Modern studies on Manichaeism. A survey Author(s): Raoul Manselli Reviewed work(s): Source: East and West, Vol.

10, No. 1/2 (MARCH-JUNE 1959), pp. 77-86 Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/29754079 . Accessed: 07/02/2013 18:57
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Modern

studies

on

Manickeism

survey

When
died

in chains

on 26th February 277 (A.D.) Mani

after being atrociously tortured, his death might who had decreed that he proclaimed. is shown by

seditions Stamped peared

for more out in one

than

thousand

well have believed that he had killed with the

Prophet How the doctrine vain was this hope the

the Sovereign

his many writings them, which were against to be followed by those of thinkers and theo? to con? logians of all creeds and races written fute the Manichaean could of doctrines. then arrest the victorious We Nothing

fact that less than thirty years a bishop of Alexandria, Theonus, perhaps was speaking anxiou? about the year 300 A.D., and the Manichaeans, sly about Manichaeism a philosopher, Alexan? and a few years later was circulating the first of der of Licopolis,

after his death

in another, apparently one and the same, with its its gnosis, really doctrine which was to liberate from evil while at the same time, causes its nature, explaining and meaning. This was indeed Mani doctrine the core of the that enabled of China. His to touch West the hearts no less doctrine of men than

country,

years. the heresy ap? different, but

the Greco-Roman

of

man

ex? find

suffering an eternal and perennial good struggle between centre of this struggle, its pro? and evil. The man, individual, tagonist indeed, is the human the cooperator of what who becomes for Mani

raised hu? and his words a cosmic drama, to the height of

pansion in Spain, in Gaul, them in Africa, first in Syria and then in the East, in Persia, and then ever further. people, ligion the Turkish of Uighurs, the Manichaeans; and

the followers

of Mani.

in Italy, and then

A whole the re? adopted even among

evil.

can liberate is good, who that part of him? self imprisoned in his body, and restore it to or who rivet his can, instead, righteousness, more himself than ever to chains, enslaving Human action is therefore a power evil. that can en?

the tribes of Central Asia,

China, everywhere, missionaries arrived Their If Mani other lowers. work was

not carried

in short, the Manichaean and spread their ideas.

in highly civilised
on undisturbed.

fices and

good lightened by the revelation can, by his doctrine, man

discriminate

between

and

But

amidst tortures, the rulers of expired the earth of various kinds vied with one an? in persecuting and Roman Emperors his dispersing of the West fol? and

world

of the East, of Islam, the khans of sovereigns Central Asia, of all the Uighur (the conversion an at their head was Turks with their King aware rather than a rule) were of exception the Manichaeans as a

of is now the prison-house at that portion of goodness which, light, the origin of the world, the God of goodness to sacrifice for the himself thought it necessary of nature of end

difficulty, succeed by severe penance, in assuring the victory of good. The Manichaean therefore is pes? conception If the simistic and at the same time optimistic.

of Mani, guided with sacri? though

to be

Manichaeans

fought by all possible means.

succeeded in resisting

stubbornly

hostile

force, per

The

these

be set free and will return to the God of good? ness. or less far thus be more Victory may or less as it does on the more off, depending 77

of light imprisoned in matter will ultimately

of time, Mani

is sure

that those

portions

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of man: but it cannot fail. cooperation in its main lines, freed from mythical This, is the and fanciful disguises representations, active

was born in 1659, who in his history of the

to the Catholic Church which opposed back the Apos? the Reform, tracing prepared tolic succession from the Apostles themselves to the Reformers, down turned his attention forces to Manichaeism. in which After preparation in addition he used as his

bre,

a Huguenot

of Niort

in Poitou,

where

he

message brought by Mani,

that he set before ing fascination than nine frequently masses.

and suffer? the dispossessed to the bears witness St. Augustin for more this message exercised; and he years he was a Manichean, refers to the great attraction of the

the light of hope

first of all

of Mani. teachings to countries it spread As differing widely one from the other and separated by great lost the sense of unity. Manicheaism distances, While all were no at one in extolling master, outward nichaean established

surprising died out, the West only if, when Manichaeism it through the writings of St. Au? remembered the only were for centuries gustin which on which to draw. source of information

unity faith.

their common the assured hierarchy Ma to East of the from West It is not therefore

his Histoire age, he published critique des Ma et du Manicheisme In this work, nichees (4). in defence of Protestantism, though written mere room for history; evi? makes deprecation dence today of the necessary starting points and for those who wish to study Manichaeism, one of the most valuable to be consulted helps it is still one in reading the anti-Manichaean conclusions accepted at once works The reached by Beau is sifted with critical acumen, and

to the works that had come down to us on this subject from the Latin of the patristic and Greek writers

a thorough sources, all of St. Augustin,

of St.

the Middle Ages, Ma? Therefore, throughout and exe? was held to be a horrible nichaeism con? was and this impression crable heresy, from the 12th century onwards firmed when the ferment of dualistic religious beliefs reap? in Europe, giving peared est and most powerful rise later to the great? current anti-Catholic characteristic

Augustin. sobre were ecclesiastical

history (by here let us mention than by Catholics); among master of ecclesias? others Laurence Mosheim tical word history, in the modern meaning of the (5). Almost

by contemporary more Protestants

of the West, Catharism ("). While differing in

its origin and in its most sions from the doctrine

expres? Catharism of Mani, from to descend to its contemporaries seemed and the and the ancient heresy Manichaeism cursed ever more and hated new were (3). With in the of Catharism the disappearance in the Bal? 14th century (it survived however in invasion until the Turkish kan peninsula the second half of the 15th century), Mani? to be a cause of grave an? continued chaeism ne? most typical xiety and the symbol of the faith. gation of the Christian It was for this reason that when the histo? rians litate were of the Reformation the heretics looked to rehabi? attempted who of the Middle Ages, testes as precursors, and character of Protes? ex? however,

nach Baur, Das manich?ische Religionssystem neu untersucht und entwickelt den Quellen (6). Baur the texts examined studied once more by Beausobre, lological discussing them with at the experience trained acquired

to elapse be? years had on Ma? fore another work carried the studies a step forward. refer to the nichaeism We Christian Ferdinand work fundamental by

a hundred

historian mention then his

18th century and with the special skill of an

in the school of the theologians; Schleiermacher the most reached among and Hegel, significant them we who moment great must had of

the phi? end of

romantic

veritatis

were, tantism, as their here? fromi this rehabilitation, cluded tical doctrines were deemed quite incompatible it impossible This made with Christianity. for Catholics as for Protestants to understand Manichaeism as a historical

upon of the Apostolic the Manichaeans

votes

in the third century of the Christian era, side the each opposing side with Gnosticism, by some of the fea? but each appropriating other, tures of the other in elaborating their own de?

teaching. is there? The picture offered of Manichaeism or blame; it fore free from all biased praise is seen as a great historical event, appearing

was only reality; it or less apposi? to by repeating more referred the judgments expressed by St. Augustin. tely in breaking The first who succeeded through this traditional hostility was Isaak de Beauso 78

to seize in an attempt attention special in which he sees one of its inner consistency exercised of attraction the forces by Mani?

chaeism.

have

Lastly,

it should be noted, and this will

ment

in the subsequent its weight develop? did not fail that Baur of these studies,

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? the possible of contact points ? be? though they could not then be proved, tween Manichaeism the great and religious currents of Asia, more the Buddhist. especially to perceive In this connection it should era not be that West the Romantic revealed Asia forgotten to the

seem? outline o? Manichaeism, which religious ed to be now fixed once and for all. Studies than a century and a half stretching ever more seemed system of various doubtedly interpretations, ranging from the Neo-Platonic, one, of philosophical or of Titus of Licopolis Alexander of Bostra, to the more one of Theodo mythical-gnostic rus bar-Khoni or Severus of Antiochia; but the Western-Christian of Manichaeism, aspect as confirmed by the fullest and most reliable source, Such chaeism Central was St. Augustin, the status when news remained unaltered. of the studies on Mani? came from the deserts of area new doc? first re? also life In chaean to cooperate as religion a in representing the Mani un? susceptible

and spread the knowledge of the langua? and religions of those distant ges, literature countries (7). The

and systematic learned comprehensive, work of Baur and it still is, one of remained, the best historical reconstructions of Mani? was chaeism. of greater importance Nothing

added to it by Fl?gel
latter

rise to lively controversy gave by his attempt, not in all respects well documented, to seek the basis of the fundamental intuitions

(8) and Kessler

(9). The

in the religious movements of Meso? as to Manichaeism, thus assigning potamia, was then said, a Pan-Babylonian origin. of Mani in his History Harnack, (10), as? of Dogma a different foundation to Manichaeism. cribed The interest of his views to the background the importance he assigns contrast between the Hebrew spirit and the Greek in that third century just spirit, which a precarious to to provide helped equilibrium the formation of Christian than Gnosticism, sion of Hellenism The less No dogma. was the expres? Manichaeism in the bosom of Christianity. edited and lay more especially in

which the enlarged suddenly the religion spread, brought texts allowing a greater of its knowledge most of all, gave a trines, and, important hand of what the Manichaean impression but ligion was, not only in its doctrines, and more in its actual religious especially as in the heart of its believers. stamped

Asia over which

the Berlin of Sciences, edited by Al? Academy bert August Le Coq, the first series of his aus Chotscho, T?rkische Manichaica followed full and lively account in a volume of the discoveries was

1911 there appeared in the Abhandlungen of

by two others in 1919 and 1922 (12),while a

of stories

Manichaeism lowers passages

group of Franz under the direction Cu published new features mont brought and a new point of view in the representation of the situation of In those books

of three little volumes

published (13). The material was thus collected utilised in a splendid work of collaboration which had for centre the Berlin of Sciences, Academy and appeared in the Abhandlungen and Sitzungsberichte published by The texts, in Chinese, Turkish, Medic-Persian, specialists, translation are all accompanied in parallel published that Academy.

in the

Mani.

of the 7th century), 6th, beginning containing actual quotations from the authentic works of They reconstruction sive account were of of of the the special and expres? imaginative between prin? struggle interest

theNestorian Bishop of Kashkar

as set forth by Baur and his fol? a study was made of of the works of Theodore bar-Khoni,

(end of the

studied linguistically by the most qualified

by the German columns, with accurate comments,

for the

and important prefaces thus giving full of study even to opportunity scholars with those unacquainted languages which are difficult to understand. In some cases several with done scholars have a given subject, by Waldschmidt the position system collected and the texts dealing as for instance has been

ciples of Light and of Darkness; the impri? sonment of the principles of light by the
powers Adam, These homily brought

of the world, followed by the liberation of

as a consequence, fragments, jointly with and, by Cumont delivered by a faint, even of all other men. those edited and Kugener of Antiochia, Severus echo of the if hoarse, of Mani him? and from a

of darkness,

and

lastly of the creation

studied The

Manichaean

who have Lentz, to Jesus in the assigned (14).

translated

and commen? publication, translation, on these texts, are not yet finished tary (15), but they have allowed of constant work for a better of the religious understanding of Manichaeism. importance This which some has brought should be stressed. the general new value and

eloquence fascinating powerful, the data thus added self. Nevertheless, facts given by St. Augustin, wellknown no notable alteration and made scanty

to the were in the

aspects

to light

In primis,

aspect

of Manichaeism 79

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to be a religion seemed What changed. from and grown up beside that had sprung an unsuspected mi? has revealed Christianity, to of adaptation and possibility mic capacity, its environment. has in Persia, Thus, of Zoroaster gion it is in terms that it expresses of the reli? its faith,

statements of their beliefs, confes? disciples, of sins, lists of precepts. All this leaves sions us with the impression of a vast chorus up? lifted to Mani for more than a thousand years in praise of a man who liberated other men out the way to from slavery to sin, pointing salvation. The examination of also oured gions during shows to that the Manichaeans these writings had endeav?

while in China it uses the terms of Buddhism

or of the surrounding Chinese world. the ethics, religious practices Moreover, forms been nuals gends bers. gustin chaean of worship fully revealed. of the Manichaeans and

books of appropriate come with which they had their long history. the Hebrew and These

reli? other In Contact are more

have of faith, ma? Confessions even le? of casuistry, prayers, hymns, num? in considerable have been found Even about books the information given by St. Au of the Mani? the typical beauty confirmed by the ma? has been

apocry? especially as on religion works (such pha, Hellenistic Hermetes and the Sybilline Ora? Trismegistus

Christian

and Buddhist writings. cles), and Mazdeistic This great enquiry made by Alfaric confirms nature the multifarious of of the elements Manichaeism singular is composed, its showing of assimilating whatever any capacity could offer it, while this very process it to

soon became such of publications the and not definitive that though still partial had to be drawn up. Of ca? first balance-sheets as a first general review of the pital importance come down to us, Manichean writings that have The mass the historiogra? of Prosper Alfaric, and of St. Augustin. of early Christianity pher Les ecritures manicheen In his two volumes of the formation nes examined (17) he has the Manichaean writings, studying first of all of their sources, which he thinks the problem should be sought for in the vast mass of gnostic is the work antecedent

discovered by Le Coq, gnificent illuminations and edited and studied by him in a masterly manner (16).

which

religion of assimilation and appropriation enabled to present itself as the religion which was and all others.

writings

the general and belief belief to relate Manichaean

and writings of Mani

the

to Mani,

then

in the

life

himself, and lastly in

forms of the Manichaean that in which then goes on the through which

characteristics literary

he gives in the course of his shows it to be one of the many forms work, assumed Gnosticism in the first centuries by ? ? of the Christian era. But he remarks more Manichaeism than Gnosticism displayed the core remained exceptional vitality; while it was always to accept many unchanged, ready and often important modifications, Though not the position demonstrated, scientifically to Manichaeism as one of the forms assigned in which Gnosticism ex? has found historical Manichaeism was taken pression a historical setting made by the English up

replace supersede In studying these two volumes of Alfaric, one cannot but note that the of interpretation

found

expression. the vicissitudes

Alfaric

after spread? writings have passed; world and non-Christian in the Christian ing as for centuries, disappeared they gradually and methodical the result of inexorable perse? from which immense

cutions

and ideas. to quote his works compelled us directly: that reached Another part has from the desert of which has been recovered were Central Asia. rare knowledge writings ligious before 80 is accompanied used a lucid review, revealing dealt with, of all the problems a detailed of the analysis by in their re? by the Manichaeans This

which in fighting the hated

a small part of that only Of that of writings escaped. body a part has come down to us small remainder, or other, Christian in the polemical writings,

ideas of Mani

of Syrian and Syria and in a world culture, has shown, in the light of the religious move? more the Gnostic, of that ments, especially a the Christian that element in the country, is larger and more religion of the Manicheans than the scholars of the last ge? fundamental were to admit ?. (1B) neration inclined not only for is important, Bnrkitt's work the definite also but

by F. C. Burkitt. historian, in the cultural and religious envi? Specialised ronment of Syria, Burkitt has examined Ma? arose nichaeism be it remembered, in which,

and placed in again the careful research

A long series of works passes practices. are those of Mani us: and his they

he takes on this point, position for the light he throws on the termi? and on the logical position taken by nology, is funda? Manichaeism he declares, which, a still generally theory Syrian, mentally Bur scholars. While Alfaric, accepted by

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kitt works, all

and

Jackson

the great antiquity, R. Reitzenstein, the resources of his

out their bringing of and historian philologist availed prodigious himself of erudition

were

most

ancient

revealed

of contact, resemblances the between points a in order to draw different world cultures, all the features of Helle? picture embracing nistic religious and of the religions of thought as are viewed the Greco-Roman period. They variations and modifications of the Iranian a in his opinion, religious myth which was, an idea which of atonement, is reflected myth in all the mystagogic religions: Christianity, and therefore Manichaeism. Gnosticism, of Reizenstein's part of the background the syntheses whose and in line with work, and value we have noted, that of importance Hans notice. As

and exceptional ability in bringing to light

cially the Christian as to Mani ? (20). With available they were this as a premise, Schaeder goes on to show that it was of Mani's precisely these characteristic aspects

more espe? religions, in so far and the Persian,

it pos? that made religious teaching in the course it un? of time, to view sible, one of which der different aspects, he calls cc the version ? of the Manichaean Greek

Mani

which in Schaeder's opinion was

himself. sented

myth,

attested

by Alexander

of Licopolis,

and pre? doc?

justified by

in two successive and diffe? trine, his Gnosis, rent forms, the Persian one, in which he in? troduced the names of Persian divinities in? stead of the original names, and the Christian not only by the use of Chri? one, characterised stian terminology, but also by the importance to Jesus (21). And, we have to given point out, stresses the fact that these two suc? Schaeder not the work cessive forms were of Mani? chaean This missionaries work but of Mani himself (22). of Schaeder's, of great impor? for the method he fol? especially is limited to the of the teach? study it, was however hindered by

indeed, deliberately Mani, his myth, or rather his liberating

is deserving of special Schaeder as this work Schaeder examines, the title states, ? The Original and the Form Sys? subsequent formations of the Manichaean a clear per? tem )) (19). It is characterised by Heinrich In of the fact that Manichaeism and must be the historical within placed arose and took shape. in which it therefore rejects all attempts to reconstruct faith of Mani to

ception

interpreted framework He the

tance more lows which he presented when Asia. need

arrange by trying so as to place on the same level Latin, or Chinese texts, all consi? Syrian, Turkish dered of the same importance. On the contrary from he insists on the need of differentiating sources all these texts the chaeism historical and variations and which In which

the

ing ofMani himself and to the forms inwhich

the

fact that he left aside,

be, was While he was related

all the new able

though using them

texts from Central that to show their

of Mani? aspect original to should be studied in relation from which developments the several with it was that it arose, led to coun? taught,

circumstances in keeping

to the historical

tries and peoples

amongst whom it as their faith. accepted the the

and vely Oriental, his view, that ? the doctrine a theoretical tion made concept of Hellenistic which

discussing Schaeder rejects

of Manichaeism, origins exclusi? idea that it was as the basis of he takes, of Mani follows This rests on the direc?

of the Society for Ecclesiastical meeting at Berlin, once Prof. Karl Schmidt History more a surprising the audience of gave piece news he afterwards confirmed with (2T), which fuller and more detailed data at a meeting of the Berlin scholars large of (28). He Academy the extraordinary of ancient then informed of discovery Manichaean early a

annual

they refer, he neglected other Fortbildungen of Mani light those chaeism of such decisive historical importance for their place in the religious history of Asia. On November in a report at the 9th, 1932,

importance

to the regions to which to place in their proper

required, and stated the doctrine under? possible, in the form construction lying the Manichaean tradi? of a general myth arising from ancient on the origin of the world and of man, tions on redemption, and on the end of the world. set forth by Mani trend of this teaching, The himself in several versions one which should be carefully distinguished the total coordination of a doctrine hang) should embrace from the other, was

science.

number

texts of

which, if they did not date back toMani him?

self, certainly the Manichaean The Schmidt, teaching the Master first belonged of to the days community. these works sets

discovered forth Mani's

(Universalzusammen which of atonement ideas of the

a dialogue between a complete hand? and his disciples, tenets expressed of ihe Manichaean in book warm and rich in images and lively language, feel with an intense cosmic religious vibrating

the Kephalaia, in the form of

by

all the traditional

mg

( ). 81

/29\

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A letters

second

papyrus

contains

a collection

of in? of of

for their Church and their Church has not

reached has not

from Mani, on Mani formation beliefs, while homilies by various and his

a third gives historical and the early spread a fourth is a collection on

for their Church and its collection (of works)

reached cities. also as far as there are and some whose names so that the East, are not known But my hope will go to the to the East, and the voice of its in all languages will be heard in this first respect the previous to all and ?.

the West;

some have

chosen

the West

several and persons the last, as it would seem, is a subjects, on one of Mani's most famous commentary to The In addition writings, living Evangel. another group of Mani? of Sciences, Academy chaean in the same receptacle found works as the first, was purchased bi? by the British Chester Beatty. The most important bliophil, of these is a large collection of psalms which take their that were of

in other West

announcement Church

this group of papyri purchased by the Berlin

and it will be proclaimed in all cities. My

is superior because Chur? in individual will localities

Churches, previous chosen ches were cities and A given

in individual cities. My Church will go to all

its message of reach new all countries first result as far back these discoveries was as 1935

a vivid light on the piety and religious spirit

the Manichaeans One of the most brought to light by the first studies of these documents is the confirmation they bring of the universal Like character of the Manichaean religion. in Central Asia, discovered the texts previously was these discovered in Egypt show that Mani he was in Egypt. interesting features

known those already beside place cast at Turf an. discovered They

and his his words addressing to Asia. to Europe reli? His and mission both in one embrace and included gion recognised in significant order, but the dream Buddha; and new faith might unite of bretheren both East (cAt country the time of the West, and signs Jesus, was that his of Mani a single community in and West. Zoroaster and

aware

malum

of the Manichaean religion, it as an effort to interpret described Polotsky the origin and the forms of evil and the po? sition of man face to face with reality: wide damental features et quare? et unde homo as Tertullian said in his incisive

collaborator, Polotsky, in the well ticle on Manichaeism published of Pauly-Wissova Real known Encyclop?die (31). After giving a clear statement of the fun?

closest by Schmidt's ar? in his valuable

et quomodo? statement of a

in which

they wrote the Splendid light, Apostle came to Persia to King and One... Tstaspe, true disciples, but Zara selected just and thuster wrote no books; his disciples however, parables a book... and miracles... of The after his death that remembered they read. and wrote When in his down the books

After His death His disciples wrote down his

in a Jesus appeared his hope... he preached

but rather ^ gnosis, knowledge philosophy that sets free from evil, and the desire of sal? and by relation in a reciprocal vation, united a mutual tie teaching, view that does not accept Schaeder's Polotsky itwas based on Greek culture; he rather thinks are met with in that the Greek features which Manichaeism from a direct did not reach Mani are no longer something source; specifi? they an integral but had first become Greek cally part of Gnosticism. The stressed well valid which chaean world reasons with that no less account tion Manichaeism known and he exercised for the fascina? are on the masses trends which (33). leaven of Speaking the Manichaean the cultural

7 of his Be Praescrip in Chapter the problems It is not therefore tione haereticorum (32).

turn

Buddha
also He

But it is a fact that he did not write down his

wisdom disciples, of his wis? after him, remembered something which had heard from the Buddha, dom, they in writings ? (30). and set it down in books. His who came

and much wisdom. (his hope) preached them to and brought selected his churches to them. his hopes and revealed completion,

arrived they (said) of him that he

the accuracy, recalling from St. Augustin, passage always for the reasons efficacious, giving for nine hoping years the Mani? to find in them the seems to me

accepted

solution of all the problems of life and the

(34). Still more interesting

teachings,

their chur? that in this way they were exposing of schism and dissolution. ches to the danger sent forth his mes? It was for this that Mani sage to the East and to the West: (C are some who have chosen There 82 the East

All these (( fathers of justice ? did not think

of the Mani? the rapid but reliable analysis chaean religious though not spirit, compared, so to the Christian. That religion explicitly, awareness is characterised of the consub by stantial relation soul, human the an existing between God awareness attained must be and through

the by

gnosis,

which

accompanied

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human

endeavor

to realize thus

that the human

soul

is allied to God
Manichaean remarks,

on man by the fact against evil, a duty placed that in this world he is a reality endowed with the faculty of gnosis. nous, thanks to a first reading If Polotsky's work, of the Coptic the spiritual texts, was able better to define physiognomy still clearer of Manichaeism, the publica? when by Schmidt, the publisher a whole prepared interrupted by truly

bility, linked up with the duty of this struggle

as Polotsky becomes, piety a sort of feeling of cosmic responsi?

in the struggle against evil;

would mas would

have

drawn

and psalms thus seem

only not on

on

the so-called ? work.

Tho? It or, ac? one of

the whole

that Mandaeanism

to the views o? the Author, cording currents that ended by flowing the religious ? was one of the elements into Mandaeanism that

this was made

Mandaean carried

was W.

tion of the Coptic texts, discovered and for this purpose begun, Kohlhammer was of Stoccard

unfortunately plan which the second world war. The logical three volumes in their introduction exemplary

in which environment Thomas on his mission two (39). Widengren's a problem works deal substantially with of the as their purpose is to trace history of religion, out the Oriental that are at the basis features of Manichaeism. the study on On this matter is in Manicheism, a broad com? After making a striking number of points parison, showing of contact to the and coincidence, it comes cc conclusion that the religion undoubtedly rests on a Mesopotamic foun? taught by Mani dation ?, and that it acquired those elements Elements of special interest. the Mesopotamian

and the one who evangelised disciples, Syria, an adjustment the psalms may be considered of the teachings to the Syrian, of Mani pre

More influenced Manichaeism. precisely as Thomas was one of Mani's first speaking,

philo? the arranged is texts that each sheet of the papyrus Coptic a printed page giving a Ger? accompanied by means or English man translation. By this texts the Turkestan used when the system have so were has been continued, enabling published even if he is not a professional any scholar, to find his way directly and secu? Orientalist, rely, tainty all the more so as or doubt is at once slightest uncer? noted and a solution the edition

so far published, a brief style, after

Gnostic

of Mesopo? directly from the ancient religions tamia whose were latest developments still ho? in the air, and indirectly the vering through movements of Mesopotamia and

of

suggested. frequently fore an exemplary piece of work and of such at it will that it is to be hoped importance last be Even caused tinued made T. a the The again (36). of studies the interruption during scholars have con? by war, Manichaean should be their work. Special mention of the works of G. Widengren (37), and who were able to make (39) of more the new Mani? taken up

This

is there?

S?ve-S?derbergh examination thorough

has written that Puech little volume The on Manichaeism in its conci? is truly valuable seness. It is so not only for the short, but account and of the life, activities interesting for the of Mani, but more beliefs especially the fruit of long years notes, many scholarly In this vo? reflection. of study and historical all his experience has condensed lume Puech in writing the history of religions and acquired more

Syrian Christianity (40).

chaean

to the psalms, posterior chronologically one as independent cannot be considered they It seems to him strange, al? from the other. had most that if the Mandaeans impossible, are known the whole of the Book

a careful philological who has made S?derbergh the so-called between study of the relations in the Mani? contained Psalms of Thomas, books and the Mandaean chaean psalm-book, to note remarkable able has been (38). He these of contact between and striking points from this re? concludes two. S?ve-S?derbergh books the Mandaean semblance that although

texts, considered especially within of religions. of the history framework for us is that of S?ve most important

recourse to the method limited by the excessive the Manichaean of synthesis when outlining or Chinese or Latin or Coptic Greek beliefs. and other texts are grouped together to bear witness

listic type (42). The value of thiswork is only

especially

of those

of a Gnostic

and dua

to this or that point of the Manichaean to is paid too little attention concepts, while In other words, their historical development. the author is too intent on finding the constant permanent less interested and of Manichaeism, also the diversities in showing features

and

not only of outward the modifications, dur? its development which have marked form, its age-long history and in widely different ing and countries true and historical environments. of on It the original that of giving two that purpose lectures this work the subject

is

ten originally in Syrian, be

of psalms

it noted) they

(writ?

83

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hindered these a lines;

Puech

from

the littlebook written by the French historian

reliable guide to an understanding are still in need of us to realise also enable we and historical rea? of the

nevertheless,

developing if we now

it on have in

of Manichaean and would admit the existence one from the other, sects differing completely rather than gion. lowed He that of a unified Manichaean cc The method says textually:

reli? fol?

Manichaean religion, a work which would its gradual lity. There these lowed the has

transformation

in certainly been no interruption lines fol? last few years in the traditional The We of publication would mention

by these studies. texts has continued.

to another other manuscript belonging or coming from another is not region, period one. a very reliable the Ma? Indeed, always documents with which we are familiar nichaean show sential that such notable doctrines it would even divergencies, and on characteristic

the in reconstructing scholars by many in consists of Mani, which doctrine original to the mutilated texts of certain ma? adding from taken and phrases nuscripts, subjects some

as of particular chaean hymns by Mary duction ments

Mani's

texts; of texts for the study of Manichaeism sets forth ac? which made by Alfred Adam, of and first the fragments clearly curately collection nearest chaean These nichaean writings, to the Master, communities are followed sources then the Manichaean then those of Africa evidence China. of the Mani? and

Boyce and an English on the Parthan

that of the Mani? importance edited in the Parthan language intro? with an important (4S) translation next

as to es?

and com? comes the

laws and perial condemned it, and finally with references juration, sentations complete its articles the more ment.

from non-Ma by evidence on the Im? on Manichaeism, that ecclesiastical decisions the formulas of ab? repre? thus a to pictorial to it (44). We have and with

of to Christ and to various moments relating Un? the struggle between Light and Darkness. un? that Grondijs the divergencies doubtedly are for and obvious derlines pause give rather say that they show I would thought. the need of directing the study of Manichaeism clarify, at least along new lines, which might and modifications in several cases, diversities means This undeniable. that are certainly to follow the exam? that it would be necessary

subjects, to ascribe them to be preferable this sects ? (48). To different prove quite ana? a careful has made theory Grondijs and an of Numidia, of the Manichaeism lysis theories on aspects of Manichaean examination

relating picture of Manichaeism, of faith

only slipmade is that of giving as the formula

resies for abjuration that which was of Manichaeism of the he? in reality used for the abjuration of the Paulician Dualists in which Manichaeism also was (9th century), anathematised. centuries, given rise

important moments So far as I have been

dealing with events reflecting of its develop? able to see,

the

in the case of early Mani? ple set by Schaeder of Mani chaeism and for the works himself; chan? the successive studying more thoroughly ges that the belief has times and in different faithful in different undergone while lands, remaining These theme. changes

it by several Though ante-dating to have this formula was believed to Paulicianism These editions been perhaps like importance pay attention (45). of and the texts

to its central to accept in order to survive. It seems it had to me that it is in this that it has shown how to win over souls, great has been its endeavour mat? stead fast on all fundamental remaining ters while
change.

changing

where

it was

possible

to

matched

In the first, the Manichaeism of Numidia dijs. and is analysed in the time of St. Augustin of the several Ma? and the problem examined, (( sects ? is at last dealt with. nichaean This in the second is discussed question explicitly in the miscellany of studies article published in honor of Italian By? of the Dean printed (47). is as resolute taken by Grondijs position as it is radical. He criticises severely and firmly on Manichaeism, all the studies so far made Giuseppe The 84 zantine Scholars, Silvio Mercati

by scope; we must however to two articles by L. H. Gron

not (46) have of studies critical

ceed

reli? of races, cross-roads was the Syria of the cultures, gions, Roman and for cen? the Atlantic, age, reached turies permeated and Africa; then Europe it crossed the deserts of Central Asia, fearlessly and nothing It was daunted reached China. in that which manifold it and yet one, and and hope to the peoples of the on the eve of its downfall, to tribes prior young Turkish entrance on the proud gave comfort ancient world

suc? In this way, Manichaeism did certainly in realising the dream of its Founder, to West that of speaking The faith and East. that arose

the leavening their decisive

Chinese,

and to the stage of history, of their age-old civilisation. All

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Divine

in Mani the Father had who freed greeted them from evil and from death. In him, East the limits of time and and West, transcending a space and of their traditional past, extolled Messenger. in this there was in In unison this, they all agreed, of words and feelings varied and languages

Wissenschaften? (1911);

III L'inscription de Salone Severe d'Antioche; par M. A. et Franz Cumont, 1912. Other Bruxelles enquiries Kugener never been published. that Cumont announced have had aus Le T?rkische Manichaica A. Von Coq, (12) A. der Akademie in ? Abhandlungen der preussischen Chotscho,

the most expressed even and that styles, believing today we, are but diffe? and Asian civilisation European rent expressions of the loftiest and truest va? lues of mankind, cannot but be moved. Raoul Manselli

der KgL Ergebnisse (13) A. A. Von Le Coq, Chotscho, 1913. Preuss. Berlin, Turfan-Expeditionen, Die und W. Jesu Lentz, Stellung (14) E. Waldschmidt Aka? in ? Abhandlungen der preussischen im Manich?ismus, ? n. 4). demie der Wissenschaften (1926, the more for the use of scholars here (15) We mention texts published in chronological order. W. Bang, important ? 36 in ? Le Museon Laien-Beichts Manichaeische pie gel, Manichaeische W. Lentz, E. Waldschmidtpp. (1923) in aus Texten iranischen und chinesischen Dogmatika ? Sitzungsberichte der Wissen? der preussischen Akademie Hist. Klasse ?, 1933, n. 13; F. C. Andreas, schaften, Philos. aus Chinesisch-Turkestan, I in Manichaica Mitteliranische ? ? cit. 1932, nn. 9-10; II, ibid., 1933, n. 5; Sitzugsberichte ibid. 1934: n. 27. III, (16) A. Mittelasien A.

(1919);

(1922).

NOTES
to give in this general do not certainly propose (*) We on Manichaeism of the studies survey of the development a complete but only to offer a view of the bibliography, more to trends of these studies in their relation important the ever new and surprising scientific discoveries that have out a direction and pointing in which research been made, to the general be continued. Without might referring here works on Manichaeism, of which I shall speak further on, I a review of Manichaen will only mention studies containing information much and detailed H. S. Nyberg, references: ?ber den Manich?ismus, in ?Zeitschrift f?r Forschungen ? neutestamentliche Wissenschaft 30-91. 34, pp. (1935) as historical-ethnological see movement On the Dualism also 11 dualismo U. Roma 1958. Bianchi, religioso, to express my I wish to Prof. A. sincere thanks Lastly, on Mani? for the talks I have Pincherle him had with for me. and instructive valuable chaeism, always to what for discussing is not the right place (2) This as Manichaeism, as there extent Catharism may be described of documenting the historic is no possibility continuity R. mention I would On this question the two. between 1958 Evo Medio Morghen, Bari, cristiano, ed.), which (II on pp. of the Middle 204-281 with the heresies dealing the direct the question, excluding definitely Ages, discusses influence that and of Manichaeism influence limiting movements dualistic of the Balkan (the so-called religious to the period the in the West following bogomolismo) of the Xllth middle century. a 1163 made about of Sch?nau who (3) After Eckbert and Mani? of the West between the heresy comparison to identify a regular it became chaeism, commonplace and Manichaeans. Cathars at in 2 volumes book was published (4) Beausobre's in 1734. Amsterdam in which Mosheim works the many speaks (5) Among we shall only mention Insti of Manichaeism J. L. Mosheim, tutiones Historiae christianae Helmstadii, 1737, antiquioris, on pp. 244-248, he speaks in which, of Manichaeism, basing on Beausobre, fierce himself his but without disguising to that heresy. hostility at T?bingen at 1831 in (6) Published (Reprinted

The Religion of the Manichees, (19) F. C. Burkitt, 1925. Cambridge, stresses in cit. p. V. He also this conviction (20) Op. of the works of A. V. Williams afterwards Jackson speaking on Manichaeism, in the volume Research New collected in which of the he stressed the importance York, 1931, ? I feel in Manichaeism. Iranian He then remarked elements can be illustrated in Manichaeism that though single details or explained from Zoroastrian the fundamental sources, construction of Mani's remains Chris? religion (heretical) tian )>. Burkitt when Gnostic the whole pheno? examining ? The Church menon in his work and Gnosis ?, Cambridge, character of Manichaeism. insists on the Gnostic 1932, always of the Cfr. on p. 6 ? At a later period Mani, the Founder in the same way Manichaean and he is Religion, taught ?. as a Gnostic rightly to be considered I will only mention the more important works (21) Here for the purposes of this review, i.e. R. Reitzenstein, Das iranische Die hellen? Bonn, 1921, Erl?sungsmysterium, istischen Mysterienreligionen, 1927 (it is the Leipzig-Berlin, 3rd edition which referred reflects the ideas above to), and zum aus antiken Iran und lastly Studien Synkretismus 1926 der Bibliotek Griechenland, Leipzig-Berlin, (Studien n. 7). These in collaboration studies were made Warburg for which with Schaeder cfr. note 22. H. (22) H. manichaeischen und Fortbildungen des Schaeder, Urform in Vortr?ge der Bibliothek Warburg, Systems The other 65-157. 1924-25, 1927, pp. Berlin, Vortr?ge, F?r manichaeische is important: study by the same Author in Studien Urmenschlehre des Bibliothek op. cit. Warburg in collaboration with Reitzenstein. pp. 240-305, published op. cit. p. 97. (2S) H. H. Schaeder, Urform, 106-110. op. cit. pp. (24) H. H. Schaeder, Urform, more H. H. Schaeder, (25) See especially Urform, cit. p. 153. et loc. cit. (26) Op.

in Von Le Coq, Die buddistische Sp?tantike Minia? II Die Manichaeischen (or Mittleasiens). 1923. turen, Berlin, I Vue manicheennes: Les ecritures (17) P. Alfaric, 1918. II Etude Paris, 1918, Paris, analytique, generale, as a passage in the Alfaric has also studied Manichaeism in L'evolution inner evolution of St. Augustin intellectuelle see also de Saint Augustin, On this matter 1918. Paris, note 47. op. cit. II. p. 227, has some penetrating (18) P. Alfaric, ? II on the motives notes for this broad eclecticism (Ma? aux produits ne s'est si liberalement ouvert de nichaeism) aucun ne devait rivales laisser que parce religions qu'il au pouvoir ?. element lumineux des Demons

G?ttingen, 1928). see Baur, op. cit. p. 433 et seq. (7) On this point seine Lehre seine Schriften, und Mani, (8) G. Fl?gel, for the information 1862, important more Leipzig, especially on En-Nadim. taken from the Fihrist ?ber die mani Mani, Kessler, Forschungen (9) K. Ber? und Quellen, chaeische I, Voruntersuchungen Religion, Kessler The second volume was never published. lin, 1889. on Mani, for the the article also Manichaer, published und Kirche, Religion Realencyklop?die f?r protestantische edition), Vol. XII, pp. 193-228. (III der Dogmengeschichte Lehrbuch II, (10) A. Harnack, 1909, T?bingen, (4th ed.), pp. 513-27. sur le Manicheisme, I La cosmogonie (X1) Recherches Cu Bar Khoni, Theodore manicheenne par Franz d'apres de de la CXlll homelie II, Extrait mont, Bruxelles, 1908;

Neue des Mani Schmidt, Originalquellen (27) Karl aus Aegypten, chaeismus this lecture 1933, reprints Stuttgart, as an article which also appeared in the ? Zeitschrift f?r ? in the first No. of 1933. K. Schmidt und Kirchengeschichte H.

in Aegypten. Ein Mani-Fund J. Polotsky, Original? und seines Schulern, mit einem Beitrag schriften des Mani von H. Hocher der preussischen Aka? in ? Sitzungsberichte Klasse demie der Wissenschaften. ?, Philosophisch-historische 1933, pp. 4-40. Berlin, on this matter K. Schmidt, Neue Originalquel? (38) See Ein Mani-Fund, len, pp. 7-10, Schmidt-Polotsky, pp. 18-24.

85

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pp.

(29) Kephalaia, 7-8. (30)

in Schmidt, Ein

Neue

Original

quellen, cit.

cit. p. Alter? 45.

STATEMENT
It happened only a few weeks ago (middle
attention was called in ccEast and West ?, Vol. 7-28, on

Schmidt-Polotsky,

(31) Paulys tumswissenschaft, coll. 240-271.

Real-Encyclop?die Supplementband,

Mani-Fund, op. der classischen VI,

Stuttgart,

1935, ch. 10 7.

two publish from manuscripts (36) Of the three volumes one of the and the A. Chester those collection, Beatty i.e. the Manichaeische der Prussian Academy Handschriften A. Chester I Manichaeische Homilien Sammlung Beatty, von von H. mit einem Beitrag J. Polotsky, herausgegebn H. Psalm-book, II, A Manichaeam 1934; Ibscher, Stuttgart, with a contribution by part II, edited by C. R. C. Allberry, der Staatlichen Manichaeischer H. Ibscher; Handschriften mit einem Beitrag l H?lfte, I. Kephalaia, Museem, Berlin, 1940. von Hugo Ibscher, Stuttgart, the and Manah Vohu The great (37) G. Widengren, and Manichaean in Iranian religion Apostle of God, Studies Universitats in Uppsala 1945, n. 5, and Mesopo Arsskrift, and Saviour in Manichaeism tamian Elements 11) (King Re? and Syro-Gnostic in Manichaean, Studies Mandeaan, n. 3. Universitets in Uppsala, 1946, Arsskrift, ligion, in the Coptic Manichaen Studies (38) T. S?ve-S?derbergh, in ? Arbeten and Mandaean Psalm-Book. Prosody parallels av Vilhelm Universi? Eckmans med underst?d utgivna n. 55, (1949). t?tsfond ?, Uppsala, the first take into account I cannot here (39) Of course, with deal which of his work four linguistic chapters problems and (4?) I also the Mandaean of Coptic questions the A's leave aside prosody. other conclusions about

De Praescriptione haereticorum, (32) Tertulli?ni, op. cit., col. 270. (33) Polotsky, 2 p. 4 De utilitate credenti, (34) S. Augustini, op. cit., col. 271. (35) Polotsky,

that my of February) Franz Altheim's article N. Ser.,

to

15.

9, Nos. 1958, 1-2, March-June ? Inscriptions pp. of the Synagogue ten pages ?. About of Dura-Europos of this are dedicated to the criticism article (pp. 8-18)

of my publication

on

the Middle

Iranian

Yale University Press,

criticized

in the Synagogue inscriptions Part. VIII, (Final Report

of Dura-Europos 283-317. 1, pp.

once before my publication already in two different places ? in the appendixes to his books Finanzgeschichte der Sp?tantike and Supplementum and that Aramaicum ?, in two verbatim and literatim identical tractive presentations. criticisms were extremely the reaction against These completely de?

1956).

Altheim had

my criticism but welldeserved devastating, of book Asien Altheim's und Rom. Although he dealt in this book only with a small number

problem. in Mani? Elements Mesopotamian (41) G. Widengren, chaeism, op. cit., p. 176. to quote the previous is no opportunity (42) There to his little in the note all mentioned of Puech, works Le Manicheisme. book on Manichaeism. Cfr. H.-Ch. Puech, - Sa 1949. Paris Sa fondateur doctrine, in Manichaean The Boyce, Cycles Hymn (43) Mary Oriental 1954 (London London-New York-Toronto, Parthian, 3). zum Manichaeismus, 1954 Texte Berlin, (44) A. Adam, n. 175). und ?bungen, Texte f?r Vorlesungen (Kleine op. cit., pp. 97-103. (45) A. Adam, I have I would mention, In this connection although (46) to Mani, of a hymn not yet seen it, a translation belonging texts published in the Procedings to the group of the Turfan Academy. numidien du manicheisme Grondijs, Analyse au Vol. in Augustinus III, Actes, siede, Magister, not stated but of 1955) id. La 394-411; pp. Paris, (year in onore in Silloge diversit? delle Sette manichee, bizantina e neoellenici, bizantini di S. G. Mercati 9, 1957) (Studi to mention I take this opportunity 176-187. that the pp. (47) L. IVeme H. of the Berlin Series, Vol.

method,
and with

I could show of parts of inscriptions, easily were that his throughout interpretations and wrong, fantastic, utterly far-fetched amateurish and that they betrayed lack of even lack of of indispensable acquaintance the inscriptional alphabet.

lack of knowledge of the language

the from examples will be given of Dura, in the near future. in an article to be published in I shall also demonstrate the cases There also including and ostraca parchments tions,

and West ?, is of the same recently in <c East caliber as the first one. However, I dont wish to elaborate A full account here on details. and misinterpreta? misreadings of Altheim's

The criticism which Altheim has published

the forms

International in Paris in 1954, held Augustinian Congress mention of Manichaeism in and St. Augustin barely made the paper in that of by Grandijs, op. cit., and presented :Manichaeism in the Struggle between St. Augustin W. Freud and Petilian in Augustinus II, Paris, of Costantine, magister The is problem (year not stated by 1955), pp. 839-866. indeed one that is left rather on one side. It therefore seems to me all the more to refer to the more advisable recent works that have dealt with account it. Besides the ample in his // Cristianesimo given by E. Buonaiuti deWAfrica on pp. 360-368 of St. romana, Bari, 1928, which speaks and his we would relations with Manichaeism, Augustin mention A. Pincherle, S. Agostino, in which Bari, 1930, the matter is treated in pp. 24-40 with the special qualifi? cations which a his article characterise is almost (which on Manichaeism in the ? Encyclope? monograph) published dia Italiana ?, sub voce: Manicheismo recent and the more sur les Confessions studies by P. Courcelle, Recherches de Saint a whole in which is Paris, 1950, Augustin, chapter to La conversion devoted de St. Augustin, manicheenne Paris, des Mani 1950, pp. 60-78 and by A. Adam, Das Fortwirken ch?ismus in ?Zeitschrift f?r Kirchengeschichte? bei Augustin 69 (1958) pp. 1-25. op. (48) L. H. Grondijs, cit., p. 176. La diversit? delle sette manichee,

which Altheim failed to distinguish letters of theP?rsik alphabet from those of thePahlavik
alphabet. As far as my work on the Synagogue inscrip? tions is concerned, to stress most I wish that I am unswervingly uphold? emphatically It is, all my readings and interpretations. ing Iranian that my work has scholars, competent the understanding placed of these inscriptions are only on a very solid foundation. There a few cases left in which the bad state of pres? ervation of a letter or of a word or of a pas?

indeed, my firm belief, which is shared by all

about the reading the decision sage made uncertain or, for the time being, impossible. to himself the Altheim However, arrogates

authority of an infallible expert in Middle

86

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