Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
3D-PIV System
Neither this documentation nor the software may be copied, photocopied, translated, modified, or reduced to any electronic medium or machine-readable form, in whole, or in part, without the prior written consent of Dantec Dynamics A/S. Publication no.: 9040U4113. Date: 7. February 2002 Copyright 2000-2002 by Dantec Dynamics A/S, P.O. Box 121, Tonsbakken 16-18, DK-2740 Skovlunde, Denmark. All rights reserved. Fifth edition. First edition printed in 1998. All trademarks referred to in this document are registered by their owners.
Table of Contents
1. Warranties & disclaimers.....................................................................................................................................1-1 1.1 1.2 1.3 2. Dantec Dynamics License Agreement..............................................................................................................1-1 Laser safety ......................................................................................................................................................1-3 CCD sensor warranty ......................................................................................................................................1-3
3.
System overview ....................................................................................................................................................3-1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 System components ..........................................................................................................................................3-1 Stereo PIV ........................................................................................................................................................3-1 Camera mounts ................................................................................................................................................3-3 Calibration target ............................................................................................................................................3-3
4.
System hardware installation & set-up ...............................................................................................................4-1 4.1 Installation of hardware...................................................................................................................................4-1 4.1.1 Mount the cameras and lenses..................................................................................................................4-1 4.1.2 Install the input buffers and personality modules ....................................................................................4-2 4.2 Hardware set-up ..............................................................................................................................................4-2 4.2.1 Light sheet set-up .....................................................................................................................................4-2 4.2.2 Calibration target set-up...........................................................................................................................4-3 4.2.3 Camera set-up...........................................................................................................................................4-4 4.2.4 Importance of aligning the target with the light sheet..............................................................................4-8
5.
Calibration images and measurements ...............................................................................................................5-1 5.1 Recording calibration images ..........................................................................................................................5-1 5.1.1 Custom calibration targets........................................................................................................................5-6 5.2 5.3 Measurements ..................................................................................................................................................5-8 Set-up examples ...............................................................................................................................................5-8
6. 7.
Installing FlowManager 3D-PIV..........................................................................................................................6-1 Fundamentals of Stereo-PIV ................................................................................................................................7-1 7.1 7.2 7.3 Imaging models................................................................................................................................................7-2 Camera calibration ..........................................................................................................................................7-3 Stereo measurements........................................................................................................................................7-3
8. 9.
Structure of a 3D-project......................................................................................................................................8-1 Recipe for a 3D-PIV experiment..........................................................................................................................9-1 9.1 9.2 Exporting calibration images...........................................................................................................................9-1 Exporting 2D vector maps ...............................................................................................................................9-4
9.3 Camera calibration in FlowManager 3D-PIV.................................................................................................9-4 9.3.1 Importing calibration images ...................................................................................................................9-5
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
1-1
9.3.2
9.4 3D evaluation in FlowManager 3D-PIV....................................................................................................... 9-11 9.4.1 Importing 2D vector maps..................................................................................................................... 9-11 9.4.2 Calculating 3D vector maps .................................................................................................................. 9-12 9.4.3 Calculating 3D vector statistics ............................................................................................................. 9-14 10. 10.1 10.2 11. 11.1 11.2 3D PIV online and link to FlowManager ...................................................................................................... 10-1 Quick guide to online 3D PIV result ............................................................................................................. 10-1 Link to FlowManager.................................................................................................................................... 10-3 Graphical displays........................................................................................................................................... 11-1 Calibration images........................................................................................................................................ 11-2 2D Vector maps............................................................................................................................................. 11-3
11.3 3D Vector maps............................................................................................................................................. 11-3 11.3.1 2D display of 3D results........................................................................................................................ 11-4 11.3.2 3D chart display..................................................................................................................................... 11-6 12. Investigating results numerically ................................................................................................................... 12-1
12.1 Spreadsheet display....................................................................................................................................... 12-1 12.1.1 Spreadsheet display for 3D vector maps ............................................................................................... 12-1 12.1.2 Spreadsheet display for 3D vector statistics .......................................................................................... 12-1 12.1.3 Export to Excel via the clipboard .......................................................................................................... 12-2 12.2 ASCII export.................................................................................................................................................. 12-3
1-2
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
1-1
Limited Warranty You are obliged to examine and test the software immediately upon your receipt thereof. Until 30 days after delivery of the software, Dantec Dynamics will deliver a new copy of the software if the medium on which the software was supplied (e.g. a diskette or a CD-ROM) is not legible. A defect in the software shall be regarded as material only if it has an effect on the proper functioning of the software as a whole, or if it prevents operation of the software. If until 90 days after the delivery of the software, it is established that there is a material defect in the software, Dantec Dynamics shall, at Dantec Dynamics discretion, either deliver a new version of the software without the material defect, or remedy the defect free of charge or terminate this license agreement and repay the license fee received against the return of the software. In any of these events the parties shall have no further claims against each other. Dantec Dynamics shall be entitled to remedy any defect by indicating procedures, methods or uses ("work-arounds") which result in the defect not having a significant effect on the use of the software. The software was tested prior to delivery to you. However, software is inherently complex and the possibility remains that the software contains bugs, defects and inexpediences which are not covered by the warranty set out immediately above. Such bugs etc. shall not constitute due ground for termination and shall not entitle you to any remedial action. Dantec Dynamics will endeavour to correct all bugs etc. in subsequent releases of the software. The software is licensed "as is" and without any warranty, obligation to take remedial action or the like thereof in the event of breach other than as stipulated above. It is therefore not warranted that the operation of the software will be without interruptions, free of defects, or that defects can or will be remedied. Limitation of Liability Neither Dantec Dynamics nor its distributors shall be liable for any indirect damages including without limitation loss of profits, or any incidental, special or other consequential damages, even if Dantec Dynamics is informed of their possibility. In no event shall Dantec Dynamics total liability here under exceed the license fee paid by you for the software. Product Liability Dantec Dynamics shall be liable for injury to persons or damage to objects caused by the software in accordance with those rules of the Danish Product Liability Act which cannot be contractually waived. Dantec Dynamics disclaims any liability in excess thereof. Governing Law and Proper Forum This license agreement shall be governed by and construed in accordance with Danish law. The sole and proper forum for the settlement of disputes here under shall be The Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen (S- og Handelsretten i Kbenhavn).
1-2
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Questions Should you have any questions concerning this license agreement, or should you have any questions relating to the installation or operation of the software, please contact the authorised Dantec Dynamics distributor serving your country. You can find a list of current Dantec Dynamics distributors on our web site: www.dantecdynamics.com. Dantec Dynamics A/S Tonsbakken 16-18 DK-2740 Skovlunde Denmark Tel: +45 44 57 80 00 Fax: + 45 44 57 80 01 Web site: www.dantecdynamics.com Document:\marketin\license2.doc
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
1-3
2. Introduction
FlowMap is the trading name of a range of products which have been specially designed and constructed for obtaining instantaneous whole field velocity measurements using the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique. This guide is intended to advise you on the installation and operation of the FlowMap 3D-PIV System and is an addendum to the general FlowMap Installation and Users guide (9040U3623). This FlowMap 3D-PIV Installation & Users guide is principally concerned with the set-up and operation of the hardware and software components used only for the FlowMap 3D-PIV System. These components are in particular the camera mounts, the calibration target and the 3D-PIV software. For the operation of the FlowMap PIV processor, the FlowManager software, the individual illumination system components and PIV cameras and a general overview of the PIV technique, you should refer to the general FlowMap Installation and Users guide, and the specific Installation & Users guides supplied with individual system components. Before operating any PIV equipment, read the laser safety section of all laser and illumination system manuals and instigate appropriate laser safety alignment and operating procedures.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
2-1
3. System overview
Your purchase of FlowMap 3D-PIV equipment provides, perhaps in conjunction with equipment you already have, instrumentation to perform the five stages of the PIV data acquisition process: seeding, illuminating, recording, processing and analysing your flow field. This section of the manual will give a short description of the difference between 2D-PIV and 3D-PIV data acquisition in a plane and the extra hardware needed to make 3D-PIV acquisition and analysis.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
3-1
Figure 3-1: Scheimpflug Camera. The result of not correcting the focus using the Scheimpflug condition, is bad vectors in each side of the image (if the camera is focused correctly in the centre part), see Figure 3-2.
3-2
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Figure 3-3: Camera mount. The gap between the camera and the lens holder is enclosed by a flexible bellow to prevent surrounding light from reaching the CCD-chip. The mount is delivered with two different camera mounting brackets: one can be used with the Kodak Megaplus ES 1.0 camera and the other with the Dantec Dynamics HiSense PIV/PLIF camera.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
3-3
Figure 3-4: Standard calibration target mounted on traverse. The plane standard target contains a grid of black dots on a white background. The multi-level target contains a two-level grid of white dots on a black background (see Figure 3-5). With this target traversing becomes unnecessary, since beyond varying in-plane coordinates a single image will also contain dots with varying through-plane coordinates on account of the two-level grid. For both target types it is important to know the exact dot spacing since the grid defines the coordinate system. In the centre of the target is a larger dot surrounded by four smaller dots. By definition the larger dot is the origin of the coordinate system (0,0,Z) and the common fix point for the two cameras. The four smaller points identifies the x- and the y-axis. Therefore both cameras must be able to see the large dot surrounded by the four smaller ones. The plane standard calibration target has a dot spacing of 5 mm and a size of 200 mm by 200 mm. In principle the target can however have any size. Every time the physical set-up has changed a new calibration must be performed. It is important to be careful since even small changes can influence results significantly.
Figure 3-5: Large (double-sided) multi-level target with a two-level grid of dots.
3-4
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
4-1
Finally the camera and camera mounting brackets are mounted on top of the camera mount, see Figure 4-1. Make sure the bellow is centered on the C-mount at the front of the camera. Mount the camera lens.
4-2
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Alignment tools are supplied to align the light sheet and the calibration target. The tool consists of three small units (see Figure 4-2) with holes for the laser light to pass through. The holes are centered exactly 5 mm from the front of the calibration target, so when aligning the target should be traversed 5 mm away from the position where calibration images are acquired. The light sheet should be aligned so the center passes through all three holes, and when the calibration target is then traversed 5 mm forward, the target surface will be exactly in the center of the light sheet.
Warning:
Please observe safety precautions when running the laser and use appropriate laser goggles. Even at low energy laser beam reflections from pulsed lasers can cause severe eye-injuries. When aligning the light sheet, take extreme care to prevent direct and scattered laser light from entering the camera and the CCD, since this may cause permanent damage.
Warning:
Figure 4-2: Calibration target with zero marker, axis markers and light sheet adjustment tools.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
4-3
The plane calibration target has a built-in traverse with direction perpendicular to the calibration plane (i.e. the light sheet plane). When making a calibration the target is traversed through the light sheet in several positions. The position in which the calibration-plane is centered in the light sheet equals Z=0, while positions closer to the cameras are normally considered positive (Z>0) and positions further away from the cameras are considered negative (Z<0). This assumes that both cameras are on the same side of the calibration target (i.e. the light sheet). If the two cameras are on opposite sides, one of the cameras have different signs for the Z-coordinates.
Note:
If the traverse direction is not perpendicular to the calibration-plane the calibration will produce smaller or larger errors depending on the angle. The calibration target is typically traversed through the entire light sheet thickness: Z = half the light sheet thickness. The idea is to cover all possible out-of-plane particle displacements. It is important for the calibration accuracy that the two cameras can distinguish the dots from the background. The calibration target illumination should thus be uniform and bright giving a good contrast (avoid reflections back into the cameras). Dark areas will increase the imaged size of black dots in these areas and in the worst case the dots will merge into the shadow. An ordinary filament lamp or projector is normally fine as a light source.
Note:
When using the large (270190 mm) Multi-Level target you can use back-lighting since the white dots are actually plugs made in translucent material. With ambient light turned off back-lighting usually gives excellent contrast! In general the camera optics used is of high quality and the chromatic errors are quite small (negligible) for the visible wavelengths. If the laser wavelength of operation is different (infrared or ultra-violet) or the lamp used is very infrared then it may be necessary to use special optics and narrow-band interference filters in front of the cameras. Alignment tools are supplied to align the light sheet and the calibration target. The tool consists of three small units (see Figure 4-2) with holes for the laser light to pass through. The holes are centered exactly 5 mm from the front of the calibration target, so when aligning the target should be traversed 5 mm away from the position where calibration images are acquired. The light sheet should be aligned so the center passes through all three holes, and when the calibration target is then traversed 5 mm forward, the target surface will be exactly in the center of the light sheet.
Note:
The accuracy of the calibration depends on the quality of the calibration images!
Maintenance:
To clean the calibration target use only soap and water. The target cannot resist alcohol and strong solvents.
4-4
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Figure 4-3: Scheimpflug condition camera plane In the other plane the cameras must be perpendicular to the object plane, see Figure 4-4.
Figure 4-4: Ordinary camera plane (no CCD-tilt possible) The other idea is to maximize the common area seen from the two cameras, see Figure 4-5 and Figure 4-6.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
4-5
Overlap area
Figure 4-6: Common overlap area. Below is a step by step procedure for setting up the two cameras: Read the specific camera Installation and User's guide. How large is the flow field of interest? The standard calibration target is 200 mm by 200 mm which limits the field of view for the cameras. If the flow field area is larger a different larger calibration target is needed. Results might be completely unpredictable if the calibration target is smaller than the field of view. If the flow field area is smaller than 50 mm by 50 mm the number of dots will be too low and a target with a smaller dot pitch is needed. As a rule of thumb around 100 visible dots is reasonable for each calibration image if the best possible calibration is the goal. On both camera images it is necessary to be able to see the large dot (the zero marker) surrounded by the four smaller dots (the axis markers). This is the only common fix-point for each of the two cameras.
4-6
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Try to maximize the overlap between the two camera images. This is not done by centering the larger dot in both the left and the right image, but it is done by keeping the same object- camera distance for both cameras, by keeping the same camera height in the non-Scheimpflug-plane and by tilting the cameras until the same number of dots left and right of the large dot is seen in both camera images. Remember that a 3D-PIV calculation is only possible where information from both cameras is available. The angle given by the optical axis of the camera and the normal to the calibration target doesn't have to be the same for both cameras. It is just a nice intuitive set-up. The Scheimpflug condition can easily be calculated. The Scheimpflug condition is satisfied if: = ArcTan[(flenstan)/(do-flens)], flens is written on the lens, is given by the camera mount rotational scale, do is approximately the distance between the centre of the lens and the centre of the calibration target, see Figure 4-3. Then it is easy afterwards to adjust the CCD tilt angle at the back of the camera mount to the calculated value. This is done for both cameras. Another way of finding the Scheimpflug condition is to focus at the centre of your image and then afterwards tilt the CCD-plane to achieve best possible focus over the entire image. See the section, focusing the camera, in the camera Installation & User's guide - doing this, the on-line histogram may be helpful, see Figure 4-7. Best possible focusing shows a significant peak at histogram values for the black dots. This is done for both cameras. Yet, an other way to adjust the Scheimpflug condition is to look at the online 2Dvector map. Adjust the focus of the lens and the Scheimpflug angle until satisfactory vectors are obtained all over the image plane. See Figure 3-2. Use the single-frame mode of operation when aligning the set-up and performing the calibration. How to do this is discussed in the specific camera Installation & User's guide in the section: Focusing the camera.
Figure 4-7 using the on-line histogram is helpful in focussing the cameras. To get a successful calibration, the histogram MUST contain two distinct peaks.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
4-7
Figure 4-9 Two possibilities for misalignment between the calibration target and the light sheet. If the Direct linear transform is used, the misalignment shown in Figure 4-9, right is only of little importance. 4-8 FlowManager 3D-PIV.
The misalignment shown in Figure 4-9, left is quantified in Figure 4-10 for a set-up where the angle between the camera axes are 235 degrees. The misalignment is 5 degrees between the light sheet and the calibration target, which is actually quite a lot. The errors produced, are however only of the order 1.6%.
Figure 4-10 Misalignment of calibration target and light sheet will cause errors. Shown here is a field which should have been a homogeneous W displacement. The difference on the W-component is 1.6%, seen from the left side to the right side. The errors originate from a 5 degree misalignment, see Figure 4-9. The in-plane errors are insignificant.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
4-9
Figure 5-1 Recommended set-up and trigger mode for recording calibration images. (With the PCO-Camera 2 Light pulses per recording will likely be necessary). During calibration the 3D-PIV software performs image analysis to automatically identify the X- and Y-coordinates for each of the calibration markers (dots) on each of the images. The Z-coordinates must however be supplied by the user, since the FlowManager 3D-PIV. 5-1
system has no way of determining the position of the calibration target within the light sheet. The Z-coordinates can be supplied when performing the calibration, but the user is strongly advised to supply them immediately after image acquisition, while the image recording positions are still fresh in memory. The Z-coordinates are entered as log entries in the dataset properties for each calibration image (Right-click the image in the project explorer tree and select Properties from the resulting context menu). As shown in Figure 5-2 below, the entry should start with Z= followed by the Z-coordinate of the image in question. Anything after the Z-coordinate will be ignored, so further comments can be added if so desired.
Figure 5-2: Z-Coordinates are entered as Log Entries in the dataset properties. IMPORTANT: Please remember to enter the Z-coordinate for all calibration images and both cameras. To determine which Z-coordinates to enter you must imagine a normal X/Y/Zcoordinate system positioned with the X/Y-plane somewhere in the centre of the light sheet, and with the Z-axis normal to the light sheet. (See Figure 5-3). Z=0 will thus correspond to the centre of the light sheet, while points in front of or behind the light sheet will have non-zero Z-coordinates. The key point in using this coordinate system correctly is to imagine what it would look like as seen from each of the two cameras, the orientation of each axis being the most important issue. Referring to up/down and left/right as seen from the cameras point of view, the X-axis is assumed to be horizontal, while the Y-axis is assumed vertical. By default the X-axis is assumed positive to the right and the Y-axis positive upwards, and in a normal right-handed coordinate system the Z-axis will then be positive towards the camera. This is considered the normal front view of the cameras, but you can of course move one or both cameras to the other side of the target with or without changing the coordinate system. If you do so without changing the coordinate system, the Y-axis will remain positive upwards, but seen from the cameras point of view the X-axis will become positive to the left, and the Z-axis positive in a direction away from the camera, which is a typical back view camera setup. It remains fixed that the X-axis is always horizontal as seen from the cameras, while the Y-axis is always vertical, and the Z-axis normal to the light sheet. Each of the axes can however be positive in any direction you prefer, so there is a total of 8 different combinations to choose from (4 left-handed and 4 right-handed coordinate systems). You can choose any of these, but to obtain successful 3D results it is of course vital that the same coordinate system is used for both cameras. 5-2 FlowManager 3D-PIV.
The orientation of the X-and Y-axes is specified directly during calibration (See Section 9.3), while the orientation of the Z-axis is specified indirectly through the Z-coordinates supplied by the user for each and every calibration image.
X Cam 1 X
Light sheet
Light sheet
Cam 2
Cam 1
Cam 2
Figure 5-3: Top left: Camera 1 & Camera 2 both in Front View. Top right: Camera 1 in Back View, Camera 2 in Front View. Bottom: X-/Y- Coordinate axes seen from the cameras point of view. (Front View means Z is positive towards the camera, while Back View means Z is positive away from the camera. In both cases Y is positive towards the reader ensuring right-handed coordinates). With the normal plane calibration target (black dots on a white background) the Z-coordinate supplied refers to the surface of the target as seen from the camera in question. If you are using a double-sided target with cameras on opposite sides of the light sheet this means that the two camera images will have different Zcoordinates (where the difference corresponds to the thickness of the target). This is the reason that you MUST specify the Z-coordinate for BOTH images even if they are identical, since the system has no way of knowing it. In the example in Figure 5-4 a 10 mm thick target is traversed through three different positions in steps of 6 mm. When the first and the last position is further apart than the thickness of the target the two calibrations overlap one another in the Z-direction. In this example one camera is calibrated in the range 11<Z<+1 and the other camera in the range 1<Z<+11, ensuring overlap between the two calibrations in the range 1<Z<+1.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
5-3
Figure 5-4 Z-Coordinates for the front and back of a 10 mm thick double-sided target traversed through 3 different positions. If we were to make the same calibration in steps of just 4 mm instead of 6, one camera would be calibrated in the range 9<Z<1 while the other camera would be calibrated in the range +1<Z<+9. The two calibrations would not overlap, and strictly speaking none of the calibrations would be valid in Z=0 (the center of the light sheet) where we perform the measurements! 3D calculations based on such camera calibrations rely on extrapolation in order to handle data recorded in Z=0. With imaging models that are linear with respect to Z this is normally OK, but for example with the 3rd order polynomial model (which is 2nd order with respect to Z) extrapolation will definitely jeopardize the quality of the final 3D results. With the multi-level target (white dots on a black background) the Z-coordinate refers to the level of the zero marker (the big dot in the center of the calibration target). The Z-coordinate of dots on the second level is assigned automatically by adding or subtracting the level spacing to/from the Z-coordinate supplied by the user. Whether to add or subtract is determined by the user when identifying the target type as Multi level, 2nd level +D or Multi level, 2nd level -D, where D is 4 mm for the large multi-level target (270190 mm) and 2 mm for the small one (9575 mm). Which one to choose depends on the orientation of the Z-axis and on which side of the multi-level target the camera is looking at (i.e. is the 2nd level closer to or farther away from the camera than the zero marker level): Multi-Level, 2nd level 2nd level CLOSER to the camera 2nd level FARTHER from the camera Z-Axis positive TOWARDS the camera +D Z-Axis positive AWAY FROM the camera D
+D
Figure 5-5 Guide for correctly identifying the type of a multi-level target. (See also Figure 5-6). -Please note that the small (9575 mm) multi-level target is single-sided and by design the 2nd level will always be farther from the camera than the zero marker level. The upper part of the table in Figure 5-5 is thus not an option for this target.
5-4
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
2nd Level D
2nd Level + D
2nd Level D
2nd Level + D
Figure 5-6 Multi-level target shown with Z-Axis through the Zero marker. The Z-values actually entered depends on how the calibration target is aligned with the light sheet. Figure 4-2 shows alignment tools for the plane calibration target, but they are of little use with the multi-level target since they depend on traversing the target, and the multi-level target is specifically designed with the aim of not needing a traverse. No matter how light sheet and calibration target are aligned please remember that Z=0 should always refer to the center of the light sheet, and the Z-values supplied for the calibration image(s) should be adjusted accordingly. A few possibilities are shown in Figure 5-7 below: Center of the light sheet aligned with the front face of the target: Back View: Z = 2 ( 2nd level Z = 6) center of the target: Back View: Z = +1 ( 2nd level Z = 3) back face of the target: Back View: Z = +4 ( 2nd level Z = 0)
Front View: Z = +6 ( 2nd level Z = +2) Front & back overlap: +2 < Z < +4
Figure 5-7 No matter how light sheet and calibration target are aligned Z=0 should always refer to the center of the light sheet. (Examples based on the 270190 mm multi-level target). With cameras on opposite sides of the target, the lightsheet should ideally be aligned with the center of the target, and with both cameras on the same side of the target the light sheet should ideally be positioned midway between the two marker levels visible to the cameras. In practice this may be difficult to accomplish, but in most cases it will be adequate to align the center of the light sheet with the surface of the calibration target as shown in the left- and right-hand side of Figure 5-7. Strictly speaking the resulting calibration may not be valid in Z=0 when the light sheet is aligned with the surface of the calibration target, and extrapolation may thus be required to process data recorded in Z=0 (the center of the light sheet). With only two levels (i.e. two Z-coordinates) available, the imaging model used MUST be linear with respect to Z, so extrapolation in the Z-direction is safe.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
5-5
A A S 100 1600
The upper limit of N=1600 markers ensures that the inidividual markers remain large enough to be distinct on the CCD image. With 1600 markers distributed on a 1K1K CCD-chip, the smallest marker should cover roughly 30 pixels. If for some reason you cannot use the full CCD area (or if the camera used has a smaller CCD) the upper limit should be reduced accordingly. Over a thousand markers are more than enough for all practical purposes, so even with a CCD larger than 1K1K, there is no point in increasing the upper limit. The upper limit of 1600 markers does not account for the effects of perspective, so if you intend to calibrate and measure at very steep angles, you should stay well clear of this limit to make sure that all markers remain distinct on the images. The spacing chosen should also ensure that we get at least 5 markers in both horizontal and vertical direction (W=Width and H=Height):
W H 5 , and 5 S S
Example: Assume that we want to measure in an area of WH=420297mm2:
A = 1600
-We choose for example S = 12 mm, allowing a grid of 3525 dots within the measuring area, well above the minimum 55 markers required. (In order to get the Zero marker exactly in the center of the target, we normally aim at an odd number of markers both horisontally and vertically). Having chosen the dot spacing we can determine dot sizes, and the following rule-of-thumb can be used: Zero marker: Main markers: Axis markers: Ratio-Checks: We choose for example Zero Zero S/2 We choose for example Main Main S/3 We choose for example Axis Axis S/4 Zero/Main 2, Main/Axis 2 = = = 6 mm 4 mm 3 mm
(-where examples are based on the dot spacing S = 12 mm chosen above). Before you can start using the custom target you must add it to FlowManagers target library. This is accessed from within the 3D-PIV software by clicking Target Manager in the File menu. (See Figure 5-8).
5-6
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Figure 5-8 Target library. Click New in the target libray manager, and enter a meaningful name for the new target (see Figure 5-9).
Figure 5-9 Naming the new target. Finally enter dot spacing and sizes for the new target before pressing OK. (See Figure 5-10).
Figure 5-10 Entering dot spacing and sizes Note: Before entering marker spacing and sizes please verify what they actually are: If for example the new target was produced using a plotter, the actual marker sizes may be larger than intended due to the thickness of the pen. This is OK, provided you enter the actual sizes instead of the nominal ones in the dialog in Figure 5-10. Similar considerations apply regarding the marker spacing: Please verify the marker spacing and enter the actual value instead of the nominal one. Please verify also that the marker spacing is the same in both directions and that it is constant across the entire target. Random errors in the marker positions will normally not affect the quality of the calibration significantly, but even the slightest systematic errors may affect results seriously.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
5-7
5.2 Measurements
Taking data is no different from taking 2D data. When measurements are over, it may be advisable to repeat the calibration and verify that nothing has moved during recording. This may be an important issue for quality assurance of the data.
Figure 5-11 Flow behind a car Another set-up is shown in Figure 5-12. In this case, the main flow component is parallel with the light sheet.
5-8
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Having a strong jet in a cross flow, blowing trough the light sheet generates some interesting results: (Figure 5-13)
Figure 5-13 Jet in a cross flow. See the result in Figure 5-14
Figure 5-14 Result of a measurement of a jet in a cross flow (See Figure 5-13). The measuring plane is approximately one jet diameter from the wall. The dashed line shows the location of the jet exit.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
5-9
A flexible configuration is obtained when the two cameras and the laser is mounted on the same side of the flow (See Figure 5-15):
Figure 5-15 The set-up and result from a measurement with a back-scatter stereo configuration. The calibration is shown in Figure 5-17. If the light sheet optics and the cameras are furthermore mounted on a common traverse system a very efficient volume mapping PIV system has been created (See Figure 5-16):
Figure 5-16 Volume Mapping PIV is Dantec Dynamics approach to a comprehensive flow measurement. The recording of these data was performed automatically and lasted less than 10 minutes. The measurement was done in the same flowrig as shown in Figure 5-12. The calibration was done with a transparent target, see Figure 5-17. Read more about Volume Mapping PIV on our WEB site.
5-10
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Figure 5-20 Stereoscopic recording in a pipeflow. A water box is build around the pipe in order to minimize optical aberations.
Camera 1
Min. 30
Typ. 45
Figure 5-21:Using the multi-level target to calibrate a backscatter setup with cameras on opposite sides of the light sheet.
5-12
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Figure 5-22:Target type and coordinate system orientation corresponding to the setup in Figure 5-21.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
5-13
Figure 6-1: A software key matching the dongle is required to unlock the 3D-PIV software add-on. Dongles and software keys are related to each other, so the software key will work only with the particular dongle it is designed for. Each dongle is identified by a serial number, which will be required for generating a new software key if at a later time you buy further add-ons or upgrades to your software.
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
6-1
7. Fundamentals of Stereo-PIV
3D-PIV is based on the same fundamental principle as human eye-sight: Stereo vision. Our two eyes see slightly different images of the world surrounding us, and comparing these images, the brain is able to make a 3-dimensional interpretation. With only one eye you will be perfectly able to recognize motion up, down or sideways, but you may have difficulties judging distances and motion towards or away from yourself. As with 2D measurements, stereo-PIV measures displacements rather than actual velocities, and here cameras play the role of eyes, looking at the flowfield from different angles. (See Figure 7-1). The most accurate determination of displacements (i.e. velocities) is accomplished when there is 90 between the two cameras, but in case of restricted optical access, smaller angles can be used at the cost of a somewhat reduced accuracy: Experiments indicate that excellent 3D-PIV measurements can be performed with camera viewing angles of 30, and even at 15 3D results are reasonable.
Displacement seen from left Displacement seen from right True displacement Focal plane = Centre of light sheet
45
45
Left camera
Right camera
Figure 7-1: Principle of stereo-vision. For each vector in a 3D vector map, we extract 3 true displacements (X, Y, Z) from a pair of 2-dimensional displacements (x, y) as seen from left and right camera respectively, and basically it's a question of solving 4 equations with 3 unknowns in a least squares manner. Depending on the numerical model used to describe camera imaging, these equations may or may not be linear.
7-1
kx ky = k
Equation 7.1: Imaging model 'Direct Linear Transform'. -where uppercase symbols X, Y & Z are used for object (world) coordinates, and lowercase symbols x & y represent image coordinates. The DLT model is based on physics, but cannot describe non-linear phenomena, such as image distortion from poor camera lenses or complex refractions that may occur for example when measuring from air into water through a glass window. For experiments where significant non-linearities is present or expected in the camera imaging, FlowManager 3D-PIV provides polynomial imaging models, better equipped to describe this. One such imaging model is the 3rd order XYZ-Polynomial:
Equation 7.2: Imaging model '3rd order XYZ-Polynomial'. Where all A-coefficients are 2-dimensional vectors, producing separate polynomials for the image-coordinates x and y. A similar imaging model is the n'th order XY-Polynomial, which will allow the user to define polynomial order in the range 2-9, but as the name indicates, this model is linear with respect to Z. Please note that the polynomial imaging models are strictly empirical, and there are thus no physical arguments to justify their use. As explained above there may however be experiments, where they provide better results than the DLT.
7-2
Figure 7-2: Calibration images from camera 1 & 2. The calibration target contains calibration markers (dots), the true (X, Y , Z)position of which are known. Comparing the known marker positions with the positions of their respective images on each camera image, model parameters can be calculated.
7-3
-0.20
-0.10
0.00
0.10
0.20
Figure 7-3: Overlapping fields of view Interrogation grid Within the region of overlap interrogation points are chosen in a rectangular grid. In principle 3D calculations can be performed in an infinitely dense grid, but the 2D results from each camera have limited spatial resolution, and using a very dense grid for 3D evaluation will not improve the fundamental spatial resolution of the technique. Using the camera model including parameters from the calibration, the interrogation grid is mapped from the light sheet plane and onto the left and right image plane (CCD-chip) respectively. (See Figure 7-4). The 2D vector maps are then resampled in these new interrogation points to estimate 2D velocity vectors based on the nearest neighbors in the original interrogation grid of each vector map.
Resulting 3D vector map
Figure 7-4: 3D reconstruction. With a 2D displacement seen from both left and right camera estimated in the same point in physical space, the true 3D particle displacement can be calculated by solving 4 equations with 3 unknowns in a least-squares manner.
7-4
8. Structure of a 3D-project
The way stereoscopic PIV combines calibration images and 2D vector maps to produce 3D vector maps does not fit very well into the traditional FlowManager database structure. Therefore the project tree used in the 3D project explorer differs from the database tree used in FlowManager as explained below: The calibration archive ( ) at the root of the project tree can hold any number of calibration sets ( ). In the example shown here measurements were performed in two different positions, and since cameras and light sheet were moved, a separate calibration set was required for each measuring position. Within each calibration set there is a single set of ), typically holding 3-5 image calibration images ( pairs ( ) recorded with the calibration target in different Z-positions. From one such set of images several calibrations ( can be calculated, using different camera imaging models. )
Below the calibration archive a number of vector sets ) can be added. In the example shown here ( measurements were performed at air-speeds of 20, 100 and 180 km/h, and a separate vector set was created to hold the results from each of these experiments. Each vector set includes a single 2D vector map set ), which in turn holds a number of 2D vector map ( pairs ( ). A typical PIV-experiment will include anything from a few to several hundred 2D vector map pairs representing "snapshots" of the flow as seen from camera 1 and camera 2 respectively. Combining the 2D vectormaps with the calibrations above, we can calculate a number of 3D vector map sets ), each containing several 3D vector maps ( ). ( Within each 3D vector map set we can finally calculate statistics ( ) on the basis of all the 3D vector maps in the set.
Warning
Any 2D vector map pair can be combined with any camera calibration to produce a 3D vector map! The system has no way of knowing if the calibration used truly describes the conditions under which the 2D vector maps were recorded!
8-1
9-1
The Z-coordinate should be entered into the Log entry for each image, where the 3D-software will look for a line starting with Z=. The Log entry is part of the properties of the image (See Figure 9-1):
Figure 9-1: Entering Z-coordinate of a calibration image. In the example shown here, each calibration image has been renamed to L(eft) or R(ight) followed by the Z-coordinate. This is not required and images can be named and renamed freely, or simply left with their default names. It is however good practice to give the images meaningful names for easy identification later. If Z-coordinates is not specified at this time, the user will be prompted for them later, but then they will have to be entered every time cameras are calibrated even if the same calibration images are used over and over. Double sided target If the target is viewed from two sides (as shown in Figure 5-17 for example) and the target has a certain thickness, the z coordinate entered at the right hand and left hand image should be z-t/2 and z+t/2, where t is the thickness of the target. Once Z-coordinates have been entered in the properties of all calibration images, a so-called SIX-file (SIX = Set-up IndeX) must be generated, constituting the link between FlowManager and the 3D software. The set-up is the root of a branch in FlowManager's database tree, and the SIX-file can be thought of as a resume of the contents of this branch including paths and filenames identifying, where more detailed information can be found.
9-2
To generate a SIX-file, select the set-up containing the images, and then click Export. in the File menu (See Figure 9-2):
Figure 9-2: Exporting calibration images to a SIX-file. This will bring up the dialog in Figure 9-3:
Figure 9-3: Naming and storing a SIX-file. Give the SIX-file a meaningful name, and store it in a directory, where it can be easily found later. By default the file will be named according to the name of the set-up, so if the set-up has already been given a meaningful name, the user can simply select a directory and click Save.
9-3
Figure 9-4: Exporting 2D vector maps to a SIX-file. All necessary information is already available, so in principle the user need not do anything, but it is recommended to tidy up the database branch before creating the SIX-file (delete vector maps and things that aren't needed for the 3D evaluation). The Export dialog will correspond to the one shown in Figure 9-3, and again a directory and a file name will be required. By default the file name will correspond to the name of the set-up, and the default directory will be the last one accessed (i.e. the one where the SIX-file with calibration images was stored), so again; -If the set-up already has a meaningful name, the user need only click Save. Having generated SIX-files for both camera calibration and all 2D vector maps that are to be analysed, FlowManager can be shut down or minimized, and FlowManager 3D-PIV started.
9-4
Figure 9-5: Importing calibration images. Adding calibration images to a new 3D-project the first time, the user will be prompted to identify the calibration target. Select the calibration target from the list of known targets, and verify that the dot spacing in Target info corresponds to the dot spacing on the target used, see Figure 9-6.
IMPORTANT
In the menu shown in Figure 9-6, you are also required to define the coordinate system, which you would like to use. The coordinate system indicated must correspond to what the camera is actually looking at, there is no checking for mismatch. The selection of coordinate systems show in Figure 9-6 would correspond to a normal set-up, like the one shown in Figure 5-12.
Figure 9-6: Identifying the calibration target and the coordinate system.
9-5
All calibration images in a 3D-project are assumed to be images of the same target. Images can be recorded in different circumstances (illumination, distance, viewing angle etc.), but the dot spacing is assumed to be identical. Having identified the calibration target, the user will be prompted for the SIX-file containing calibration images (See Figure 9-7).
Figure 9-7: Browsing SIX-files for calibration images. The lower part of the dialog in Figure 9-7 shows the image maps available. By default they are all selected for import, but if so desired some of them can be excluded by selecting and deselecting using the arrow buttons. The image pairs are identified by the name of the image from camera 1, which is why only the R(ight)-hand images are shown in Figure 9-7. Although not shown directly, images from camera 2 are part of these pairs, and L(eft)-hand images will thus be imported also, when the Add-button is pressed. Required number of images Please note that the imaging model 3rd order XYZ-Polynomial is parabolic in Z, and thus requires images in at least 3 different Z-positions, while the models Direct Linear Transform and n'th order XY-Polynomial are linear with respect to Z, and thus requires only two different Z-positions. Calibrating on the basis of only two image pairs, they should be recorded with the target in front of and behind the light sheet respectively to make sure that the calibration covers the full thickness of the light sheet. It is however strongly recommended to use at least 3 image pairs, so calibration images in the centre of the light sheet can be included as well. When the Add button is pressed, the system will check for Z-coordinates of each image pair. If they appear OK, images are imported and otherwise a dialog opens, prompting the user to enter coordinates or verify the ones found (See Figure 9-8). If Z-coordinates were not entered in FlowManager, now is the time to do it. Otherwise just verify that the coordinates are correct, change them if necessary, and then click OK.
9-6
Figure 9-8: Entering Z-Coordinates for calibration image pairs. Calibration images are now imported into the 3D software in pairs, each described by their Z-coordinate.
Figure 9-9: Camera calibration. If the 3D project has not already been saved the user will be prompted to do so before commencing with camera calibration:
9-7
Select a directory, specify a meaningful name for the 3D project, and press Save. Now calibration will continue, and prompt the user to select an imaging model (See Figure 9-11)
Figure 9-11: Selecting an imaging model for camera calibration. The system will allow calculation of multiple calibrations based on the same set of calibration images (using different imaging models). In order to distinguish, each calibration must be given a unique name, but beyond this there are no special requirements. By default the name corresponds to the imaging model chosen, but this can be changed freely. Click OK to proceed with the camera calibration, which may take a while. Image processing parameters Mathematically camera calibration is the task of modifying the parameters of an imaging model to make the model match sample observations as best possible. Different imaging models have different parameters and different procedures to optimize the fit, but they all rely on sample observations where corresponding object- and image-coordinates are known. Obviously these coordinates originate from the calibration markers and identifying markers in an image and determining their coordinates requires image processing. The first step in identifying markers is to binarize the calibration images using a threshold value determined from the grayscale histogram of each image.
Figure 9-12 Left: Original image. Middle: Histogram with peaks and threshold. Right: Binarized image.
9-8
The thresholding is shown in Figure 9-12. The leftmost peak is assumed to correspond to the dark calibration markers, while the rightmost peak is assumed to correspond to the bright background of the calibration target. The threshold is determined as the grayscale value midway between these two peaks. (The multilevel targets have white markers on a black background and the marker and background peaks thus swap, but the threshold is still midway between them). To remove noise the histogram is smoothed before peak-finding. If more than two distinct peaks remain in the histogram only the two outermost will be used and further peaks in the central part of the histogram will be ignored. This is particularly important in cases where the calibration target does not cover the cameras entire field of view: If very dark or very bright areas are visible outside the target edges the histogram may contain additional peaks to the left or right of the ones representing target markers and target background. This will affect the threshold calculation and possibly cause markers and and background to merge as all-black or all-white. To overcome such problems masking can be used to remove the areas outside the calibration target (See Figure 9-13): If these areas are made gray by masking they will still produce a distinct peak in the histogram, but most likely it will be positioned somewhere between the two peaks representing target markers and background, and this extra peak will thus no longer influence threshold calculation. In order to transfer masked images to the 3D-PIV software you may have to export them and then import them back into FlowManager in a separate setup.
Figure 9-13 Disturbing background effects removed by masking. Note the varying background intensity in the original image in Figure 9-12: The background in the upper right-hand part of the image is darker than in the left and central part of the image. This is why the right-hand bright peak has a plateau on its left instead of dropping off smoothly. Even so the peak remains (barely) on the right-hand side of the threshold value and the image can be binarized successfully. In the upper right-hand part of the binarized image some scattered black pixels are present in areas that should have been part of the background and further image processing is required to get rid of these, so only calibration markers remain. In the binarized (black-and-white) image neighboring pixels of identical color are grouped into so-called objects, and for each object the area and the centroid position is calculated. Each calibration marker will correspond to an object, but so will other artifacts in the calibration image, and they must be removed: Objects with an area below the Minimum dot area are considered noise and discarded. This will remove isolated pixels as the ones in the upper right-hand part of Figure 9-12, right. Default limit is an area of 21 pixels, but this can be changed (See Figure 9-14). Objects touching the image boundary are discarded, since they are assumed to extend beyond the boundary and thus be clipped making the calculated centroid position invalid. FlowManager 3D-PIV. Recipe for a 3D-PIV experiment 9-9
Objects not touching the image boundary, but with a centroid position close to it can be discarded as well by entering a non-zero value for the Border parameter in the image processing setup. Border should be in the interval 0-1, and for example Border=0.1 means that only objects in the central 90% of the image will be kept (5% of the image width is discarded left and right, while 5% of the image height is discarded top and bottom). Default value is Border=0.
Figure 9-14 Default image processing parameters. From the remaining objects the mean area is calculated, and a range of acceptable areas determined:
A min =
D2 Zero 2 D Std
Objects smaller than Amin or bigger than Amax are discarded and on the basis of remaining objects Amean is recalculated for later use. Nominal dot diameters DAxis, DStd and DZero are taken from the target specifications and included to account for the fact that not all markers have the same size. Beyond this the Dot area tolerance (DAT) accounts for variations due to perspective as well as normal variations in the images. Dot area tolerance has a default value of 1.5 and must be larger than 1. The remaining objects are all assumed to be calibration markers, and it is verified that there are at least Minimum dot count within each calibration image. Default value is 25, corresponding to a grid with 55 markers. Among the remaining objects the biggest one is assumed to be the zero marker and it is verified that the zero marker candidate is big enough to fulfill:
A Zero
-where Amean is the mean area, and DAT is Dot Area Tolerance as before. Assuming the zero marker is OK, the four nearest neighbors are found in directions up, down, left and right of the assumed zero marker. These objects are assumed to be axis markers, and it is verified that they are all small enough to fulfill:
A Axis
-where again Amean is the mean area, and DAT is still Dot Area Tolerance.
9-10
The two tests above are global size tests, comparing the area of Zero and Axis marker candidates with the mean area of all objects. Provided the global tests pass, a local size test is performed to compare Zero and Axis marker candidates directly:
9-11
Figure 9-16: Browsing SIX-files for 2D vector maps Locate the directory where the SIX-files are stored, and select the one containing the desired 2D vector maps. In the example above, experiments have been made at air speeds of 20 km/h, 100 km/h and 180 km/h, and the SIX-file representing the flow at 20 km/h is currently being investigated. Available vector maps include "Raw" vector maps as well as validated vector maps, and by default the 3D software assumes the highest level of processing (i.e. the validated data). In the example a total of 148 pairs of 2D vector maps are available, and by default they are all selected for import. If 3D analysis is only required for a subset of the available 2D vector maps, select and deselect using the arrow-buttons before pressing Add. The 2D vector maps are now imported and shown in the project tree as pairs of simultaneous 2D vector maps representing the flow as seen from camera 1 and camera 2 respectively. Each pair inherits the name of vector map 1 (from camera 1) from the FlowManager database, but can be renamed if so desired.
9-12
Figure 9-17: Starting the 3D evaluation. This will open the dialog shown in Figure 9-18:
Figure 9-18: Preparing the 3D calculation. By default the 3D vector map set created will be named 3D Vector maps, and calculating a single set of 3D vector maps this should be OK, but if several 3D vector map sets are to be calculated within the same 3D project, a meaningful name for the set should be supplied in order to distinguish results. The user will also be asked to identify which camera calibration to use, by selecting the calibration set, and the calibration within that set. The last calibration accessed will be shown as default. The Over-sampling factors and the check box Square grid is used to define the interrogation points within the light sheet, where 3D calculations are performed. The default spacing will match roughly the spatial resolution of the 2D vector maps, but over-sampling factors smaller than 1 can be used to produce a coarser grid, while over-sampling factors bigger than 1 will produce a denser grid; Please think of the denser grid as interpolation between known values: Although it increases the number of vectors in the final 3D result, it does not improve the fundamental spatial resolution of your experiment. Perspective distortion in the off-axis camera views, makes the default horizontal and vertical spacing differ. To get equal spacing, check the Square grid option. At the bottom of the dialog the available 2D vector map pairs are listed. By default they are all selected for 3D processing, but if only a subset of the data should be processed, use the arrow buttons to select them before pressing OK.
9-13
Figure 9-19: Calculating statistics. This will add a statistics icon ( ) at the root of the branch in the project tree to indicate that statistics has been calculated on the basis of all 3D vector maps in the branch. If 3D vector maps are later removed or added to the branch, the statistics will no longer be up to date, and thus erased automatically. The statistics calculation includes Mean velocities, Standard deviations, CrossCorrelation coefficients and a count of valid vectors included in each position evaluated. (The status/validation-flag from FlowManager is inherited by the 3D software and propagates through all calculations, so invalid vectors are detected and excluded from the statistics calculation). Quantity Mean Variance (not output) Std. Deviation
2 u =
U-velocity (X-direction)
V-velocity (Y-direction)
W-velocity (Z-direction)
1 u = ui N i =1 1 i =N 2 (ui u ) N 1 i =1
2 u = u
i =N
1 v = vi N i =1
i =N
1 i =N w = wi N i =1
2 = v
1 i =N 2 (vi v ) N 1 i =1
2 = w
1 i =N 2 (wi w ) N 1 i =1
v = 2 v
Cov{V, W} = 1 i =N ( vi v )( wi w ) N 1 i =1 1 i =N (ui u )( w i w ) N 1 i =1 1 i =N (ui u )( v i v ) N 1 i =1
w = 2 w
Cov{U, W} = Cov{U, V} =
vw =
Correlation coefficients
uw = uv =
9-14
Figure 10-2 Selecting calibration and set-up for the online 3D results In order to have satisfactory online 3D results, it is useful to apply some validation. You can use the online validation of the 2D vector maps, by right clicking on the map and check "validation box", Figure 10-3.
10-1
Figure 10-3 Validation box used on the 2D vector map in FlowManager Additionally it is possible to add a "moving average" validation and substitution on the "Validation1" and the "Validation2" tab in the stereo set-up in the FlowManager run online window. See Figure 10-4.
Figure 10-4 Validation for the 3D online result When you press start or continuous in the run online window - the 3D result will now appear in an "always on top" window. The window is refreshed every time FlowManager has received two vector maps from the FlowMap processor.
Figure 10-5 The online 3D result window As the default settings, the scaling of both the vectors and the color map of the wcomponent is auto scaled. It is however often useful to fix this scaling. Right click on the online window and you get the same options as described in this manual, see Figure 10-5. Please notice It is NOT advisable to do this while data is acquired. You put a lot of strain on the PC and there is potential risk of crashing the program. Therefor press "stop", set the plot parameters as you like (Figure 10-5) and then press start or continue again. Finally, if you select to save the result (Save tab of the run online window), the calculated 3D result will also be saved in the 3DPIV program. The project tree will be updated like shown in Figure 10-10.
10-2
Figure 10-6 Selecting a data set for performing a 3D calculation using the link If you wish to calculate for a whole selection of vector maps, you place the cursor on the first vector map from the first camera and use the "select similar". You then place the cursor on the first vector map from the second camera, right click and choose "select similar data records (Add to selection)", see Figure 10-7.
Figure 10-7 Selecting a set of data for performing 3D calculations using the link Selecting "new dataset" - "links" - "Link to 3D PIV" opens the recipe window, Figure 10-9. The settings are the same as described above in section 10.1.
Figure 10-8 Recipe window for the link Executing the link returns a 3D icon in the FlowManager data base, Figure 10-9 and updates at the same time the project tree in 3DPIV.EXE, Figure 10-10.
10-3
Please be aware that no data are stored in the FlowManager program, only graphics (EMF format). To view the data you must use 3DPIV.EXE.
Figure 10-9 Result of using the link in FlowManager. Each icon contains a color plot of the 3D result. Executing the link also saves the data in the 3DPIV.EXE program, see Figure 10-10.
10-4
Printing displays
11-1
11-2
Beyond the green circles indicating the calibration markers found, Show Calibration will also add yellow crosses to the calibration image. These crosses show where the imaging model would have expected to find each of the markers, based on nominal positions and imaging model parameters found when the camera was calibrated. Red lines are drawn connecting the circles and the crosses to show the deviation. Please note that random errors can be expected here, and some of these may even appear relatively large. Considering the number of calibration markers normally included in calibration images, a few deviating markers will not affect the camera calibration significantly, and the final 3D results will still be reliable. The presence of small, but systematic errors has a much bigger influence on the results, and indicates problems with the camera calibration. Using a different imaging model might solve the problem, but if errors are severe, the user should check the entire calibration procedure once more. Recording calibration images with the target in the wrong position and/or specifying the wrong Z-coordinates could be a possible explanation. Checking overlap Beyond checking the calibration of each camera, Show Calibration can also help verifying that the cameras are properly aligned so their fields of view overlap: Blue crosshatch is added to the display, showing the part of the image that is outside the other camera's field of view. In other words the part of the image not covered with blue crosshatch is visible to both cameras, and obviously this area should be as big as possible.
In the context menu of a 2D vector map display the user can toggle between Show All Data and Show Valid Data Only. By default all data (i.e. all vectors) are shown, but switching to 'Valid Data Only' will remove all but normal and substituted vectors from the display. The 2D vector map display also differs from the corresponding FlowManager display in another respect: Instead of showing velocities and positions in object coordinates, the display shows measured seeding particle displacements and interrogation area centers in pixels. This is because of perspective distortion in the camera images, which makes the scale factor vary across the field of view of each camera instead of remaining constant as in conventional (2D-)PIV. Consequently rulers in the 2D vector map display shows pixels, and when the mouse cursor is positioned above the starting point of a vector in the display, both position and displacement for that particular vector is shown numerically at the top of the window.
Units
Figure 11-2: Default 3D vector map display. The in-plane velocity vectors are also color-coded to distinguish normal vectors from substituted and invalid vectors. The color-coding used is the same as in the 2D vector map display (see Section 11.2). Vector Scaling By default the in-plane velocity vectors are scaled so they do not overlap, and color-coding of the out-of-plane velocity component is scaled to match the minimum and maximum values found. In the context menu this scaling mode is named Automatic for both the in-plane (U, V) and the out-of-plane (W) velocity components. Via the context menu the scaling of both in-plane and out-of-plane velocity displays can be changed: Clicking 'U, V -scale User Defined' in the context menu will open a dialog, where in-plane vector length is determined relative to the spacing of the interrogation grid used:
U, V -scaling
Figure 11-3: User defined scaling of in-plane velocity vectors. Current in-plane vector lengths can be doubled by changing the second input field to 200%, and similarly they can be halved by changing it to 50%. For comparison of different 3D vector maps it is appropriate to use the same scaling in all of the vector maps, and this can be accomplished by entering the same scale value in the first input field in the dialog, but it is easier to check the box labeled 'Apply to all currently opened 3D vector windows' in the dialog.
11-4
Whether or not this box is checked, the system will remember the settings entered and reuse them when the next 3D map is opened and displayed on the screen. W -scaling Scaling of out-of-plane velocity can also be changed by clicking 'W-scale User Defined' in the context menu. This will open the dialog shown in Figure 11-4, where minimum and maximum W-velocities corresponding to color codes red and blue can be entered.
Figure 11-4: User defined scaling of out-of-plane velocity. As for the scaling of in-plane velocity vectors the check box labeled 'Apply to all currently opened 3D vector windows' will change all 3D vector map displays to use the same scaling, and whether or not the box is checked, the system will remember the settings entered and reuse when the next 3D vector map is opened and displayed on the screen. Beyond Automatic and User-Defined, the context menu offers the option 'W -scaling Symmetrical', which will set upper and lower limits numerically identical but with opposite signs. The actual limits are determined automatically according to the W-velocities in the present 3D dataset, but positive W-velocities (towards the cameras) will always be shown red, while negative W-velocities (away from the cameras) will always be blue, and out-of-plane velocities of zero will be shown with the color-code green. Color/Grayscale map These entries in the context menu of a 3D vector map display are used to choose if the color-coding of out-of-plane velocities should be done using a colored scale or a grayscale. By default the color map is chosen, and this entire document assumes that this remains unchanged. It is possible however to change to a grayscale coding, and for example for printing on black-and-white printers, this may provide better results. As in the 2D vector map display, rulers are drawn beside the display, and numerical values are shown at the top of the 3D display window when the mouse cursor hovers above the starting point of a 3D vector. Unlike the 2D display however, the 3D vector map display shows true positions and velocities in object space (measured in mm and m/s respectively).
Units
11-5
Figure 11-5: 3D chart display. In the 3D chart display a surface grid is drawn to illustrate the out-of-plane velocities measured in the light sheet, while a color-coded contour plot is used to show the magnitude of in-plane velocities. With respect to zooming, printing and copying to clipboard, the context menu of this display contains the same commands as described above, but there are no means for user-defined scaling. Instead tools are supplied to change the viewpoint and otherwise manipulate the 3D chart display using mouse and keyboard: Zooming: Zooming and un-zooming is done exactly the same way as in other graphical displays: Simply click and drag with the left mouse button to indicate the area of interest, or select a zoom factor from the context menu and position the resulting zoom window using the mouse. To un-zoom, double-click inside the display or select Un-zoom from the context menu. Zooming out without fully un-zooming is also possible: Press Ctrl on the keyboard and move the cursor up and down while pressing both mouse buttons. When the buttons are released the 3D chart will be redrawn. Rotating: Hold down both left and right mouse buttons and move the mouse cursor up and down to rotate the display around a horizontal axis, and move the mouse sideways to rotate the display around a vertical axis. While moving the mouse around a box will rotate on the screen indicating the new viewing angle, and when mouse buttons are released, the 3D chart is redrawn with the new viewpoint. Pressing the x-, y- or z-key during this operation will allow rotation around the corresponding coordinate axis in the display, and pressing 'e' will allow rotating the display around an axis normal to the screen surface. Translating: While zoomed, only parts of the display are shown, and to see other parts it may be desirable to move the display left, right up or down. This is accomplished by pressing shift on the keyboard, and then press both mouse buttons with the mouse cursor inside the display. A box is drawn on the screen and can be moved around with the mouse. When mouse buttons are released, the 3D chart will be redrawn in the new position.
11-6
As stated above, the status code is the same as the one used for 2D vectors in a FlowManager vector map, and these status codes propagate through the 3D calculations and are inherited by the resulting 3D vectors. Each 3D vector depends on a total of 8 2D vectors, 4 from each of the 2D vector maps in the stereo recording, and if just one of these are rejected or otherwise invalid, the resulting 3D vector will thus be labeled invalid as well. The status code is binary coded, and in principle several error codes can mix to identify a vector that is for example both 'rejected' and 'outside' the flow field.
Position X, Y, Z Average velocities U, V, W Standard deviations U, V, W Correlation coefficients V-W, U-W, U-V Valid Count
mm with 3 decimals m/s with 4 significant digits m/s with 4 significant digits dimensionless with 3 decimals dimensionless integer
The position of interrogation points is the same as for a single 3D vector map, and the statistical quantities in the next 9 columns are calculated according to the formulas in Equation 9.1 on page 9-14. Invalid vectors are excluded from the calculation of statistics, and the last column contain the number of valid vectors included in the statistics in the particular interrogation point. Vectors with status codes 0 (Normal) and 16 (Substituted) are considered valid, and thus included in the calculation of vector statistics, while all other vectors are excluded. Please note that while average velocity can be calculated from a single valid vector, the remaining statistical quantities require at least 2 valid vectors to compute, and if this is not fulfilled, the values shown will have no meaning.
12-2
FlowManager 3D-PIV.
Figure 12-1: ASCII export dialog Whether results are exported all at once or one set at a time, the user may choose to include or exclude a file header via a check box in the dialog. Apart from Header = None, the options General and Tecplot are available as well. Obviously the Tecplot header will add a header to the ASCII-file, so it matches the native ASCII-format of Tecplot. This ensures that data can easily be loaded into Tecplot for presentation with this powerful graphical tool. The general header contains the same information as the Tecplot header, but as the name implies it's a general header, not aimed at any specific application. Choosing the Tecplot header will produce ASCII-file(s) with the extension '.dat', while the other two will produce files with the extension '.txt'. Apart from the file extension and the optional header, all ASCII-exports are otherwise identical.
12-3