COMPUTER APPLICATION AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC:NETWORKING(OSI AND TCPI/IP MODELS)

SUBMITTED TO: DR.SOURABH SHARMA

SUBMITTED BY: KRATIKA KHANDELWAL

NETWORKING It is used to make the communication among the computer and to share the data file folders programs software and the common resources among them. Local area network (LAN) A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common communications line or wireless link. Typically, connected devices share the resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area (for example, within an office building). Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are shared in common by multiple computer users. A local area network may serve as few as two or three users (for example, in a home network) or as many as thousands of users (for example, in an FDDI network). Wide Area Network (WAN) A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a broad area (i.e., any telecommunications network that links across metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries) using private or public network transports. Business and government entities utilize WANs to relay data among employees, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various geographical locations. In essence, this mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function regardless of location. The Internet can be considered a WAN as well, and is used by businesses, governments, organizations, and individuals for almost any purpose imaginable.[1] Related terms for other types of networks are personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. Metropolitan area network (MAN) A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks (or WAN) and the Internet.

What is a Topology? The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between workstation BUS TOPOLOGY

A bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end . All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

Advantages of a Bus Topology

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Bus Topology

Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

STAR TOPOLOGY

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator (See fig. 2). Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Advantages of a Star Topology

Easy to install and wire. No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

Requires more cable length than a linear topology. If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.

More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

TREE TOPOLOGY

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments. Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

RING TOPOLOGY

A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet.

Advantages Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load Does not require a central node to manage the connectivity between the computers Due to the point to point line configuration of devices with a device on either side[each device is connected to its immediate neighbour], it is quite easy to install and reconfigure since adding or removing a device requires moving just two connections. Point to point line configuration makes it easy to identify and isolate faults. Disadvantages

One malfunctioning workstation can create problems for the entire network. This can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch that closes off the break. Moving, adding and changing the devices can affect the network Communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network Bandwidth is shared on all links between devices More difficult to configure than a Star: node adjunction Ring shutdown and reconfiguration

 MESH TOPOLOGY
A network setup where each computer and network device is interconnected with one another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even if one of the connections go down. This topology is not commonly used for most computer networks as it is difficult and expensive to have redundant connection to every computer. However, this topology is commonly used for wirelessnetworks. Below is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using a mesh topology.

Advantages Point to point line configuration makes identification and isolation of faults easy. Messages travel through a dedicated line meaning that only the intended recipient receives the message: privacy and security is thus ensured, In the case of a fault in one link, only the communication between the two devices sharing the link is affected. The use of dedicated links ensures that each connection carries its own data load thus ridding of traffic problems that would have been encountered if a connection/link was shared. Disadvantages

If the network covers a great area, huge investments may be required due to the amount of cabling and ports required for input and output devices. It is a rare choice of a network connection due to the costs involved.

OSI MODEL The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is a standard developed by the ISO (International Standards Organization) to describe the flow of data on a computer network. The model takes into account the flow of data from the physical connections up to the end user application. The OSI model defines a "layered" architecture in the form of a protocol stack. There are specific, discrete functions that take place at each layer of the protocol stack with lower level layers providing services to upper layers Purpose The OSI model (as well as IEEE 802 and NDIS) were established to standardize the design and construction of computer networks for developers and hardware manufacturers. Standards allow hardware and software components from a variety of different vendors to operate together. Without standards, everything would be vendor-specific and interoperability would suffer.

Layer 1: physical layer The physical layer defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or fiber optical cable The physical layer defines the hardware items such as cables, cards, voltages etc The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:

Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium. Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control. Modulation or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link.

Layer 2: data link layer The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture, which included broadcast-capable multi-access media, was developed independently of the ISO work

Layer 3: network layer The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network (in contrast to the data link layer which connects hosts within the same network), while maintaining the quality of service requested by the transport layer. The network layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer, sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible

Layer 4: transport layer The transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control 5) Session Layer : This layer is responsible for establishing the process-to-process communication between the host in the network. This layer is responsible for establishing and ending the sessions across the network. The interactive login is an example of services provided by this layer in which the connective are re-connected in care of any interruption.

6) Presentation Layer : The Presentation layer is responsible for protocol conversion, date encryption/decryption, Expanding graphics command and the date compression. This layer makes the communications between two host possible.

7) Application Layer : The application layer provider different services to the application. Example of services provided by this layer are file transfer, electronic messaging e-mail, virtual terminal access and network management This layer contains a variety of commonly needed functions:

Resource sharing and device redirection Remote file access Remote printer access Inter-process communication Network management Directory services Electronic messaging (such as mail) Network virtual terminals

TCP/IP The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and similar networks, and generally the most popular protocol stack for wide area networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because of its most important protocols:Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first networking protocols defined in this standard TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination Four layers of tcp/ip are as under:

APPLICATION LAYER The Application Layer provides the user with the interface to communication. This could be your web browser, e-mail client (Outlook, Eudora or Thunderbird), or a file transfer client. The Application Layer is where your web browser, a telnet, ftp, e-mail or other clientapplication runs. Basically, any application that rides on top of TCP and/or UDP that uses a pair of virtual network sockets and a pair of IP addresses. The Application Layer sends to, and receives data from, the Transport Layer.

TRANSPORT LAYER The Transport Layer provides the means for the transport of data segments across theInternet Layer. The Transport Layer is concerned with end-to-end (host-to-host) communication. Transmission Control Protocol provides reliable, connection-oriented transport of data between two endpoints (sockets) on two computers that use Internet Protocol to communicate. INTERNET LAYER The Internet Layer provides connectionless communication across one or more networks, a global logical addressing scheme and packetization of data. The Internet Layer is concerned with network to network communication. The Internet Layer is responsible for packetization, addressing and routing of data on the network. Internet Protocol provides the packetization, logical addressing and routing functions that forward packets from one computer to another. The Internet Layer communicates with the Transport Layer when receiving and sends data to the Network Access Layer when transmitting.

NETWORK ACCESS LAYER The Network Access Layer provides access to the physical network. This is your network interface card. Ethernet, FDDI, Token Ring, ATM, OC, HSSI, or even Wi-Fi are all examples of network interfaces. The purpose of a network interface is to allow yourcomputer to access the wire, wireless or fiber optic network infrastructure and send data to other computers. The Network Access Layer transmits data on the physical network when sending and transmits data to the Internet Layer when receiving.