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Student Guide
Published by Asia Pacific Learning 1 Caterpillar Drive Tullamarine Victoria Australia 3043 Version 3.2, 2003
Copyright 2003 Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd Melbourne, Australia. All rights reserved. Reproduction of any part of this work without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information must be addressed to the Manager, Asia Pacific Learning, Australia.
This subject materials is issued by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd on the understanding that:
1.
Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd, its officials, author(s), or any other persons involved in the preparation of this publication expressly disclaim all or any contractual, tortious, or other form of liability to any person (purchaser of this publication or not) in respect of the publication and any consequence arising from its use, including any omission made by any person in reliance upon the whole or any part of the contents of this publication. Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd expressly disclaims all and any liability to any person in respect of anything and of the consequences of anything done or omitted to be done by any such person in reliance, whether whole or partial, upon the whole or any part of the contents of this subject material.
2.
Acknowledgements A special thanks to the Caterpillar Family for their contribution in reviewing the curricula for this program, in particular: Caterpillar engineers and instructors Dealer engineers and instructors Caterpillar Institutes.
MODULE INTRODUCTION
Module Title
Hydraulic Fundamentals.
Module Description
This module covers the knowledge and skills of Hydraulic Fundamentals. Upon satisfactory completion of this module students will be able to competently service and repair basic hydraulic components.
Pre-Requisites
The following modules must be completed prior to delivery of this module: Occupational Health and Safety Mechanical Principles.
Suggested References
No references recommended.
Assessment Methods
Classroom and Workshop
To satisfactorily complete this module, students must demonstrate competence in all learning outcomes. Consequently, activities and assessments will measure all the necessary module requirements. For this module, students are required to participate in classroom and practical workshop activities and satisfactorily complete the following: Activity Workbook Knowledge Assessments Practical Activities.
Workplace
To demonstrate competence in this module students are required to satisfactorily complete the Workplace Assessment(s).
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MODULE INTRODUCTION
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Assessment Criteria
1.1. Describe hydrodynamics and hydrostatics in relation to hydraulic systems 1.1.1 Energy principles applicable 1.2. State the physical aspects of a gas 1.2.1 Gas compresses 1.3. State the properties of a fluid 1.3.1 Liquids virtually incompressible 1.3.2 Liquids conform to the shape of the container 1.3.3 Liquids apply pressure in all directions 1.3.4 Purposes of fluids in a hydraulic system 1.4. State Pascals Law and how hydraulic force can be used to create a mechanical advantage 1.4.1 Pascals Law 1.4.2 Fluid power 1.4.2.1 Force transmission 1.4.2.2 Force transmitted through a liquid 1.5. Explain the basic principles of work, flow and pressure, energy transfer and power 1.5.1 Fluid weight 1.5.2 Atmospheric pressure 1.5.3 Barometric pressure 1.5.4 Work 1.5.5 Flow 1.5.5.1 What is flow 1.5.5.2 Laminar flow 1.5.5.3 Turbulent flow 1.5.5.4 Flow across an orifice 1.5.6 Energy transfer 1.5.6.1 Bernoullis Law 1.5.7 Pressure 1.5.8 Power 1.5.9 Fluid power advantages 1.5.10Key hydraulic principles 1.6. Describe series and parallel hydraulic circuits 1.6.1 Series circuit 1.6.1.1 Pressure drop across a series circuit 1.6.2 Parallel circuit 1.6.2.1 Pressure drop across a parallel circuit
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1.7. Calculate force, pressure and area in a hydraulic system 1.7.1 Formula 1.7.2 Force 1.7.3 Pressure 1.7.4 Area 1.7.5 Imperial/Metric conversion factors 1.7.5.1 Length 1.7.5.2 Area 1.7.5.3 Volume 1.7.5.4 Mass 1.7.5.5 Velocity 1.7.5.6 Force 1.7.5.7 Pressure 1.7.5.8 Torque 1.7.5.9 Temperature 1.7.5.10Power 1.7.6 Prefixes commonly linked to base units.
Learning Outcome 2:
Identify and explain the purpose and operation of basic hydraulic circuits and components.
Assessment Criteria
2.1. Demonstrate knowledge of the basic layout of a hydraulic circuit 2.1.1 Tank 2.1.2 Pump 2.1.3 Main Pressure Relief Valve (PRV) 2.1.4 Lines 2.1.5 Flow control valves 2.1.6 Actuators 2.1.7 Filters 2.1.8 Motor 2.1.9 Graphic symbols 2.2. Identify and describe the function of hydraulic tanks 2.2.1 Vented 2.2.2 Closed 2.3. Identify, describe the function and explain the operation of hydraulic pumps 2.3.1 Positive and non positive displacement 2.3.2 Gear 2.3.2.1 Construction 2.3.2.2 Operation 2.3.3 Vane 2.3.3.1 Construction 2.3.3.2 Operation 2.3.4 Piston 2.3.4.1 Construction 2.3.4.2 Operation 2.3.5 Graphic symbols
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2.4. Identify, describe the function and explain the operation of hydraulic control valves 2.4.1 Directional 2.4.2 Pressure 2.4.3 Flow-volume 2.4.4 Pilot 2.4.5 Open centred 2.4.6 Closed centred 2.4.7 Graphic symbols 2.5. Identify, describe the function and explain the operation of hydraulic actuators 2.5.1 Linear 2.5.1.1 Single acting Construction Cap end head Body Rod end head Piston Piston rods Seals O ring with backup ring Lip seal Lip seal with garter spring Lip seal with rod wiper U packing V packing 2.5.1.2 Operation Integrated counterbalance cartridge Cushion plunger Stroke limiting stop tube Adjustable stop valve Thermal relief valve Operating pressures 2.5.1.3 Double acting Construction Operation Operating pressures 2.5.1.4 Rams Construction Operation Operating pressures 2.5.1.5 Telescopic Construction Operation Operating pressures 2.5.2 Rotary (hydraulic motors) 2.5.2.1 Gear Construction Operation
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2.5.2.2 Vane Construction Operation 2.5.2.3 Piston Construction Operation 2.5.2.4 Graphic symbols 2.6. Explain the purpose and function of hydraulic oil, filters and coolers 2.6.1 Oil 2.6.1.1 Lubrication 2.6.1.2 Friction 2.6.1.3 Viscosity effects To a system By temperature By pressure On lubrication Hydrodynamic lubrication Clearance flow 2.6.1.4 Water in hydraulic oil 2.6.1.5 Foaming 2.6.1.6 Dirt 2.6.1.7 Cavitation 2.6.2 Filters 2.6.2.1 Reservoir strainer 2.6.2.2 Suction filters Location Type 2.6.2.3 Pressure filters Location Type 2.6.2.4 Return line filter Location Type 2.6.2.5 Full flow filters (including by-pass) 2.6.2.6 Wire mesh filters Cleaning 2.6.3 Coolers 2.6.3.1 Air coolers 2.6.3.2 Water coolers 2.6.4 Graphic symbols.
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TABLE
OF
C ONTENTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TOPIC 1
Principles of Hydraulics
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic systems are extremely important to the operation of heavy equipment. Hydraulic principles are used when designing hydraulic implement systems, steering systems, brake systems, power assisted steering, power train systems and automatic transmissions. An understanding of the basic hydraulic principles must be accomplished before continuing into machine systems. Hydraulics play a major role in mining, construction, agricultural and materials handling equipment. Hydraulics are used to operate implements to lift, push and move materials. It wasnt until the 1950s that hydraulics were widely used on earthmoving equipment. Since then, this form of power has become standard to the operation of machinery. In hydraulic systems, forces that are applied by the liquid are transmitted to a mechanical mechanism. To understand how hydraulic systems operate, it is necessary to understand the principles of hydraulics. Hydraulics is the study of liquids in motion and pressure in pipes and cylinders.
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Hydrodynamics
This describes the science of moving liquids.
Figure 1 - a & b
Applications of hydrodynamics: water wheel or turbine; the energy that is used is that created by the waters motion (Figure 1a) torque converter (Figure 1b).
Hydrostatics
This describes the science of liquids under pressure. Applications of hydrostatics: hydraulic jack or hydraulic press hydraulic cylinder actuation. In hydrostatic devices, pushing on a liquid that is trapped (confined) transfers power. If the liquid moves or flows in a system then movement in that system will happen. For example, when jacking up a car with a hydraulic jack, the liquid is moved so that the jack will rise, lifting the car. Most hydraulic machines or equipment in use today operate hydrostatically.
HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES
There are several advantages for using a liquid: 1. 2. 3. Liquids conform to the shape of the container. Liquids are practically incompressible. Liquids apply pressure in all directions.
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Figure 2
Liquids will conform to the shape of any container. Liquids will also flow in any direction through lines and hoses of various sizes and shapes. We have three oddly shaped containers shown in Figure 2, all connected together and filled to the same level with liquid. The liquid has conformed to the shape of the containers.
Figure 3
Hydraulic oil compresses approximately 1 - 1.5% at a pressure of 3000 psi (20,685 kPa). For machine hydraulic applications, hydraulic oil is considered as ideal and doesnt compress at all. When a substance is compressed, it takes up less space. A liquid occupies the same amount of space or volume even when under pressure. Gas would be unsuitable for use in hydraulic systems because gas compresses and takes up less space.
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Figure 4
There is equal distribution of pressure in a liquid. The pressure measured at any point in a hydraulic cylinder or line will be the same wherever it is measured (Figure 4).
Figure 5
When a pipe connects two cylinders of the same size (Figure 5), a change in volume in one cylinder will transmit the same volume to the other. The space or volume that any substance occupies is called displacement. Liquids are useful for transmitting power through pipes, for small or large distances, and around corners and up and down. The force applied at one end of a pipe will immediately be transferred with the same force to the other end of the pipe. Most hydraulic systems use oil, because it cannot be compressed and it lubricates the system.
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Water would be unsuitable because: 1. 2. it freezes at cold temperatures and boils at 100oC it causes corrosion and rusting and furnishes little lubrication.
FLUID POWER
In the seventeenth century, a French Philosopher and Mathematician named Blaise Pascal, formulated the fundamental law which forms the basis for hydraulics. Pascals Law states: Pressure applied to a confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions, and acts with equal force on all equal areas, and at right angles to those areas.
This principle, also referred to as the laws of confined fluids, is best demonstrated by considering the result of driving a stopper into a full glass bottle (Figure 6).
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Because liquid is essentially incompressible, and forces are transmitted undiminished throughout the liquid and act equally on equal areas of the bottle, and the area of the body of the bottle is much greater than the neck, the body will break with a relatively light force on the stopper. Figure 7 illustrates this phenomenon.
Figure 8 illustrates the relationship of areas that causes a greater force on the body of the bottle than is applied to the neck. In this illustration, the neck of the bottle has a cross sectional area of .001m2. When the pressure created by this force is transmitted throughout the fluid, it influences all adjacent areas with equal magnitude. It stands to reason that a larger area (a greater number of square inches) will be subjected to a higher combined force. The bottom of the bottle in Figure 8 has a total area of .02m2 as shown, and the force applied by the liquid is 50N. Therefore, the combined force over the entire bottom area is the sum of 50N acting on each of the .001m2 areas. Because there are 20 areas of .001m2 to make up 0.02m2 and 50N on each, the combined force at the bottom of the bottle is 1000N.
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This relationship is represented by the following formula: Force = Pressure x Area. This formula allows the Force to be determined and the Pressure and the Area when two of the three are known.
Figure 9
P = Pressure = Force per unit of area. The unit of measurement of pressure is the Pascal (Pa). F = Force - which is the push or pull acting upon a body. Force is equal to the pressure times the area (F = P x A). Force is measured in Newtons (N). A = Area - which is the extent of a surface. Sometimes the surface area is referred to as effective area. The effective area is the total surface that is used to create a force in the desired direction. Area is measured in square metres (m2). The surface area of a circle (as in a piston) is calculated with the formula: Area = Pi (3.14) times radius-squared.
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The same relationship is used to determine the pressure in a fluid resulting from a force applied to it. Figure 10 shows a weight being supported by fluid over a .01m 2 area. By rearranging the above formula, the fluid pressure of 100,000Pa can be determined by: Pressure = Force
Area
Pascal demonstrated the practical use of his laws with illustrations such as that shown in Figure 11. This diagram shows how, by applying the same principle described above, a small input force applied against a small area can result in a large force by enlarging the output area. This pressure, applied to the larger output area, will produce a larger force as determined by the formula on the previous page. Thus, a method of multiplying force, much the same as with a pry-bar or lever, is accomplished using fluid as the medium.
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3.
A complete hydraulic system consists of a reservoir of fluid, a hydraulic pump driven by an internal combustion (IC) engine or an electric motor, a system of valves to control and direct the output flow of the pump, and actuators that apply the forces to conduct the work being performed. Figure 12 is a simplified illustration of these major components.
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PRESSURE
The system fluid is forced out of the reservoir into the inlet side of a pump by the sum of several pressures that act on the fluid (Figure 13). The first pressure is the one caused by the weight of the fluid; the second is caused by the weight of the atmosphere; a third may be present if a pressurised reservoir is employed.
Fluid Weight
A cubic meter of water weighs approximately 1000kg. This weight acts downward due to the force of gravity, and causes pressure at the bottom of the fluid. Figure 14 shows how this weight is distributed across the entire bottom of the water volume. In this example, the entire weight is supported by an area measuring one metre by one metre or 1m2. The pressure of acting at the bottom of 1 cubic metre of water is 9810kPa. A two metre tall column of water would develop twice as much pressure if spread over the same area (i.e. 19620 Pa).
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This is the same pressure felt on eardrums when swimming under water, and experience says that the pressure increases with depth. The pressure can be expressed as follows: Pressure (Pa) = water depth (m) x 9810 Pa per metre of depth. Other fluids behave the same as water, the difference being relative to the difference in weight of the fluids. The difference is usually defined by the Specific Gravity of the fluid (SG), which is the ratio of the fluids weight to the weight of water. SG = Weight of fluid
Weight of water
A typical specific gravity for oil used in hydraulic systems is approximately 0.92, meaning the weight of the oil is 92% of the weight of water. The relationship of the first formula then becomes: Pressure (Pa) = Fluid Depth (m) x 9810 Pa/m water x SG.
Pure water weighs 1000kg per cubic metre at 4 oC, the temperature at which it is most dense. The weight will be slightly less at higher temperatures, but the difference is generally ignored in hydraulic calculations. Typical hydraulic oil in a reservoir creates a pressure of 9200 Pa per metre of height, as illustrated in Figure 15. This pressure at the bottom of a reservoir helps to push the fluid out of the reservoir and into the inlet of a hydraulic pump, if the pump inlet is below the fluid level.
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Atmospheric Pressure
Generally air is considered as not having weight. Any reasonable quantity of it is so light that the weight is usually ignored. A column of air measuring one metre by one metre across (1 square metre of area), and extending from the earths surface at sea level to the extreme of the atmosphere, would actually have a significant weight. This weight, on an average day is approximately 10,000kg, as illustrated in Figure 16. Therefore the pressure that continuously exists at sea level due to the weight of the air above, is 100,000Pa. This is referred to as a standard atmosphere, or the atmospheric pressure on a typical day at sea level which is also known as 1 bar or 1000 millibars. This pressure, acting on the reservoir fluid, also helps to push fluid out of the reservoir and into the inlet of a pump. People are so accustomed to this pressure, and because it exists all the time the pressure under these conditions is considered to be zero. Pressure gauges also read zero under these conditions, so the standard atmospheric pressure is referred to as a gauge reading. It is, of course, possible to obtain pressures below this level by removing some of the atmospheric pressure, and this is called a vacuum.
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By removing all of the atmospheric pressure, a new zero is derived, and this is called absolute zero. Absolute zero is 100 kPa below gauge zero, and is considered a perfect vacuum (Figure 17). There is no pressure below absolute zero. To differentiate between the two pressures, gauges which read absolute values are labelled as such. This means that the zero for this pressure is absolute zero, and all positive pressure readings start from this level. If the pressure starts at atmospheric pressure as the zero, then it is designated gauge pressure. Gauges which read this way are not normally labelled.
Barometric Pressure
One can see now that as we move above sea level, such as up a mountain, the column of air above us becomes shorter, and thus the weight of the air above us becomes less. The atmospheric pressure is then reduced, and the air is not compressed as much. We recognise this as thin air at higher altitudes, and we feel a shortness of breath; the reason being that we get less air into our lungs each time we inhale. It is important to recognise this phenomenon; at higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure available to help push fluid out of the bottom of a hydraulic reservoir and into the inlet of a pump is less than at lower altitudes.
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Atmospheric pressure is measured by use of a barometer, and this is illustrated in Figure 18. A tube full of mercury is inverted in a pool of mercury as shown. The mercury will fall out of the tube until it reaches a specific height. The space above the mercury in the tube will become a perfect vacuum of 0kPa. The height of the mercury in the tube will correspond to atmospheric pressure, because it is atmospheric pressure that is preventing the mercury from falling the rest of the way out of the tube. At standard atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa mercury will fall in the tube until it reaches a height of 760mm above the pool. As the atmospheric pressure changes (due to climate or altitude change), the height of the mercury will change accordingly.
FLOW (Q)
Flow is simply the movement of a quantity of fluid during a period of time. Fluids are confined in hydraulics, such as in hoses, tubes, reservoirs and components, so flow is the movement of a fluid through these confining elements. Flow is normally designated by the letter Q, and is usually expressed in litres-perminute, or LPM, but may also be expressed in cubic-centimetres-per-minute (cm3/ min) or per-second (cm3/sec). In using the above formula the correct units must be used so that they are equal on both sides of the equation. For example, if area is in sq cm, then velocity must be in cm per second or cm per minute. The flow will then be cubic centimetres (cc) per second or minute. Flow is basically the velocity of a quantity of fluid past a given point. To visualize this, consider a cross-sectional area of fluid inside a tube. If this cross-sectional slice of fluid moved at the rate of one metre in one second, then it would push one metre of fluid ahead of it every second. The volume of that fluid is the cross sectional area times the length. The time, in this case, is one second. This gives rise to the basic formula for flow in hydraulics: Flow = Area x Velocity, or Q = A x V.
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Laminar Flow
We would like to think of flow in a hydraulic system as a smooth transition of fluid from one point to another; all particles of the fluid would be moving parallel to all other particles, and there would be no turmoil within the fluid. This we would call laminar flow (Figure 19), and it is very desirable.
Turbulent Flow
In fact, hydraulic system flow often experiences more turmoil than is desirable. Although the fluid generally move in the direction which is required, it also travels through small conduits, across sharp-edged restrictions, through small orifices, around sharp bends, in fact, through all the places that have a tendency to cause anything but a nice, smooth transition. Particles of the fluid are travelling helter-skelter among each other (see Figure 20), causing friction and inefficient movement. This type of flow, called turbulent flow, is undesirable and wasteful. Unfortunately, the economic and practical aspects of mobile fluid power result in most flow being in the turbulent variety.
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PRESSURE DROP
When fluid flows across an orifice, as in Figure 21, it loses some of its energy. This is reflected in a lower pressure at the downstream side of the orifice, as illustrated by the two gauges. The difference between the upstream and downstream pressure is called a pressure drop; it is the drop in pressure caused by the flow and the restriction (orifice). The magnitude of the pressure drop will vary, depending upon: The rate of flow passing across the orifice The size of the orifice The ease with which the fluid will flow (viscosity). The downstream flow must be the same as the upstream flow in Figure 21, because there is nowhere for the fluid to escape. However, if the pressure in the fluid is lower, then the energy in the fluid is less. A law of physics states that energy cannot be destroyed, therefore the difference in energy must be given off in the form of heat.
If the magnitude of the pressure drop is dependent on the amount of flow passing the restriction, then it stands to reason that if there is no flow, there will be no pressure drop. This is demonstrated by Figure 22; there being no flow across the orifice will result in equal pressure on both sides. With no flow and no pressure drop, there will be no heat rejected due to a drop in energy.
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This direct relationship between flow and pressure drop is an important consideration in hydraulics; if there is no flow between point A and point B, there will be no pressure drop. Conversely, if there is no difference in pressure between points A and B, there is no fluid flow between these two points.
Bernoullis Principle
Figure 23
Bernoullis Principle tells us that the sums of pressure and kinetic energy at various points in a system must be constant, if flow is constant. When a fluid flows through areas of different diameters as shown in Figure 23, there must be corresponding changes in velocity. At the left, the section is large so velocity is low. In the centre, velocity must be increased because the area is smaller. Again, at the right, the area increases to the original size and the velocity again decreases. Bernoulli proved that the pressure component at C must be less than at A and B because velocity is greater. An increase in velocity at C means an increase in kinetic energy. Kinetic energy can only increase if pressure decrease. At B, the extra kinetic energy has been converted back to pressure and flow decreases. If there is no frictional loss, the pressure at B is equal to the pressure at A.
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Figure 24
Figure 24 shows the combined effects of friction and velocity changes. Pressure drops from a maximum at C to zero at B. At D, velocity is increased, so the pressure head decreases. At E, the head increases as most of the kinetic energy is given up to pressure energy because velocity is decreased. Again, at F, the head drops as velocity increases. Put simply, Bernoullis Principle is indicating that: As flow increases, pressure decreases As flow decreases, pressure increases.
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Figure 25
Most machines require multiple components that can be connected in series or parallel (Figure 25). When components are connected in series (1), fluids flow from one component to the next, before returning to the tank. When components are connected in parallel (2), fluid flows through each component simultaneously.
Restrictions in Series
Figure 26
In Figure 26, a pressure of 620 kPa (90 psi) is required to send 4 litres per minute (lpm) through either circuit. Orifices or relief valves in series in a hydraulic circuit offer a resistance that is similar to resistors in series in an electrical circuit, in that the oil must flow through each resistance. The total resistance equals the sum of each individual resistance.
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Restriction in Parallel
Figure 27
In a system with parallel circuits, pump oil follows the path of least resistance. In Figure 27, the pump supplies oil to three parallel circuits. Circuit three has the highest resistance and therefore would have the lowest priority. Circuit one has the lowest resistance and therefore would have the highest priority. When the pump oil flow fills the passage from the pump to the valves, pump oil pressure increases to 207 kPa (30 psi). The pressure created by the restriction of oil flow, opens the valve to circuit one and oil flows into the circuit. Circuit pressure will not increase until circuit one if full. When circuit one fills, fluid pressure will increase to 414 kPa (60 psi) and opens the valve in circuit two. Again, circuit pressure will not increase until circuit two is full. Pump oil pressure must exceed 620 kPa (90 psi) to open the valve in circuit three. There must be a system relief valve in one of the circuits or at the pump to limit the maximum pressure in the system.
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Figure 28
In order to perform useful work, a hydraulic system must convert and control energy as it flows from one component to the next. Figure 28 above represents the key conversion and control points in the system. The hydraulic system receives input energy from a source, normally from an engine or rotating gear train. The hydraulic pump converts the energy into hydraulic energy in the form of flow and pressure. Valves control the transfer of hydraulic energy through the system by controlling fluid flow and direction. The actuator (which can be either a cylinder or a hydraulic motor) converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy in the form of linear or rotary motion, which is used to perform work. To perform hydraulic work, both flow and pressure are required. Hydraulic pressure is force and flow provides movement.
Area
0.00155 ins2 = 1 mm2 0.155 ins2 = 1 cm2 1 square inch (in 2) = 6.452 square centimetres (cm2).
Volume
0.061 in 3 = 61.02 in 3 = 1 cm3 1 litre (L)
0.22 Imperial gallon = 1 litre (L) 0.2642 U.S. Gallon = 1 litre (L) 1 cubic inch (in 3) = 16.39 cubic centimeters (cm3 or cc) 1 imperial gallon (imp gal)= 4.546 litres (lt) 1 US gallon (US gal) = 3.785 litres (lt).
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Mass
2.205 pounds (lb) = 1 kilogram (kg) 0.9844 tons (t) = 1 tonne (t) 1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kilograms (kg).
Velocity
196.8 feet per minute (ft/min) = 1 meter per second (m/s).
Force
0.2248 pounds force (lb.force) = 1 Newton (N) 0.1004 tons force (t.force) = 1 KiloNewton (kN).
Pressure
0.145 pounds per square inch (psi) = 1 Kilopascal (kPa) Note: 101.325 kPa = 1 Atmosphere (atms) 1 kg/sq.cm = 14.22 psi or 0.9678 atms or 100 kPa.
Torque
0.7376 pound foot (lb.ft) = 1 Newton Meter (Nm) 7.23 (lb.ft) = 1 Kg/m.
Temperature
Degrees Fahrenheit (F) = C x 1.8 + 32 (Degree CelsiusC).
Power
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1.341 Horsepower (hp) Note: 1 watt (w) = 1 Nm/s.
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TOPIC 2
Hydraulic Circuit & Components
Figure 29
Mobile earthmoving machines are designed with hydraulic systems which use a variety of hydraulic components to provide efficient operation. Hydraulic cylinders of various types are used to operate implements, e.g. buckets, blades, rippers, backhoes and truck beds. Hydraulic motors drive tracks, wheels, car bodies and conveyors. Brakes, steering, transmissions, suspensions and other vehicle systems rely on hydraulics for power and control. Figure 29 depicts a basic hydraulic system. For a basic hydraulic system to operate (e.g. cylinder extend and retract), it must contain the following components: fluid (A) reservoir (B) filter (C) pump (D) directional control valve (E) actuator or hydraulic cylinder (F) lines (G) pressure control valve (H) cooler (I). Most manufacturers use graphic symbol circuits to identify the circuit components, and to illustrate the circuit function and operation.
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Figure 30
GRAPHIC SYMBOLS
Graphic symbols for fluid power diagrams (Figure 30) were originally developed by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and are presently adopted by the International Standards Organisation (ISO). They provide communication standards that serve industry and education. The standards simplify design, fabrication, analysis, and servicing of fluid power systems. The symbols describe component function rather than construction. In addition, they show how some of the fluid power components operate pneumatically, hydraulically, electrically, manually, and the like. In order to use the graphic symbol system to its maximum potential, the following rules must be understood and followed: 1. Symbols show connections, flow paths, and functions of components. They do not indicate conditions occurring during transition from one flow arrangement to another. Further, they do not indicate construction or values, such as pressure, flow rate, and other component settings. Symbols do not indicate location of ports, shifting of spools, or position of control elements on an actual component.
2.
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3.
The position or size of a symbol can be altered for component emphasis in a circuit without changing its meaning. Each symbol is drawn to show normal or neutral condition of a component unless multiple circuit diagrams are furnished showing various phases of circuit operation. Arrows used within a symbol envelope show direction of flow in a component as used in the application represented. Double-end arrows indicate reverse flow.
4.
5.
The graphic symbols utilize elementary geometrical forms to depict components and circuits. These forms include: circles, squares, rectangles, triangles, arcs, arrows, lines, dots, and crosses.
Elemental Symbols
The first elemental symbols are energy triangles (Figure 31). A triangle is used to represent a conversion point of energy and its direction of flow. A shaded or darkened triangle as seen to the left indicates the energy medium is a fluid, such as hydraulic oil. The clear triangle on the right denotes the energy medium is gaseous. Orientation of the triangle will indicate the direction of energy flow into or out of a component. A dark triangle pointing out of a component envelope would indicate the component is generating energy (such as a pump) and that the medium is a fluid. Another example might be a clear triangle pointing into the component, meaning the energy medium is pneumatic and the component is absorbing or using this energy to do work (such as a pneumatic motor). We will see examples of these later. Rotating shafts are shown by a short solid line connected to the component outline. An arrow is used to indicate the direction of rotation. The arrow is always assumed to be on the near side of the shaft, and may denote either uni or bidirectional rotation.
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Basic Components
The basic component symbols used are the outlines of circles, squares, diamonds, rectangles and a few other geometrical features (Figure 32). These raw component symbols or envelopes will have supplemental component symbols or elements added to them in order to create or, illustrate a specific type of component such as a valve, pump, or motor. Size of the component's outline may be varied to emphasize certain components or indicate a difference between a main and auxiliary component. Otherwise, variations in size are not an indication of the components' physical sizes.
A solid line is used to show a hydraulic working line. The working line carries the major flow of oil in a hydraulic system. 2. Pilot Line:
A dashed line is used to show a hydraulic pilot line. The pilot line carries a small volume of oil used as an auxiliary flow to actuate or control a hydraulic component. The length of the dash will be drawn at least ten times its width. 3. Drain Line:
A dashed line is used to show a drain line that carries leakage oil back to the reservoir. The drain line will be illustrated as a dashed line with the length of the dash less than five times its width.
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The enclosure line is used to illustrate the boundary of the area on a machine, in which hydraulic components are contained. e.g. an operation compartment, or the front half of an articulated machine. 2. Instrument Line:
Crossing Lines
Here are two techniques used for representing both lines crossing and joining (Figure 33). It is important to note that graphic symbols may be drawn several different ways to represent the same thing. First let's take a look at the techniques, where A & B are used to represent lines crossing. In method A a small half circular line is used to jump or cross another line. The alternative method B merely shows the lines crossing each other. On the right two methods are used for joining lines. The standard and most desirable way to show lines which join is to use a solid dot at the point of junction as seen in C. An alternative method is seen at D in which the lines join without the connecting dots. This may appear confusing at first, since this is also a way in which lines crossing may be shown as in B. The way to determine the type of junction you have will depend on which of the other techniques is used throughout the rest of the circuit to represent line crossing or junctions.
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The key to determining the type of line junction, seen in Figure 34 at point (1) in views B or C, will be dependent on the other technique used throughout the circuit. If a small half circular line is used to depict lines crossing, then lines joining may be drawn with or without a connecting dot, as seen in views A or B. Both methods are correct. Whichever method is chosen, it must be used consistently throughout the entire circuit. In a similar fashion when a connecting dot is used to indicate lines joining throughout the circuit, then lines crossing can be shown with the half circular line as in A or without it as shown in C. The important point to remember is that the technique chosen will be used consistently throughout the circuit. View D shows what would happen if the same method was used to illustrate both line crossings and junctions in a circuit. This is incorrect because no one would be able to differentiate between the two.
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HYDRAULIC LINES
Hydraulic lines are used to connect the various components together to allow transmission of fluid in the circuit. The lines can be either tubes or hoses.
Figure 35
A tube (Figure 35) is a rigid hydraulic line, usually made of steel. Tubes are used to connect components that do not move in relation to each other. Tubes also generally require less space than hoses and can be firmly attached to the machine, resulting in better protection to the lines and a better overall machine appearance.
Figure 36
Hydraulic hoses (Figure 36) are used whenever flexibility is needed, such as when components move in relation to each other. Hoses absorb vibration and resist pressure variations.
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HYDRAULIC TANK
Figure 37
When construction machines and equipment are in the design stage, considerable thought is given to the type, size and location of the hydraulic oil tank (Figure 37). Once the machine or equipment is in operation, the hydraulic tank functions as a storage place for the hydraulic oil, a device to remove heat from the oil, a separator to remove air from the oil and allows particles to settle out of the oil. The hydraulic oil tank main function is to store oil and ensure there is enough oil for any requirements of the system. Tanks must have sufficient strength, adequate capacity and keep dirt out. Hydraulic tanks are usually but not always sealed. Tanks are mounted in any convenient location, sometimes as part of a major component housing. The components of the tank are: Fill cap Sight glass Supply and return line Drain.
Fill Cap
Figure 38
The fill cap keeps contaminants out of the opening thats used to fill and add oil to the tank and seals pressurized tanks (Figure 38).
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Sight Glass
Figure 39
The sight glass (Figure 39) is used to check the oil level according to the operation and maintenance manual. The oil level is usually correct when the oil is in the middle of the sight glass. The oil level should be checked when the oil is cold. Refer to manufacturers specifications for the correct procedures for reading oil level.
Breather
Figure 40
The breather (Figure 40) is fitted to unpressurised tanks and allows atmospheric pressure to flow in and out of the tank.
Drain
Located at the lowest point in the tank, the drain is used to remove old oil from the tank. The drain also allows for the removal of water and sediment from the oil Drain plugs often contain a strong magnet to capture particles at the bottom of the tank.
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Pressurised Tank
Figure 41
The pressurised tank is completely sealed. Atmospheric pressure does not affect the pressure in the tank. When the oil circulates through the system, it absorbs heat and expands. The expanding heated oil compresses the air in the tank and creates a positive pressure in the system. Pressurised tanks prevent the entry of dirt and moisture and help force oil into the hydraulic pump. Air pressurised reservoirs receive air from the vehicles compressed air system although these are not used often. Never open the reservoir when it is pressurised. Thermally pressurised tanks rely on the expansion of the oil as it is heated to exert a slight pressure on the surface of the oil. The pressure relief valve controls the pressure in the tank and the vacuum valve prevents negative pressures when the system cools.
Vacuum/Relief Valve
The vacuum/relief valve serves two purposes. It prevents a vacuum and limits the maximum pressure in the tank. The vacuum relief valve prevents a vacuum by opening and allowing air to enter the tank when the tank pressure drops to 3.45 kPa (0.5 psi). When pressure in the tank reaches the vacuum relief valve pressure setting, the valve opens and vents compressed air to the atmosphere. The vacuum relief valve pressure setting may vary from 70 kPa (10 psi) to 207 kPa (30 psi).
Filler Screen
Prevents large contaminants from entering the tank.
Filler Tube
Allows the tank to be filled to the correct level, but not over-filled.
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Baffles
Prevents the return oil from flowing directly to the tank outlet, allowing time for bubbles to rise to the top. It prevents the oil from sloshing which helps reduce foaming of the oil.
Ecology Drain
Used to prevent accidental spills when removing water and sediment from the tank.
Return Line
Returns oil from the hydraulic circuit/s to the tank.
Return screen
Prevents larger particles from entering the tank, but does not provide fine filtering.
Vented Tank
The vented tank is the most common type of tank. It has a breather that allows air to enter and exit freely. Therefore, pressure inside the tank is atmospheric. An air cleaning element or screen is usually fitted in the vent to reduce the entry of airborne dust.
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Figure 43
The vented reservoir symbols (Figure 43) are shown to the left and are merely an open-topped box or rectangle. A pressurised reservoir is drawn as a completely closed box. Return line connections can be either above or below the fluid level. Examples of both types are shown. The reservoir symbol is one symbol which can be drawn as many times as necessary on a circuit schematic to reduce the number of lines which must be drawn. Although the symbol may be drawn several times, it only represents one tank, unless otherwise specified.
Fluid Filters
The general symbol used for a fluid filter is an empty diamond as seen in Figure 44 above. Several different types of fluid conditioner symbols can be made by making slight changes or additions to this basic symbol.
Figure 45
First is a filter or strainer, shown in Figure 45 above, with a dashed vertical line inside the basic symbol. This represents the filtering media which the fluid must flow through.
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Figure 46
A line drawn horizontally across the bottom portion of the symbol, as shown in Figure 46, represents the separated matter that has settled to the bottom, such as water.
Figure 47
A short line extending from the bottom of the symbol, shown in Figure 47, represents a manual drain. If the short line is not on the symbol, it must be assumed to be a manual drain. Nothing on the symbol will indicate
Figure 48
Automatic drains will be represented by a small V placed below the horizontal separation line as shown in Figure 48.
HYDRAULIC PUMPS
The hydraulic pump transfers mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It is a device that takes energy from one source (i.e. engine, electric motor, etc.) and transfers that energy into a hydraulic form. The function of the pump is to supply the hydraulic system with a sufficient flow of oil to enable the circuits to operate at the correct speed. Pumps can generally be classified into two types: non-positive displacement positive displacement.
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Figure 49
Figure 49 is showing a gear type pump. The gears are in mesh and rotated by a power source. The pump takes oil from a storage container (i.e. tank) and pushes it into a hydraulic system. All pumps produce oil flow in the same way. A partial vacuum is created at the pump inlet and outside pressure (tank pressure and/or atmospheric pressure) forces the oil to the inlet passage and into the pump inlet chambers. The pump idler gears carry the oil to the pump outlet chamber. With each element of fluid that is discharged from a hydraulic pump, an equal amount must be available at the inlet side to replace it. The availability of the fluid at the inlet is entirely dependent upon the reservoir pressures that force the fluid into the pump. The larger the pump, or the faster the pump runs, the more fluid is needed to replace the amount that is discharged. This will depend upon there being adequate pressure in the reservoir to force fluid into the pump. Without sufficient pressure, starvation of the pump will occur, and this will cause severe damage to the pump components, and ultimately cause pump failure. There are many factors that can hinder the flow of fluid between the reservoir and the pump: A fluid line that is too small for the volume of fluid going through it. A clogged outlet on the reservoir. A pump that is located too far away from the reservoir, or too far above it. A fluid that is too viscous to flow easily. When one or more of these conditions exist to the point that "starvation" of the pump begins to occur, they must be corrected immediately. Pumps DO NOT produce or cause pressure. The resistance to the flow causes pressure. Resistance can be caused by flow through hoses, orifices, fittings, cylinders, motors, or anything in the system that hinders free flow to the tank. Pumps create flow only.
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Figure 50
The hand pump illustrated in Figure 50 provides an example of the operation of a positive displacement pump. Positive displacement hydraulic pumps are designated by their volume of displacement, such as gallons per minute, litres per minute, cubic inches or cubic centimeters per revolution. This designation is usually a theoretical displacement, and does not allow for any losses that may occur within the pump due to internal leakage. Positive displacement pumps have small clearances between components. This reduces leakage and provides a much higher efficiency when used in a high-pressure hydraulic system. The output flow in a positive displacement pump is basically the same for each pump revolution. Both the control of their output flow and the construction of the pump classify positive displacement pumps. Positive displacement pumps are rated in two ways. One is by the maximum system pressure (21,000 kPa or 3000 psi) at which the pump is designed to operate. The second is by the specific output delivered either per revolution or at a given speed against a specified pressure. As an example a pump maybe rated in lpm @ rpm @ kPa (i.e.380 lpm @ 2000 rpm @ 690 kPa). When expressed in output per revolution, the flow rate can be easily converted by multiplying by the speed, in rpm, (i.e. 2000 rpm) and dividing by a constant. For example, we will calculate the flow of a pump that rotates 2000 rpm and has a flow of 11.55 in 3 /rev or 190 cc/rev. GPM GPM GPM = = = in3 /rev X rpm/231 11.55 X 2000/231 100 LPM LPM LPM = = = cc/rev X rpm/1000 190 X 2000/1000 380.
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Figure 51
The outlet flow of a non-positive displacement pump is dependent on the inlet and outlet restrictions. The greater the restriction on the outlet side, the less flow the pump will discharge. An example of a non-positive displacement pump is the water pump rod on an engine (Figure 51). The centrifugal impeller is an example of a non-positive displacement pump and consists of two basic parts; the impeller (2) that is mounted on an input shaft (4) and the housing (3). The impeller has a solid disc back with curved blades (1) moulded on the input side. Fluid enters the centre of the housing (5) near the input shaft and flows into the impeller. The curved impeller blades propel the fluid outward against the housing. The housing is shaped to direct the oil to the outlet port.
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GEAR PUMPS
Figure 52
Gear pumps (Figure 52) are positive displacement pumps. They deliver the same amount of oil for each revolution of the input shaft. Changing the speed of rotation controls the pumps output. The maximum operating pressure for gear pumps is limited to 27,579 kPa (4000 psi). This pressure limitation is due to the hydraulic imbalance that is inherent in the design. The hydraulic imbalance produces a side load on the shafts that is resisted by the bearings and the gear teeth to housing contact. The gear pump maintains a volumetric efficiency above 90% when pressure is kept within the designed operating pressure range.
Figure 53
Figure 53 shows the components of the gear pump: seal retainers (1), seals (2), seal back- ups (3), isolation plates (4), spacers (5), a drive gear (6), an idler gear (7), a housing (8), a mounting flange (9), a flange seal (10) and pressure balance plates (11) on either side of the gears. Bearings are mounted in the housing and mounting flange on the sides of the gears to support the gear shafts during rotation.
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Figure 54
There are two different types of pressure balance plates used in gear pumps (Figure 54). The earlier type (1) has a flat back. This type uses an isolation plate, a back up for the seal, a seal shaped like a 3 and a seal retainer. The later type (2) has a groove shaped like a 3 cut into the back and is thicker than the earlier type. Two different types of seals are used with the later type of pressure balance plates.
Figure 55
As the pump rotates (Figure 55), the gear teeth carry the oil from the inlet to the outlet side of the pump. The direction of rotation of the drive gear shaft is determined by the location of the inlet and outlet ports and drive gear will always move the oil around the outside of the gears from inlet to outlet port. This is true on both gear pumps and gear motors. On most gear pumps the inlet port is larger in diameter than the outlet port too ensure that there is always an ample supply of oil for the demand of the system and to ensure pump starvation does not occur. On bi-directional pumps and motors, the inlet port and outlet port will be the same size.
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VANE PUMP
Figure 56
As shown in Figure 56, vane pumps are positive displacement pumps. The pump output can be either fixed or variable. Both the fixed and variable vane pumps use common part nomenclature. Each pump consists of the housing (1), cartridge (2), mounting plate (3), mounting plate seal (4), cartridge seals (5), cartridge backup rings (6), snap ring (7), and input shaft and bearing (8). The cartridge consists of the support plates (9) displacement ring (10), flex plates (11), slotted rotor (12) and the vanes (13). The input shaft turns the slotted rotor. The vanes move in and out of the slots in the rotor and seal on the outer tips against the cam ring. The inside of the fixed pump displacement ring is elliptical in shape.
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The inside of the variable pump displacement ring is round in shape. The flex plates seal the sides of the rotor and the ends of the vanes. In some lower pressure designs, the support plates and housing seal the sides of the rotating rotor and the ends of the vanes. The support plates are used to direct the oil into the proper passages in the housing. The housing, in addition to providing support for the other parts of the vane pump, directs the flow in and out of the vane pump.
Vanes
Figure 57
The vanes (Figure 57) are initially held against the displacement ring by centrifugal force created by the rotation of the rotor. As flow increases, the resultant pressure that builds from the resistance to that flow is directed into passages in the rotor beneath the vanes (1). This pressurised oil beneath the vanes keep the vane tips pushed against the displacement ring to form a seal. To prevent the vanes from being pushed too hard against the displacement ring, the vanes are bevelled back (arrow) to permit a balancing pressure across the outer end.
Flex Plates
Figure 58
The same pressurised oil is also directed between the flex plates and the support plates to seal the sides of the rotor and the end of the vanes (Figure 58). The size of the seal area between the flex plate and the support plates is what controls the force that pushes the flex plates against the sides of the rotor and the end of the vanes. The kidney shaped seals must be installed in the support plates with the rounded o-ring side into the pocket and the flat plastic side against the flex plate.
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Figure 59
When the rotor rotates around the inside of the displacement ring Figure 59, the vanes slide in and out of the rotor slots to maintain the seal against the displacement ring. As the vanes move out of the slotted rotor, the volume between the vanes changes. An increase in the distance between the displacement ring and the rotor causes an increase in the volume. The increase in volume creates a slight vacuum that allows the inlet oil to be pushed into the space between the vanes by atmospheric or tank pressure. As the rotor continues to rotate, a decrease in the distance between the displacement ring and the rotor causes a decrease in the volume. The oil is pushed out of that segment of the rotor into the outlet passage of the pump. The vane pump just described is known as the unbalanced vane pump.
Figure 60
Figure 60 shows the balanced design principle. This design has opposing sets of inlet and outlet ports. Since the ports are positioned exactly opposite each other, the high forces generated at the outlet ports cancel each other out. This prevents side-loading of the pump shaft and bearings and means that the shaft and bearings only have to carry the torque load and external loads. Since there are two lobes to the cam ring per revolution, the displacement of the pump is equal to twice the amount of fluid which is pumped by the vanes moving from one inlet to its corresponding outlet.
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PISTON PUMP
Figure 61
Most piston pumps and motors have similar or common parts and use the same nomenclature. The pump parts in the Figure 61 are the head (1), housing (2), shaft (3), pistons (4), port plate (5), barrel (6) and the swashplate (7). The two designs of piston pumps are the axial piston pump and the radial piston pump. Both pumps are highly efficient, positive displacement pumps. However, the output of some pumps is fixed and the output of some pumps is variable.
The fixed displacement axial piston pumps and motors are built in a straight housing or in an angled housing. The basic operation of piston pumps and motors are the same.
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The angle of the swashplate controls the distance the pistons move in and out of the barrel chambers. The larger the angle of the wedge-shaped swashplate, the greater the distance of piston movement and the greater the pump output per revolution. In the variable displacement axial piston pump, either the swashplate or the barrel and port plate may pivot back and forth to change its angle to the shaft. The changing angle causes the output flow to vary between the minimum and maximum settings although the shaft speed is held constant. On either pump, when a piston moves backward, oil flows through the intake and displaces the piston. As the pump rotates, the piston moves forward, the oil is pushed out through the exhaust creating flow into the system. Most piston pumps used on mobile equipment are axial piston pumps.
Figure 63
In the angled housing piston pump in Figure 63, the pistons are connected to the input shaft by piston links or spherical piston ends that fit into sockets in a plate. The plate is an integral part of the shaft. The angle of the housing to the shaft centreline controls the distance the pistons move in and out of the barrel chambers. The larger the angle of the housing, the greater the pump output per revolution. The output flow of a fixed displacement piston pump can only be changed by changing the input shaft speed.
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Pump ISO symbols are distinguished by a dark triangle in a circle, with the point of the triangle pointing toward the edge of the circle.
LINEAR ACTUATORS
Figure 66
Actuator is the general term used for the output device of hydraulic systems. Two broad categories are rotary actuators, that deliver their power in a rotating or circular motion, and linear actuators (Figure 66) that deliver their power in a straight line. Hydraulic cylinder is the most common term for linear actuators, although other terms such as "ram", "jack", or "stroker" are frequently used. These other terms often have application specific meanings, so cylinder or hydraulic cylinder will be used to describe the majority of linear actuators. As discussed, power in a hydraulic system is generated initially from a rotating device, such as an IC engine, and converted to fluid flow by a pump. The flow is directed through the system to the actuators, where it is converted to rotary power by motors, or into linear power by cylinders. It can be said that without actuators, there is no reason for hydraulic systems to exist as the actuator actually does the work. Force and motion are produced in a straight line to operate machine implements, eg.blades, buckets, rippers etc.
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Construction
Figure 67
Seals
Most cylinders have two locations where fluid must be sealed: across the piston and around the rod. Cylinders must also be sealed between the body and the two heads. There are many different types of seals for each of the these purposes depending on the fluid being used, the integrity of the sealing required and the desired services life.
Rod seals are a flexible material that is held against the rod surface by a combination of initial compression (the seal inside diameter is slightly smaller than the rod outside diameter) and hydraulic pressure acting against it. A simple O ring seal with back-up rings may be used, a lip-type seal is a popular design although the U cup or V cup packing are most commonly used. Typical seal designs are shown in Figure 68. The lip seal is moulded material, usually moulded onto a metal or hard plastic frame. A coil spring may be inserted over the lip to provide initial contact of the lip to the sliding or rotating surface. As with the U-cup or V-cup, the concave side of the seal faces the pressure, and the lip is forced against the sealing surface by pressure to create a tight seal. Materials used for seals are usually synthetic rubber, although rubber compounds and plastic compounds are also used. The main criteria for material selection is compatibility with the fluid being used, wear resistance and temperature conformance. Seal wear depends a great deal on factors other than the material used; lubrication qualities and cleanliness of the fluid in contact with the seal is by far the most important. Also, for the seal to be lubricated properly, it must be kept wet by the fluid. A perfect seal would be one that prevents all leakage. In practice, however, a minute amount of lubrication film must be present for the seal to slide easily over the mating surfaces. In most applications, a seal is considered effective if there is no obviously detected quantity of fluid passing it.
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There are two basic types of cylinder. 1. Single acting 2. Double acting.
Figure 69
Figure 69 is a schematic view of a single acting cylinder. The dark area represents oil under pressure and lighter coloured area is oil at tank pressure. Single acting cylinders use pressure oil from one end of the cylinder and provide force in one direction only. They are retracted using the weight of the load or spring force. Single acting cylinders are rarely used in mobile equipment.
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Figure 70
The simplest single acting cylinder is the hydraulic ram (Figure 70). It has only one fluid chamber and exerts force in only one direction. Most are mounted or used vertically and retract by the force of gravity. Practical for long strokes, rams can be found in bottle jacks and automobile hoists. Single acting cylinders apply a force in one direction, relying on gravity or a counterforce to retract. The primary difference between a single-acting cylinder and a ram is the single acting cylinder uses a piston, and leakage flow past the piston is ported to the reservoir to minimise external leakage. Single-acting cylinders re typically used for truck hoists and crane booms.
Figure 71
Figure 71 shows a double acting cylinder. Darker shaded oil is oil under pressure and lighter shaded oil is at tank pressure. This is the most common hydraulic actuator used today on mobile equipment. It is used on the implement, the steering and other systems where the cylinder is required to do work in both directions. Double acting means that the cylinder will provide force and movement in each direction.
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Figure 72
Double-acting cylinder (Figure 72): Perhaps the most popular type of cylinder on mobile equipment, the double-acting cylinder exerts force in both directions, extending and retracting. To extend, fluid is ported into the cap end of the cylinder and the rod end port is vented to the reservoir. During retraction, fluid is ported into the rod end of the cylinder, and the cap end port is vented to the reservoir. Double-acting cylinders are also called differential cylinders because the effective area, and therefore volume, of each end is different by virtue of the space taken up by the rod area and volume. This differential area and volume causes a different force and velocity during extension and retraction.
Figure 73
A variation of the double-acting cylinder is the double-rod cylinder. In this version, the cylinder rod extends through both end caps (Figure 73), thus equalising the area and volume between both ends of the cylinder. This equalises the forces and velocities during extension and retraction. A typical use for double-rod cylinders is in power steering applications.
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TELESCOPIC CYLINDERS
Figure 74
Most telescopic cylinders (Figure 74) are single-acting. Telescopic cylinders consist of a series of nested tubular rod segments called sleeves. Each sleeve extends individually during extension. There may be two, perhaps three, and possibly up to five sleeves in a cylinder. A long working stroke and a short collapsed length result, making them ideal for applications such as industrial lift trucks and large tilt bed or dump trucks. An inherent feature of telescopic cylinders, due to the sequencing smaller diameters of sleeves, is a reduction of force capability and an increase of velocity during each succeeding stage.
Figure 75
Telescopic cylinders may also be double-acting, see Figure 75, although these are not too common. Because of the very small areas involved in the retracting phase, retracting forces are quite low. Double-acting telescopic cylinders are typically used in refuse haulers as high compaction forces and a long stroke are required, but retraction force requirements are very small.
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MODIFIED CYLINDERS
There are many special configurations of linear actuators that customise them for particular applications. Some of these are proprietary to specific machine manufacturers, and are not typical beyond those applications. Others, though, are more generally available and may be considered standard options.
Counterbalance valve
Figure 76
It frequently can be advantageous to incorporate some specific valve requirements within the cylinder, usually into the cap end head. The popularity of screw-in cartridge valves has made some of these features relatively easy and inexpensive to accomplish. Although the counterbalance valve (Figure 76) is probably the most popular type of integral valve, other types such as directional control, flow control and sequence valves can be found.
Cushions
Figure 77
Frequent and abrupt end-of-stroke stops can damage a cylinder; cylinders that extend and/or retract at high speed can fail catastrophically in just a few strokes. Cylinder cushions are a fairly common feature on mobile equipment that helps to slow the piston down near the end of its stroke and reduce the impact. Cushions may be found on one or both ends of a cylinder to act as hydraulic brakes during cycling. Figure 77 shows one type of cushion used on the retraction stroke.
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Stroke limiting
Figure 78
Although a simple stop tube (Figure 78) can be used to limit the travel of a cylinder, it is frequently desirable to externally adjust the stroke travel.
Figure 79
This is done with a stroke control valve similar to that shown in Figure 79. The stroke is adjusted by locating the stop flange on the cylinder rod to activate the stop valve at different retraction positions. Reversing the flow direction will compress the valve spring and allow the cylinder to extend.
Figure 80
Cylinders that have cooled down, and are then subjected to heat from the sun (or other source) may be damaged by the resulting fluid expansion. Extremely high pressures can be developed as the fluid expands, unless there is a way to relieve the pressure and drain off a small amount of the fluid. A small integral relief valve or cartridge (Figure 80), set much higher than system pressure, will accomplish this task and prevent damage to the cylinder.
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CYLINDER RATINGS
The ratings of a cylinder include its size and pressure capability. Principle size features are bore (piston diameter or inside body diameter), piston rod diameter and stroke length. The pressure rating is based on the size, design and materials used, and is established by the manufacturer. Refer to the cylinder nameplate or the manufacturers catalogue for this information.
Figure 81
The symbols for a few basic types of hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders are shown in Figure 81. The rod size and length of stroke is not reflected by the symbol's dimensions. At the top two examples of single acting cylinders, or cylinders which can only be pressure activated in one direction. In the centre is a common example of a double acting cylinder while at the bottom an example of a double rod end cylinder similar to the steering cylinder used on the backhoe loaders and wheeled tractor scrapers is shown.
Figure 82
The basic symbols for cylinders can also be modified to show other features and functions. Figure 82 has two examples of modified cylinders. When the rod to bore diameter is important to the function of the circuit, the left symbol shown should be used which depicts a large diameter rod. The right symbol represents a pressure intensifying cylinder used for pressure multiplication.
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Figure 83
The two symbols in Figure 83 represent fixed and adjustable cushions or snubbers. These are used to slow piston and rod travel near the end of the cylinder stroke. The top symbol has a fixed cushion in both directions of travel. The bottom symbol is an adjustable cushion on the extension side only, denoted by the variability arrow drawn through the cushion block. Note the cushion block symbol is only on the rod side of the cylinder. To the left we see a cutaway drawing of a cylinder with fixed cushions on both the extension and retraction sides. Another example of how a cylinder may be cushioned is seen on the next slide.
ROTARY ACTUATORS
Linear actuators convert fluid power to linear motion, rotary actuators convert fluid power to rotary motion. Fluid is pushed into the inlet of the rotary actuator and causes the output shaft to rotate. Resistance to rotation by an external load creates pressure in the hydraulic circuit and in the inlet of the motor.
Gear Type
Figure 84
A cross sectional view of an external gear hydraulic motor is shown in Figure 84. This design is referred to as external gear design because the gear teeth are machined on the outside of the gears. One of the gears will be connected to an output shaft, and the other will be an idler gear. Not shown in the illustration are the side plates, which create a sealing wear surface on the sides of the gear set (and are similar to these used in a gear type pump). Gear motors operate because of a pressure differential, or DP, between the motor inlet and outlet. This pressure differential acts across the gear teeth, creating a force that rotates the gear.
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Vane Motors
Figure 85
A cross sectional view of a balanced vane rotating group is shown in Figure 85. The elements shown in the view are the cam (cam ring or displacement ring), rotor and vanes. The output shaft of the motor is connected to the centre of the rotor. The vanes slide in and out of the slots in the rotor so as to make contact with the cam surface.
Figure 86
A form of spring, either a spring clip or a small coil spring, is placed under the vane to cause it to stay against the cam surface (Figure 86). In addition, inlet fluid is also ported under the vanes so as to balance the pressure between the top and bottom and prevent pressure from pushing the vane back into the slot. Fluid entering the motor will pressure two opposite sides of the rotor assembly, and return fluid will exit two opposite sides. This way, equal pressures are always opposite each other, balancing forces across the rotor. This relieves any loading on the drive shaft and bearings caused by internal pressures and forces.
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Figure 87
Figure 87 shows how the differential pressure across a vane will create a force on the vane. The amount of vane that is exposed to pressure will determine the magnitude of the force (force equals pressure times area), and the distance from the centre of the exposed vane area to the centre of the drive shaft will determine the torque that is generated. Therefore, the torque output of a vane motor is dependent upon pressure, size of the vane (height extending above the rotor and width) and radius of the rotor (distance from the centreline of the drive shaft).
Figure 88
A cutaway view of an in-line piston motor is shown in Figure 88. The components that make up a piston motor rotating group are a cylinder block, pistons and shoes, shoe hold-down plate, swash plate, valve plate and drive shaft. The drive shaft is connected by splines to the cylinder block, and the show are held down to the swash plate by a hold-down plate. As fluid is forced through the valve plate into the cylinder block, pistons are forced out of the cylinder block, causing them to slide along the angled swash plate. This causes the cylinder block to rotate along with the pistons, turning the drive shaft. As pistons are forced back into the cylinder block by the swash plate, fluid is forced out through the valve plate and back to the reservoir. The amount of torque that the motor will deliver is based on the force of the piston (pressure times area), the radius of the piston circle (force times distance) and the angle of the swash plate. The higher the swash plate angle, the greater the torque output for any given pressure.
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Figure 89
A cross sectional view of a bent axis piston motor is shown in Figure 89. The main elements are a cylinder block, pistons and shoes, drive shaft and flange, a universal link and a valve plate. The piston shoes are lodged in the drive shaft flange, and the universal link maintains alignment between the cylinder block and the drive shaft so that they turn together. As fluid is forced through the valve plate into the cylinder block, pistons are forced out of the cylinder block, forcing the drive shaft flange to rotate. This causes the drive shaft to rotate along with the cylinder block and pistons. Pistons are forced back into the cylinder block by the drive shaft flange, and fluid is forced out through the valve plate and back to the reservoir. The entire operation is much the same as the in-line piston motor, except that the cylinder block and piston assembly is angled instead of a swash plate. The amount of torque that a motor will deliver is based on the force of the piston (pressure times the piston cross sectional area), the radius of the drive shaft flange (force times distance) and the angle of the cylinder block. The higher the cylinder block angle, the greater the torque output for any given pressure and piston size.
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The symbols used for motors are very similar to those used for pumps. Rather than creating flow or converting mechanical energy into fluid power though, motors do just the opposite and convert fluid power into mechanical energy. This is shown by using the same basic component symbol as a pump, but with the energy triangle reversed, pointing inward. This indicates that fluid power is taken into the component as the triangle's orientation shows. All other supplemental component elements used for motors are the same as those used for pumps. It is important to remember that graphic symbols such as these for pumps and motors do not indicate the kind of pump or motor? (gear, vane or piston type) being represented. The symbols only, designate the type of pump displacement and method of operation.
Figure 91
Directional Control Valves (DCV) are used to direct oil into separate circuits of a hydraulic system (Figure 91). The maximum flow capacity and the pressure drop through the valve are the first considerations. Directional control valves may be interfaced with manual, hydraulic, pneumatic and electronic controls. These factors are mostly determined during the initial system design. Directional control valves direct the flow of oil in the hydraulic system. This is a means by which the operator controls the machine. The directional control valve directs the supply oil to the actuator in a hydraulic system. The valve body is drilled, honed and sometimes the bore is heat-treated. The inlet and outlet ports are drilled and threaded. The valve spool is machined from high-grade steel. Some valve spools are heat- treated, ground to size and polished. Other valve spools are chrome plated, ground to size and polished. The valve body and valve spool are then mated in assembly to the design specifications. When assembled, the valve spool is the only part that moves.
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Figure 92
The spool shown in the Figure 92, operates a double acting cylinder, by directing flow to either end of the cylinder. Ports A and B are the ports to the cylinder Port P is pressure oil from the pump. Port T is drain oil to the tank.
Valve Centred
Oil to the cylinder is blocked by the position of the spool.
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Open centre valves have a passage designed in the valve body casting that allows all inlet flow, when the spool is in neutral or centre position, to pass through a bypass area. This flow either exits the valve back to the tank or is available for another valve connected in series to the first valve. The advantage of an open centre valve is that there is little work done by the pump. When the valve is in neutral, minimal pressure is built up. The main disadvantage is that there is a small time lag when the valve opens as pressure needs to build up in all of the circuit. Figure 93 shows a cutaway diagram of a typical open centre directional control valve in the HOLD position. In the HOLD position, the pump oil flows into the valve body, around the valve spool and returns to the tank. The valve spool also blocks the oil in the line to the rod end and the head end of the cylinder. The above example of a directional control valve also contains a load check valve. In the hold position, the load check valve has spring tension behind it, to keep the valve closed and prevent drift from the implements attached to the cylinder.
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Figure 94 shows the valve spool at the instant the spool is moved to the RAISE position. When the valve spool is moved to the RAISE position, the valve spool blocks the pump oil flow to the tank. However, pump oil flow is open to the load check valve. The valve spool also connects the cylinder head end to the oil behind the load check valve and the cylinder rod end to the tank passage. The load check valve prevents the oil in the head end of the cylinder from flowing into the pump oil passage. The blocked pump oil flow causes an increase in the oil pressure. This action prevents drift of the implement until pump pressure builds up.
Figure 95
The increase in pump oil pressure overcomes the pressure behind the load check valve and unseats the valve. The pump oil flows pass the load check valve and around the valve spool to the head end of the cylinder. The oil in the rod end of the cylinder flows past the valve spool to the tank. The reverse applies when the DCV is placed in the Lower position.
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Check Valve
Figure 96
The purpose of a check valve is to readily permit oil flow in one direction, but prevent (check) oil flow in the opposite direction. The check valve is sometimes called a one way check valve. Most check valves consist of a spring and a tapered seat valve as in the figure above. However, a round ball is sometimes used instead of the tapered seat valve. In some circuits, the check valve may be free floating (has no spring). In the valve on the left (Figure 96), when the pump oil pressure overcomes the oil pressure in back of the check valve plus the check valve slight spring force, the check valve opens and allows the oil to flow to the implement. In the valve on the right, when the pressure of the pump oil is less than the oil pressure in the implement, the check valve closes and prevents implement oil flow back through the valve.
Closed centre valves do not have a bypass passage and block all flow through the valve when the spool is in the neutral, or centre position. These types of valves are used with variable displacement pumps where system flow in the neutral position does not exist as the pump will be in its cut off or standby position. Figure 97 illustrates a typical closed centre mobile spool valve. Closed centre valves can also be a combination of inlet spool with outlet poppets; or, inlet poppets with outlet poppets. These designs feature independent control of the valve inlet from the valve outlet with resulting flexibility to the control features of the valve.
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spool,
open
centrally
In Figure 98 valve section 1 is in the neutral position and the bypass feature is porting flow at the bypass pressure setting to the following valve sections. Valve Section 2 illustrates the bypass operation with the valve shifted out for flow through Port B; and, in Section 3, flow to Port A Before the flow in either section 2 or section 3 can be useable, the bypass must first be restricted or dosed down, or else the fluid will continue through the bypass and do no work (flow takes the path of least resistance). As illustrated in section 2, when the spool is shifted far enough, the bypass will be completely shut off and a flow will then pass to the work port (port B). Return flow, coming back through the return line, is free to flow to the outlet, or tank, passage to the reservoir. The reverse of this is illustrated in the third section. Multiple spool valves are typically either series design or series parallel design. Series design valves are typically the lowest cost and are used in many cost sensitive applications where maximum system pressure is not very high, generally 2000 psi (13790kPa) or less. All of the flow is available to each of the valve sections, but at the highest pressure demanded. As such, they are not advantageous in applications where system heat level or energy consumption is critical. Series parallel designs spool valve. While they flow will follow the path will tend to have all the use of metering. (Figure 98) are the most commonly used type of multiple permit independent pressure operation for each section, oil of least resistance and the section with the lowest pressure flow unless the operator is able to minimize this through the
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Figure 99 illustrates a basic direct acting relief valve where either a ball or a poppet is held in the closed position by an adjustable spring. This blocks the flow path to tank. This valve can be adjusted manually. When pump pressure (p) exceeds spring tension, the valve is forced off its seat, allowing oil to flow directly to the tank (T) thus reducing or relieving system pressure.
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Figure 100
Figure 100 above shows a simple relief valve in the cracking pressure position. The simple relief valve (also called direct acting relief valve) is kept closed by spring force. The spring tension is set to the relief pressure setting. However, the relief pressure setting is not the pressure at which the valve first begins to open. When a condition develops that causes a resistance to the normal oil flow in the circuit, excessive oil flow causes the oil pressure to increase. The increasing oil pressure is sensed at the relief valve. When the force of the increasing oil pressure overcomes the force of the relief valve spring, the valve moves against the spring and begins to open. The pressure required to begin valve opening is called the cracking pressure. The valve opens just enough to allow excess oil to flow through the valve.
Figure 101
An increase in the resistance to oil flow (Figure 101) increases the volume of excess oil and increases the circuit pressure. The increase in circuit pressure overcomes the new spring tension and further opens the relief valve. The process is repeated until the maximum volume of oil (full pump flow) is flowing through the relief valve. This is the relief pressure setting. The simple relief valve is commonly used where the volume of excess oil flow is low or where there is a need for a quick response. This makes the simple relief valve ideal for relieving shock pressures or as a safety valve.
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Figure 102
The pilot operated relief valve (Figure 102) is often used in systems that require a large volume of oil and a small differential between the cracking pressure and the full flow pressure. In the pilot operated relief valve, a pilot valve (simple relief valve) controls the main unloading valve. It is much smaller and does not handle a large volume oil flow. Its spring is much smaller allowing more precise pressure control. The difference between the pilot valve cracking and maximum pressure is minimal. The unloading valve can handle the complete pump flow at the designed maximum relief pressure. It uses system oil pressure to keep closed. Therefore, the unloading valve spring does not need to be strong and heavy and allows a more precise opening pressure. The system oil flows into the relief valve housing, through the unloading valve orifice and fills the unloading valve spring chamber. The oil in the unloading valve spring chamber contacts a small area of the pilot valve. This allows the pilot valve to use a small spring to control a high pressure. When the oil pressure increases in the system, the same pressure is in the unloading valve spring chamber and the oil pressure is the same on both sides of the unloading valve. The combined force of the oil pressure in the unloading valve spring chamber and the spring force on the top of the unloading valve is greater than the force of the oil pressure against the bottom of the valve. The combined force in the spring chamber keeps the unloading valve closed.
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Open Position
Figure 103
When the system oil pressure exceeds the pilot valve spring setting (Figure 103) the pilot valve opens. The open pilot valve allows the oil in the unloading valve spring chamber to flow to the tank. The pilot valve opening (orifice) is larger than the unloading valve orifice. Therefore, oil flows pass the pilot valve much faster than through the unloading valve orifice. This allows the pressure to decrease in the unloading valve spring chamber. The force of the higher system oil pressure moves the unloading valve against the spring. The excessive pump oil flows through the throttling holes in the unloading valve to the tank. The throttling holes allow the unloading valve to dump the volume of oil necessary to maintain the desired relief pressure.
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Temperature
The oil viscosity changes with changes in temperature. Viscosity is a measurement of the oils resistance to flow at a specific temperature. Hydraulic oil becomes thinner and flows more readily as the temperature increases.
Orifice Size
The size of the orifice controls the flow rate through the orifice. A common example is a hole in a garden hose. A small pinhole will leak in the form of a drip or a fine spray. A larger hole will leak in the form of a stream. The hole, whether small or large, meters a flow of water to the outside of the hose. The amount of water metered depends on the size of the hole (orifice). The orifice size may be fixed or variable.
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Figure 104
Figure 104 shows an example of a check valve with a fixed orifice that is commonly used in construction equipment. The fixed orifice is a hole through the centre of the check valve. When oil flow is in the normal direction, the valve opens and allows oil to flow around the valve as well as through the orifice. When oil attempts to flow in the reverse direction, the valve closes. All reverse flowing oil must flow through the orifice that controls the flow rate.
Variable Orifice
Figure 105
Figure 105 shows a variable orifice in the form of a needle valve. In the needle valve, the positioning of the valve tip in relation to the valve seat changes the size of the orifice.
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The oil flow through the needle valve must make a 90 turn and pass between the valve tip and the valve seat. The needle valve is one of the most frequently used variable orifices. When the valve stem is turned counter-clockwise, the orifice becomes larger and the flow increases through the valve. When the valve stem is turned clockwise, the orifice becomes smaller and the flow decreases through the valve.
Figure 106
Figure 106 is an example of how a variable orifice can be used to control the operating speed of a cylinder.
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Flow Dividers
Figure 107
Flow dividers are either gear type or spool type. Their function is to divide the flow into two different streams. These two streams typically are equal in flow rate; i.e., each stream is half of the available flow. However, through the use of springs and spool design, or the use of different gear displacements, is possible to obtain different flow ratios for the two flow streams. Gear type flow dividers (Figure 107) are similar to a double (or triple, or more) gear motor. They use a common inlet and stacked gear sections that are maintained at the same rotational rate by a common shaft. By this means, the incoming flow is divided into a stream of flow for each gear section. It is possible to have more than two sections to produce more than two flow streams. The volume of flow from each stream will be effected by the volumetric efficiency of each gear section.
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Figure 108
Spool type flow dividers (Figure 108) are more commonly used as they are typically more convenient to install in the hydraulic circuit, or can be integrated into the outlet cover of a pump. Their design is such that they provide either proportional output flow streams, or a priority output flow stream. When used as a priority valve, the priority flow stream provides a set rate of flow while the secondary stream provides only the flow that is available after the priority stream has been satisfied. When the accuracy of the output flow streams is critical to the application, a pressure compensation feature can be added to the spool type flow divider in order to prevent changes in output flow rate as inlet or outlet pressure changes.
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Figure 109
Figure 109 illustrates a bypass type, pressure compensated flow control with integral relief valve. The difference is the output flow is controlled by an orifice inserted in the regulated output line. This line maintains a constant flow to a work circuit, all excess flow being diverted to the reservoir through the tank line. As the work load increases, pressure in the output line increases, as does the pressure in the spring chamber at the right side of the "hydrostat" piston. Inlet pressure, to the left of the hydrostat piston, will also increase to a level sufficient to overcome the pressure at the right of the hydrostat, plus the value of the spring. At this point, the hydrostat will slide to the right, allowing the excess flow to exit through the tank port. Thus, regardless of the pressure on the right side of the hydrostat, the pressure on the left will be above it by virtue of the spring value. It is this constant pressure drop across the orifice that maintains the pressure compensated flow to the regulated outlet. If the regulated outlet pressure exceeds the pilot spring setting inside the hydrostat, the pressure in the spring chamber will be limited, and the valve will function as a relief valve.
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Figure 110
Figure 110, an alternative design; output flow is controlled by an orifice in the main spool. The spring at the right of the spool maintains a constant pressure drop, and therefore a constant flow across the orifice, and excess flow is diverted to the excess flow port. A separate relief valve protects the regulated flow circuit.
Figure 111
Figure 111 shows an illustration of a by-pass type pressure compensated flow control valve. The by-pass type pressure compensated flow control valve automatically adjusts to flow and load changes. The amount of flow through the valve depends on the size of the orifice. Any change in oil flow through the orifice creates a change in pressure on the upstream side of the orifice. The same pressure change acts against the dump valve and spring. When the pump flow is within the design flow of the orifice, the force of the upstream oil pressure acting on the dump valve is less than the combined force of the downstream oil pressure and the spring. The dump valve remains closed and all of the pump oil flows through the orifice. When the pump flow is more than the design flow of the orifice, the force of the upstream oil pressure acting on the dump valve is greater than the combined force of the downstream oil pressure and the spring. The dump valve opens and the excess oil flows through the dump valve to the tank.
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Figure 112
The more common type of flow control valve is shown in Figure 112. This valve combines the action of the orifice and dump valve in one moving part. The pressure compensating operation is the same as the by-pass pressure compensated flow control valve. The graphic on the left shows flow through the valve that is either at the flow rating or less than the flow rating of the valve. The graphic on the right shows that flow is beginning to exceed the flow rating of the valve, the pressure differential resulting from the flow across the orifice becomes great enough to begin compressing the spring and start dumping the excess oil as shown. If the flow through the valve increases, the action of the orifice will cause the spring to compress still more, and more flow will be dumped. The controlled (metered) flow remains fairly constant as flow to the valve increases or decreases.
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The basic directional control valve symbol (Figure 113) consists of one or more basic envelopes as seen in the top row of symbols. The number of envelopes used represents the number of positions that a valve can be shifted to. Shifting and valve positions will be discussed in more detail later. Next are valve ports, or the connection points for inlet, outlet and working lines. The first symbol to the left has two ports and is commonly referred to as a two-way valve, not to be confused with a two-position valve as seen in the middle of the top row. Valves may have as many positions or ports as needed, although most are in the range of 1-3 positions and 5 or fewer ports. The other two symbols represent the typical port arrangements for three and four-way valves. The terms two, three, and four-way valve does not necessarily mean the valve will have two, three or four ports but rather designates the number of ports flow is occurring between. An example of this will be seen later after discussing internal passages next.
Lines and arrows inside the envelope are used to represent flow paths and direction between ports (Figure 114). Two basic types of valves are seen here, normally blocked and normally open. These terms represent the internal flow condition of the valve in its neutral state. Valve symbols are always drawn in their neutral or
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unactivated position. Valves which change position due to flow or pressure are in their neutral condition when there is no flow or pressure in the circuit. That is, the external lines are connected to the ports of the envelope with internal passageways representing the valve's neutral condition. The shifting of valve spools or envelopes using graphic symbols must be done with your imagination. In full machine schematics, components are always drawn in their neutral position. Later we will see an example of how symbols should be shifted using your imagination. The top row of symbols represents one, two and three position valves in which flow is normally blocked in neutral. While the bottom row of symbols depict one, two and three position valves which are normally open to flow in their neutral position. Let's take a closer look at the top row of symbols to further understand the internal flow conditions.
Figure 115
The first symbol seen to the left in Figure 115 represents a normally closed infinite positioning valve. This means the valve spool can be shifted either partially, in an infinite number of positions to meter the flow through the valve, or fully open. The arrow here denotes flow is normally in one direction, from the top port to the bottom port. The middle symbol in Figure 115 represents a two-position normally closed valve. The function of this valve is very similar to the function of the valve just discussed. But rather than allowing infinite positioning of the valve spool to meter flow, this valve is either completely closed or fully open. In the neutral position flow is blocked, indicated by the small 'IT" symbol. In the fully open position, as shown by the right-hand envelope, flow is allowed in either direction. This is denoted by the two headed arrow. Compare this to the previous symbol in which flow was only in one direction, denoted by a single headed arrow. The symbol seen to the right of Figure 115 represents a normally closed three position valve. The far left envelope shows that when the spool is shifted right connecting the flow paths in the left enclosure with the external port lines, parallel flow is allowed between the valve ports. The far right envelope shows cross flow is achieved between the ports when the spool is shifted left. Typically, whenever a valve symbol is shown by itself, the ports are labelled to denote supply, return and working ports. But, when shown as a part of a complete circuit schematic, the connecting lines must be followed out to determine which ports are the supply, return and working ports. Two, three and other multiple position valves can also be shown to have infinite positioning or flow metering capability. This is done by the addition of two horizontal bars drawn parallel to the valve envelopes as will be seen in the next slide. Valves drawn with only one envelope as previously seen are assumed to have infinite positioning capability and do not require the additional horizontal bars.
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Figure 116
Shown to the left of Figure 116 are partial cutaway drawings of directional four-way control valves in their neutral positions. Seen to the right are the symbols for only the centred or neutral condition of the valves. The labelled port abbreviations are: p T A B Supply from pump Return to tank Work port Work port.
The valve cutaway to the upper left contains an open-centred type spool. Supply flow from the pump is unrestricted to either working ports A and B, or return to tank. In this case supply flow will take the path of least resistance. The symbol to the right indicates that all ports are tied together (junction dots) which would allow unrestricted flow between any of the ports.
Figure 117
The cutaway in Figure 117 represents a closed-centre type spool. Pump supply flow is blocked by the spool lands and valve housing to the right and left of working ports A and B. Ports A and B are also blocked by the spool from draining to tank. The symbol to the right utilizes small T crossed lines to denote flow is blocked internally on all four ports. Two more examples are seen here of valves and their related centre position symbol. The top cutaway and symbol is representative of a closed centre motor spool in which ports "A" and "B" are both open to tank while pump supply is blocked. The symbol to the right shows that ports "All and "B" are tied together and drain to tank, while pump supply is blocked.
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The lower cutaway and symbol are representative of a tandem-type open centre valve. Pump supply is open to tank by means of a passageway inside of the spool, while ports "A" and "B" are both blocked. The symbol to the right shows the pump supply port is tied to tank return and ports "All and "B" are blocked. Although, nothing from the symbol shows its done by means of a hollow spool. once again you must keep in mind symbols are used to represent the components resulting function not necessarily the component's construction which achieves this function. This valve is referred to as a tandem-type valve because rather than having pump flow go directly to tank through port 'IT," it could be diverted to another valve section from port 'IT." Therefore, the two valve sections are in tandem or series, one behind the other, the second valve being fed by the return oil of the first. An example of this type valve arrangement will be seen later.
Figure 118
The symbol in Figure 118 shows a single valve envelope which is normally closed to flow. It also shows that system pressure is sensed through the pilot line and works against a spring tension which can be varied. Nothing from the symbol identifies whether the relief has both a pilot and relief poppet, or that pressure is sensed through an orifice.
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HYDRAULIC FLUID
The selection and care of the hydraulic fluid will have an important effect on the life of the system. Just like the hardware components of a hydraulic system, the hydraulic fluid must be selected on the basis of its characteristics and properties to accomplish the designed task. The fluid used in a hydraulic system is as important as any other component in the system, for the system to operate correctly and have an acceptable service life. Service records show that incorrect oil or oil containing dirt or other contaminants cause approximately seventy percent of hydraulic system problems. The fluid in the hydraulic system is the component that is used to transfer the flow energy generated by the pump to the mechanical components which convert fluid energy into mechanical energy, to do work. Examples of these components may be cylinders and hydraulic motors.
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Figure 120
Liquids are virtually incompressible. Therefore, fluids can transmit power instantaneously in a hydraulic system. For example, petroleum oil compresses at approximately 1-1.5% at a pressure of 20,685kPa (3000psi). Therefore, petroleum oil can maintain a constant volume under high pressure. Petroleum oil is the primary fluid used in developing most hydraulic oils. The primary functions of hydraulic fluids are: power transmission lubrication sealing cooling.
Power Transmission
Because hydraulic fluids are virtually incompressible, once the hydraulic system is filled with fluid it can instantly transmit power from one area to another. However, this does not mean that all hydraulic fluids are equal and will transmit power with the same efficiency. Choosing the correct hydraulic fluid depends on the application and the operating conditions.
Lubrication
Hydraulic fluid must lubricate the moving parts of the hydraulic system. The rotating or sliding components must be able to function without touching other surfaces. The hydraulic fluid must maintain a thin film between the two surfaces to prevent friction, heat and wear.
Sealing
Many hydraulic components are designed to use hydraulic fluid instead of mechanical seals within the component. The viscosity of the fluid helps to determine its ability to function as a seal.
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Cooling
The hydraulic system develops heat as it transfers mechanical energy to hydraulic energy and hydraulic energy back to mechanical energy. As the fluid moves throughout the system, heat flows from the warmer components to the cooler fluid. The fluid gives up the heat to the reservoir or to coolers that are designed to maintain fluid temperatures within design limits.
Figure 121
The most common tool of measuring viscosity is the Saybolt Viscosimeter, invented by George Saybolt. The Saybolt Viscosimeter unit of measurement is the Saybolt Universal Second (SUS). In the original viscosimeter a container of fluid was heated to a specific temperature. When the temperature was reached, a stopcock (orifice) was opened and the fluid flowed out of the container and into a 60 ml. flask. A stopwatch was used to measure the time it took to fill the flask. The viscosity was recorded as the number of seconds the flask took to fill at a given temperature.
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If a fluid, when heated to a temperature of 24 C, took 115 seconds to fill the flask, its viscosity was 115 SUS @ 24 C. If the same fluid was heated to 38 C and took 90 seconds to fill the flask, its viscosity would be 90 SUS @ 38 C. Viscosity Index Viscosity index (VI) is a measure of a fluids change in thickness with respect to changes in temperature. If a fluids consistency remains relatively the same over varying temperatures, the fluid has a high VI. If a fluid becomes thick at low temperatures and very thin at high temperatures, the fluid has a low VI. In most hydraulic systems, fluids with a high VI are desirable over fluids with a low VI. Viscosity Improver These types of additives help maintain the oils viscosity over a wide range in temperatures. When the oil is cold the system will operate correctly and when the oil is hot the system will also operate correctly.
Anti-wear Additives
Hydraulic oil contains a selected number of additives to increase and insure its antiwear capabilities. It must provide good lubrication to lower and hold to a minimum, the friction between components in the system.
Anti-foaming
Foaming in hydraulic oil refers to the oil being mixed with air bubbles. A liquid can not be compressed but air can, these anti foaming additives help the oil absorb the air so that it does not affect the operation of the system. If the oil is mixed with an amount of air that is greater than it can absorb, the oil will foam. When the oil becomes foamed the system will operate with a slower response to direction changes and load changes, in other words an unsatisfactory operation. The air in the system will also affect the oils ability to lubricate the system components, cause system overheating and erratic operation.
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Synthetic Oils
Synthetic oils are formed by processes that chemically react to materials of a specific composition to produce a compound with planned and predictable properties. Synthetic oils are specifically blended for extreme service at both high and low temperatures.
Oil Life
The hydraulic oil never wears out, although a breakdown of the chemical additives will eventually cause the base oil to become ineffective as hydraulic oil. The use of filters to remove solid particles and some chemicals add to the useful life of the oil. However, eventually the oil will become so contaminated that it will have to be replaced. In construction machines, the oil is replaced at regular time intervals. The contaminants in the oil may also be used as indicators of high wear and prospective problem areas. The hydraulic oil should be analysed at scheduled intervals.
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Figure 122
The filler screen is usually located in the filler tub. It keeps large contaminants from entering the tank when the fill cap is removed.
Strainers
Inlet strainers are usually mounted inside the reservoir submerged in the oil. Normal flow is through the filtering element. Should the filter become blocked the pressure on the inside will decrease (pump sucking) and oil can flow past the bypass valve. A strainer not fitted with a bypass will damage a pump very quickly should it become blocked.
Filters
Figure 123
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Oil filters may be located in a number of positions in the hydraulic circuit. Inlet filters are mounted in the reservoir or in the line going to the pump. Strainers are preferred because they are not as fine as high-pressure filters. High-pressure filters protect sensitive valves in the system. They are usually located after the pump and can be recognised by their heavy pressure proof housing. Return line filters are mounted in the line returning oil back to the reservoir. This system has a major disadvantage in that it is filtering oil after it leaves the circuit. This type of filter is housed in a low-pressure housing or may be a spin-on type.
Figure 124
A full flow system filters the entire supply of oil each time it circulates in the hydraulic system. For this reason they are the most commonly used system. Normal flow is from the outside of the filtering element to the centre of the filter. Should the filter become blocked, pressure will build up around the outside of the filter and open the bypass valve.
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Filter Construction
Surface Filter
Figure 125
As the name implies they trap contaminants on the surface of the element. The element is usually constructed of treated porous paper and is pleated to increase the surface area. This is the most common type of filter element. A partial flow or bypass filter system only filters part of the oil that flows through the system. They rely on the oil flowing through the system several times to clean the oil properly. They are used in special applications only and have the advantage that they can remove very fine contaminants.
Bypass Valves
Figure 126
They are fitted to prevent pressure building up. All filters containing a bypass are marked to show oil flow, i.e. IN and OUT. Maintenance of filters is probably the most important factor in obtaining long hydraulic system life. Neglect the filters and the system will rapidly breakdown or fail.
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Visual inspection gives no indication that the oil is bypassing the filter, filters must be regularly serviced. Follow manufacturers specification on the recommended intervals and use a filter with the same micron rating. Some filters are fitted with an indicator that signals the operator to clean or replace the element. They are simply a pressure gauge that tells the operator the flow is restricted and pressure is building up.
COOLERS
Any fluid used in mobile machinery absorbs and carries heat away from heat generating components such as cylinders and pumps. The fluid then must be allowed to circulate as much as possible against the heat dissipating sides of a reservoir before it is allowed to reenter the pump. Some system designs may not allow sufficient transfer of fluid to the reservoir, particularly with long lines from the rod end of cylinders. This can cause a buildup of heat and oxidized fluid in an isolated segment of a circuit and result in destruction of the fluid and components. Provision should be made in machine design to circulate the oil through oil coolers. Inefficiency in the form of heat can be expected in all hydraulic systems. Even well designed hydraulic systems can be expected to turn some portion of its input horsepower into heat. Hydraulic reservoirs are sometimes incapable of dissipating all this heat. In these cases a cooler is used.
Figure 127
Coolers are divided into air coolers and water coolers. Even a well designed system may convert 20% of its power into heat.
Air cooler
In an air cooler (Figure 127, right), fluid is pumped through tubes to which fins are attached. To dissipate heat, air is blown over the tubes and fins by a fan. The operation is exactly like an automobile radiator. Air coolers are generally used where water is not readily available or too expensive.
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Water cooler
A water cooler basically consists of a bundle of tubes encased in a metal shell (Figure 127, left). In this cooler, a system's hydraulic fluid is usually pumped through the shell and over the tubes which are circulated with cooling water. This cooler is also known as a shell-and-tube type heater exchanger. It is a true heat exchanger since hydraulic fluid can also be heated with this device by simply running hot water through the tubes.
Coolers in a circuit
Coolers are usually rated at a relatively low operating pressure (150 PSI). This requires that they be positioned in a low pressure part of a system. If this is not possible, the cooler may be installed in its own separate circulating system. To insure that a pressure surge in a line does not damage a shell-and-tube type cooler, they are generally piped into a system in parallel with a 65 PSI check valve. Coolers can be located in a system's return line, after a relief valve, or in a case drain line of a variable volume, pressure compensated pump.
Fluid Conditioners
The general symbol used for a fluid conditioner (Figure 128) is an empty diamond as seen at the top. Several different types of fluid conditioner symbols can be made by making slight changes or additions to this basic symbol. First is a filter or strainer which is shown with a dashed vertical line inside the basic symbol. This represents the filtering media which the fluid or gas must flow through. The separator with a manual drain. The line drawn horizontally across the bottom
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portion of the symbol represents the separated matter which has settled to the as water from fuel The short line extending from the bottom of the symbol represents the drain. Nothing on the symbol will designate it has a manual drain. It must be assumed manual. Automatic drains will be represented by the small "V" placed below the horizontal separation line as seen in the bottom symbol. To the right are the symbols for combination filter separators with manual and automatic drains. Further right is the symbol for an in circuit oil cooler which can be air cooled in water cooled type.
Figure 129
Customers are demanding: more power greater breakout forces faster cycle times. The industry now uses: more electro-hydraulics higher system pressures tighter clearances. Result: todays fluid systems are more sensitive to contamination in: hydraulics transmissions and final drives fuel systems engines. Contaminated fluid systems result in: shorter component and fluid life reduced productivity can lead to catastrophic failure and costly down-time and repairs 75-85% of hydraulic system failures can be traced to contamination. If we dont address fluid contamination, we can expect: warranty costs to increase rework to increase repeat failures and associated failures to increase increased customer dissatisfaction, resulting in lost sales.
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What Is Contamination?
dirt weld spatter paint rag fibres metal wear particles cigarette ashes grease heat water air products from oil oxidation or bacteria growth.
Contamination Sources
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. During the manufacture of the machine During the manufacture of the oil Operational factors, i.e. dusty conditions Careless maintenance Lack of maintenance.
Filtration
Figure 130
Strainer Rating: the degree of filtration of a strainer is measured by its mesh size or sieve number. Filter Rating: the degree of filtration of a filter is measured by its micron ratio. 1 Micron = .001 mm or .000001 metre (1 millionth of a metre).
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Absolute Rating: this type stops all contaminants larger than the filter rating, i.e. 10 micron absolute filter - traps all contaminants larger than 10 microns. Nominal Rating: this stops most (50 - 95%) of the contaminants. It is presumed that repeated flows through the filter will trap all particles. This is the more common type of rating. Magnetic plugs are often found in the reservoir on the drain plug. They remove ferrous or magnetic metal contaminants only. Strainers provide course filtration and are usually constructed of fine wire mesh. Filters provide fine filtration, they are usually constructed of porous treated paper. The difference between a filter and a strainer is their filtering ability.
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Equipment Manufacturer
Design machines for life-cycle cleanliness Build & ship clean products & components New standards developed Formed Contamination Control Teams Provide tooling and information support Educate employees, suppliers, dealers and customers.
Customers
Educate operators and service personnel Implement contamination control measures.
Servicing Dealer
Assign contamination control administrator Educate employees and customers Acquire contamination control tooling Develop and implement contamination control procedures.
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Housekeeping
Figure 131
Keep work areas clean and organised Sweep floors daily Clean up spills immediately Keep work benches uncluttered and free of debris Limit use of floor storage.
Figure 132
Filter new oil from bulk tanks and 44-gallon (200 litre) drums Store oil drums inside Use drum covers.
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Figure 133
Keep components packaged until ready to install Return parts to storage in packaging Clean in-process components.
Figure 134
Clean assembled hoses with Cat Hose Cleaner Protect assembled hoses with caps & plugs Protect bulk hose with caps and plugs.
Field Service
Keep parts and components packaged until ready to install Stock vehicles with High Efficiency Filters Ensure lube trucks supply clean fluids.
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