not catch the bus. Unless you pay the fees, you cant write the examination. I saw a man, who had one eye. Bhima is so weak that he cannot lift a monkeys tail. Hanuma is so strong that he can carry a hill.

Her dream became true. She dreamt something and it became true. What she dreamt became true. I know a story. I know where Gandhi was born.
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I know the place where Gandhi was born. He died where Gandhi was born.

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