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ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES: Advanced English for Engineers

Additional Grammar Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7

Article Usage Link words/Relative Clauses Prepositions/Tenses Conditional Sentences Typical Intensifiers/Modal Verbs Comparison The Passive Voice/Multiword Verbs

2 6/10 13/16 19 21/23 26 29/31

Article usage: Generic reference

The way we use articles with nouns having generic reference varies according to the type of noun. More specifically article usage varies depending on whether the noun is: countable or non-countable (if countable) singular or plural Count nouns have a natural plural form, non-count nouns do not: device mouse information computing devices mice

There is a clear contrast between non-count nouns and plural nouns, on the one hand, and count singular nouns, on the other: Computing has changed our world. Computers have changed our world. The computer has changed our world. When a noun is modified (e.g. by an adjective) and the modifier is placed BEFORE the noun we still usually have a context of generic reference: Digital computers have changed our world. Conventional serial von-Neumann computers have changed our world. However when a noun is modified by elements placed AFTER the noun, there tends to be a context of specific reference: (The) conventional serial computers based on the von-Neumann architecture have changed our world. PREmodification generic reference article: Von-Neumann computers have changed our world POSTmodification TENDS to create specific reference: (The) computers based on the von-Neumann architecture have changed our world. EXCEPTIONS A few adjectives, because of their meaning, imply specific reference: The The The The The The best solutions first solutions only problems next generation last problems same solutions

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Some non count nouns have special plural forms: I like whisky (the substance). Id like two whiskies (two typical quantities of X). I like wine (the substance). I like young wines (kinds of wine). The table below summarizes the basic rules of article usage for nouns used with generic reference: Article usage with nouns used with generic reference Count plural nouns article: Computers have changed our world Non-count nouns article Computing has changed our world Count singular nouns require some kind of article: The computer has changed our world Premodification does not create specific reference: Conventional serial von Neumann computers have changed our world 1. Fill in the blanks with "the", "a(n)" or . 1. mice and scanners are input devices. 2. mouse is pointing device, but scanner is not. 3. scanner is used to input text and graphics. 4. scanners can be divided into hand-held scanners and desktop scanners. 5. hand-held scanner is quite cheap, but desktop scanners are not.

2. Read the through the text below and fill in the blanks with "the", "a(n)" or . High Level Languages I. Essentially (1) ..... program is (2) ..... form of communication. Its main purpose is to communicate (3) ..... description of (4) ..... process, designed by (5) ..... programmer, to (6) ..... processor which executes it. For (7) ..... successful communication it is necessary to have (8) ..... language which (9) ..... programmers and (10) ..... processors can understand. (11) ..... central processor of a computer can only understand (12) ..... machine code. In (13) ..... machine code each instruction is (14) ..... sequence of zeroes and ones. Although (15) ..... programmer can, with (16) ..... considerable effort, understand and write programs in machine code, it is completely unsatisfactory for the production of large and reliable programs. II. One solution to this problem is (1) ..... translation. We can use (2) ..... language which (3) ..... programmer can understand easily and then translate (4) ..... programs written in that language into machine code for (5) ..... execution. (6) ..... natural languages, like English are not suitable for this purpose. It has been more satisfactory to design (7) ..... special languages. In fact there are many of these special languages, which are called (8) ..... high level programming languages. III. 1) ..... first advantage of (2) ..... well designed high level language is that (3) ..... facilities provided by such (4) ..... language can be adapted to suit (5) ..... different application areas. For example one language can be designed for (6) ..... mathematical computing with a high numerical content, another for (7) ..... commercial applications in which large amounts of (8) ..... non-numeric information need to be processed and a third for applications in which (9) ..... computer is used to simulate another system like (10) ..... airplane.

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IV. (1) .....other advantage of (2) ..... high level programming languages is that (3) ..... program is easy to read and its structure is clear. This is important because writing a large program is (4) ..... difficult intellectual task and (5) ..... programmer needs to think clearly about his\her work. V. Finally, with (1) ..... high level languages, it is possible to include features that help (2) ..... programmer to avoid making errors and that aid (3) ..... detection of those errors which are in fact made. Since (4) ..... correctness of (5) ..... finished product is very important and (6) ..... programmer is (7) ..... human being, who has a natural tendency to make errors, the inclusion of these features is (8) ..... major advantage. Article Usage Solutions 2. Read the through the text below and fill in the blanks with "the", "a(n)" or . I. Essentially (1) a program is (2) a form of communication. Its main purpose is to communicate (3) a description of (4) a process, designed by (5) a/the programmer, to (6) a/the processor which executes it. For (7) successful communication it is necessary to have (8) a language which (9) programmers and (10) processors can understand. (11) The central processor of a computer can only understand (12) machine code. In (13) machine code each instruction is (14) a sequence of zeroes and ones. Although (15) the/a programmer can, with (16) /a considerable effort, understand and write programs in machine code, it is completely unsatisfactory for the production of large and reliable programs. II. One solution to this problem is (1) translation. We can use (2) a language which (3) a/the programmer can understand easily and then translate (4) /the programs written in that language into machine code for (5) execution. (6) natural languages, like English, are not suitable for this purpose. It has been more satisfactory to design (7) special languages. In fact there are many of these special languages, which are called (8) high level programming languages. III. (1) The first advantage of (2) a well designed high level language is that (3) /the facilities provided by such (4) a language can be adapted to suit (5) different application areas. For example one language can be designed for (6) mathematical computing with a high numerical content, another for (7) /the commercial applications in which large amounts of (8) non-numeric information need to be processed and a third for applications in which (9) the/a computer is used to simulate another system like (10) an airplane. IV. (1) Another advantage of (2) high level programming languages is that (3) the/a program is easy to read and its structure is clear. This is important because writing a large program is (4) a difficult intellectual task and (5) the/a programmer needs to think clearly about his/her work. V. Finally, with (1) high level languages, it is possible to include features that help (2) the/a programmer to avoid making errors and that aid (3) /the detection of those errors which are in fact made. Since (4) /the correctness of (5) the finished product is very important and (6) the/a programmer is (7) a human being, who has a natural tendency to make errors, the inclusion of these features is (8) a major advantage.

I. 1. "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 2. "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 3. "a"/"the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 4. "a" 5. "a"/"the" 6. "a"/"the" 7. generic reference with a noun count noun article omission 8. "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 9. generic reference with plural nouns article omission 10. generic reference with plural nouns article omission 11. "the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 12. generic reference with a noun count noun article omission 13. generic reference with a noun count noun article omission 14. "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 15. "a"/"the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 16. "a" or omission ("effort" may be count or non-count)

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II. 1. generic reference with a noun count noun article omission 2. "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 3. "a"/"the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 4. generic reference with plural nouns article omission/the (postmodification [written in that language] tends to create specific reference) 5. generic reference with a noun count noun article omission 6. generic reference with plural nouns article omission 7. generic reference with plural nouns article omission 8. generic reference with plural nouns article omission III. 1. "the" ("first" specific reference) 2. "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 3. "the"/omission (postmodification [provided by ...] tends to create specific reference) 4. "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 5. generic reference with plural nouns article omission 6. generic reference with a noun count noun article omission 7. omission/"the" (postmodification [in which ...] tends to create specific reference) 8. generic reference with a noun count noun article omission 9. "a"/"the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) 10. "an"/"the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) IV. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. V. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. "An(other)" (when the word other refers to a singular count noun [advantage], it is written another) generic reference with plural nouns article omission "a"/"the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) "a"/"the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) generic reference with plural nouns article omission "a"/"the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) "the"/omission (postmodification [of those ...] tends to create specific reference) "the"/omission (postmodification [of the ...] tends to create specific reference) "the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) "a"/"the" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article) "a" (a singular count noun requires some kind of article)

Link Words
A. Introduction Syntactic contexts SENTENCE CONJUNCTS: they are typically the first word in the sentence although some are mobile. They establish a link with the previous sentence: He was ill. However, he went to work. CONJUNCTIONS: they establish a link within a sentence, they must introduce a subordinate clause: Although he was ill, he went to work. He went to work although he was ill. PREPOSITIONS: they establish a link within a sentence, they can only introduce a noun or a gerund: Despite his illness he went to work. He went to work despite his illness. Despite being ill he went to work. He went to work despite being ill. They can be followed by the noun "the fact" and a "that" clause subordinated to the noun: He went to work despite the fact that he was ill.

1. Linking words expressing Sentence Conjuncts Consequently So Thus Therefore As a result That's why

CAUSE/EFFECT, REASON

Conjunctions since as because for1

Prepositions owing to due to because of as a result of on account of

2. Linking words expressing Sentence Conjuncts However Yet Nevertheless Nonetheless

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CONTRAST

Subordinating Conjunctions although though even though while whereas

Prepositions in spite of despite

For is almost a sentence conjunct: it introduces an explanation and it must come after the clause that expresses the thing explained.

3. Linking words expressing Sentence Conjuncts Besides Moreover Furthermore In addition

ADDITION

Subordinating Conjunctions

Prepositions besides apart from in addition to

4. Linking words expressing Sentence Conjuncts Afterwards After this/that Before Meanwhile

TIME

Subordinating Conjunctions after before while

Prepositions after before

We cannot use the expression the fact that with these words. We We We We went to the had dinner. had dinner. went to the cinema after dinner / After dinner, we went to the cinema. Afterwards, we went to the cinema. After that, we went to the cinema. cinema after we had dinner.

It was lovely while it lasted. He called while you were here. I was studying hard. Meanwhile, my friend was travelling all over the world. 5. Linking words expressing Sentence Conjuncts To this end For that purpose

PURPOSE

Subordinating Conjunctions so that so as to in order to to + infinitive for + gerund (-ing)

PREPOSITIONS

6. Other important linking devices: a. Comparison Like Similarly Likewise The word like is used only with nouns. The word as is used with other groups of words. The words similarly and likewise are sentence conjuncts indicating similarity. Like my father, Im fond of photography. I got a present when I graduated from highschool. Similarly, Ill get one when I get my bachelors degree. I know that I will be sick if I drink too much. Likewise, I know Ill feel sick if I eat too much.

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Too, as well and alike also express similarity or coincidence. I can play piano. I can play guitar as well. I have a bike. Hes got one, too. Students and teachers alike demanded better schedules. b. Condition otherwise Apart from the conditional subordinators we will see in unit 4 (if, unless, as long as/provided/providing, and in case) there is one other important conditional linking device: otherwise, which is a sentence conjunct expressing negative condition (If this is not the case). You must really do all the assignments in the course. Otherwise, you will not be able to sit the exam.

B. Practice 1. In the following exercise you must choose the correct option.
1. We were all confident ............. the bad news. a) due to b) although c) despite d) in spite

2. In the following exercise you must decide whether the sentences are wellformed sentences in English, if they are not, make the necessary changes so they become correct. 1. We arrived on time despite the heavy traffic. 2. Although anything. 3. 4. I was angry, I didn't say

2. .............. they had studied a lot, they passed the exam a) Whereas b) Although c) Thus d) Since

3. I tried hard. I didn't, ................., succeed. a) however b) but c) although d) yet

In spite of that I was ill, I went to work. Unlike Windows, Linux works.

4. I'll drink the wine ................. someone else wants it. a) provided b) unless c) in case d) as

5. She was tired due to she had been working too hard. 6. Before of quitting the program, save all your work. 7. While his speech, I fell asleep.

5. I went to the party ................... I was really tired. a) despite b) although c) as d) since

6. .................. programming in machine language, she also plays tennis. a) despite furthermore b) besidec) in addition tod)

8. Although the fact that I was tired, I went to the party. 9. I had a headache. Although I went to the party. 10. She'll solve the problem however difficult it is. 3. Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings. 1. Although it was an elegant solution, it didnt work. Despite ...........................................................

7. The economy is organized ................ the poor must give to the rich. a) whereas b) despite as c) so that d) as soon

8. They couldn't operate .................... the doctor was ill. a) due to b) despite c) so that d) because

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2. During his speech, I fell asleep. While ............................................................... ...... 3. Due to the heavy traffic we were late for the preview. As ..................................................................... ....... 4. She can speak fluent French and she can pilot aeroplanes. Besides ........................................................... ...... 5. In spite of John's objections our proposal was accepted. Even though ............................................................ 6. They were working too quickly. Consequently they made a mess of the job. As...................................................................... ....... 7. He couldn't do the job well as he had the flu. As a result............................................................... 8. I won't tell them unless they ask me. If ...................................................................... ...... 9. If you dont study, youll fail the exam. ........................................... Otherwise, .............. . In spite ............................................................... 14. You won't understand if you don't pay careful attention. Unless ................................................. 15. Despite our desperate attempt to avoid this problem, it has occurred. Although .......................................................... ....... 16. Due to its numerous facilities, the package is extremely popular. As..................................................................... ....... 17. The solution is elegant and efficient. In addition to............................................... 18. First she switched off the machine. Then she repaired it. Before.............................................................. ........ 19. Whereas Windows is a proprietary system, Lynux is not. Unlike............................................................... ... 20. As she reacted quickly, she was able to solve the problem. Owing............................................................... ........

10. They had a great deal of work. Nevertheless, they managed to finish it. Although....................................................... 11. First he refused the offer, then he changed his mind. After................................................................ 12. She is well qualified and has experience in the field. Apart ...................................................... 13. Although they frequently disagree, they work well together.

KEYS Solutions Link words 1. In the following exercise you must choose the correct option.

1. We were all confident c) despite the

bad news.

2. d) Since they had studied a lot, they

passed the exam succeed.

3. I tried hard. I didn't, a) however, 4. I'll drink the wine b) unless someone
else wants it.

10 5. I went to the party b) although I was 6. 7. 8.

2. really tired. c) in addition to programming in machine language, she also plays tennis. The economy is organized c) so that the poor must give to the rich. They couldn't operate d) because the doctor was ill. 7. As a result of the fact that he had the flu, he couldnt do the job well. As a result of his / the flu, + clause. As a result of having the flu, ... 8. If they dont ask me, I wont tell them. 9. You must study. Otherwise, youll fail the exam. 10. Although they had a great deal of work, they managed to finish it. (Although clause, + clause.) 11. After he (had) refused the offer, he changed his mind. After refusing the offer, + clause. 12. Apart from the fact that she is well qualified, she has experience in the field. Apart from being well qualified, + clause. Apart from her good qualifications, + clause. 13. In spite of their frequent disagreements, they work well together. In spite of disagreeing frequently, + clause. In spite of the fact that they disagree frequently, ... 14. Unless you pay careful attention, you wont understand. (Unless clause, + clause) 15. Although we desperately attempted to avoid this problem, it has occurred. (Although clause, + clause) 16. As it has numerous facilities, the package is extremely popular. (As clause, + clause) 17. In addition to being elegant, the solution is efficient. In addition to its elegance, + clause. In addition to the fact that it is elegant, 18. Before repairing / she repaired the machine, she switched it off. (Before clause, + clause) 19. Unlike Windows, Linux is not a proprietary system. (Unlike + NOUN, + clause) 20. Owing to her quick reaction, she was able to solve the problem. (Owing to + NOUN, + clause) Owing to the fact that she reacted quickly, . .

1. We arrived on time despite the heavy

traffic. 2. Although I was angry, I didn't say anything. 3. In spite of that I was ill, I went to work. x Although I was ill, In spite of the fact that I was ill 4. Unlike Windows, Linux works. 5. She was tired due to she had been working too hard. x ...because/as/since she had been working ... 6. Before of quitting the program, save all your work. x Before quitting ..... 7. While his speech, I fell asleep. x While he was speaking/During his speech 8. Although the fact that I was tired, I went to the party. x Although I was tired 9. I had a headache. Although I went to the party. x However I went to .... 10. She'll solve the problem however difficult it is. 3. Rewrite beginnings. the sentences with the new

1. Despite the fact that it wasnt elegant, the solution worked. Despite not being elegant, + clause. Despite its lack of elegance, 2. While he was making his speech, I fell asleep. While he was speaking, + clause. 3. As there was heavy traffic, we were late for the preview. As the traffic was heavy, + clause. 4. Besides the fact that she can speak fluent French, she can pilot airplanes. Besides being able to speak fluent French, + clause. Besides her (ability to speak) fluent French, ... 5. Even though John objected / made objections, our proposal was accepted. (Even though clause, + clause) 6. As they were working too quickly, they made a mess of the job. (As clause, + clause.)

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Unit 2. Relative clauses

Defining relatives give information that is essential to identify the antecedent: The man that phoned yesterday was angry Non-defining relatives give additional information that is not essential to identify the antecedent. They are placed between commas: Mr. Brown, who phoned yesterday, was angry The relative pronouns that and can only be used in defining relative clauses. In defining relative clauses in which the preposition that governs the relative pronoun precedes the pronoun we cannot use that or : The speed (that) human beings work at is limited The speed at which human beings work is limited If the personal relative pronoun is preceded by its preposition, we must use whom: The man (that) I was talking to was French The man to whom I was talking was French The relative pronoun that cannot be omitted if it is the subject of the relative clause: The man (that) I phoned was angry The man that phoned me was angry After the words the way, the reason and expressions of time we can omit the relative pronoun and the preposition: I don't like the way (in which) he explains things I'll never forget the day (on which) we met I'll phone you the minute (at which) I arrive 1. In the following exercise you must use omission if possible, if not, use that, in other cases use a pronoun from the whseries: 1. This is the person ................. I was talking about. 2. This is the person about ................. I was talking. 3. I like the way ................. she prepares everything so carefully. 4. July Churches, ................. is a terrible singer, is also a multimillionaire. 5. That's the person ................. phoned you yesterday. 6. That's the person ................. you phoned yesterday. 7. The reason ................. I'm telling you this is that I trust you. 8. I'll have a drink the minute ................. I get home. 9. This isn't the kind of work ................. I am accustomed to. 10. This isn't the kind of work to ................. I am accustomed. The relative pronoun which is used to make reference to the whole of the preceding sentence: He closed the door, which was a good idea because it was cold compare He closed the door which/that was open The relative pronoun what is used to mean the thing(s) which, it has no antecedent, but contains its own antecedent: What I don't understand is why he did it I don't understand what is happening The relative pronoun whose expresses the idea of possession: This is the person whose cat scratched me

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2.In the following exercise you must use omission if possible, if not, use that, in other cases use a pronoun from the whseries: So you are the to .......................................... 5. I think she sings very well. I like the ........................................................... ....... 6. I told John the secret. That wasn't a very good idea. I told John the secret, .............................................. 7. They are thinking about the problem of the ozone hole. The ozone hole is problem ................................ the person

1. Tristram Shandy is a novel .................

was written in the XVIIIth century by Sterne.

2. Tristram Shandy is a novel .................

plot can be illustrated like this.

3. Tristram, ................. conception was interrupted by a clock, is the hero of the novel. 4. The novel was immensely popular, ................. isn't surprising as it is a master piece. 5. ................. is especially interesting about the novel is its treatment of time. 6. Measuring time accurately was a question ................. was extremely important in Sterne's day. 7. It was a problem ................. the Government wanted to solve in order to assure that captains of the navy could accurately work out their position at sea. 8. The novel also deals with many themes, like meaning, sympathy and sublimation ................. are still of great importance to humanity. 3.Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings. 1. I saw Ann's photo at the police station. Ann's the person ..................................................... . 2. I don't understand why he is always so angry. What ........................................................ ................ 3. Mr Brown is my boss. He lives in a big house. Mr Brown, ..................................................... .......... 4. So you are the person I sent the letter to.

8. He was singing a song about penguins in bondage. The song ........................................................ .......... 9. It travels very quickly. The speed at ............................................................ 10. She said something, but I didn't hear it. I didn't hear ......................................................... .... Keys Relative pronouns 1. In the following exercise you must use omission if possible, if not, use that, in other cases use a pronoun from the wh- series:

1. This is the person I was talking about. 2. This is the person about whom I was
talking.

3. I like the way she prepares everything 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

so carefully. July Churches, who is a terrible singer, is also a multimillionaire. That's the person that phoned you yesterday. That's the person you phoned yesterday. The reason I'm telling you this is that I trust you. I'll have a drink the minute I get home. This isn't the kind of work I am accustomed to.

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am accustomed. 2.In the following exercise you must use omission if possible, if not, use that, in other cases use a pronoun from the wh- series:

8.

captains of the navy could accurately work out their position at sea. The novel also deals with many themes, like meaning, sympathy and sublimation that are still of great importance to humanity. sentences with the new

3.Rewrite the beginnings.

1. Tristram Shandy is a novel that was 2.

written in the XVIIIth century by Sterne. Tristram Shandy is a novel whose plot can be illustrated like this.

3. Tristram, 4. 5. 6. 7.

whose conception was interrupted by a clock, is the hero of the novel. The novel was immensely popular, which isn't surprising as it is a master piece. What is especially interesting about the novel is its treatment of time. Measuring time accurately was a question that was extremely important in Sterne's day. It was a problem that the Government wanted to solve in order to assure that

1. Ann's the person whose photo I saw at the police station. 2. What I don't understand is why he is always so angry. 3. Mr Brown, who is my boss, lives in a big house. 4. So you are the person to whom I sent the letter. 5. I like the way she sings. 6. I told John the secret, which wasn't a very good idea. 7. The ozone hole is the problem (that/which) they are thinknig about/about which they are thinking. 8. The song (that/which) he was singing was about penguins in bondage. 9. The speed at which it travels is very high. 10. I didn't hear what she said.

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Prepositions
AT ON 0-dimensions 1-dimension 2-dimensions public transport 3-dimensions 2. You mustn't park ............... a yellow line. 3. Get up, we're going to get ............... the bus ............... the next stop. 4. He walked slowly ............... the classroom because he was tired after the class. 5. I drive past her house day ............... my way to work. every

IN

1. Fill in the blanks with at, on or in: 1. John was standing ............... the door. 2. There was a notice ............... the door saying "Do not disturb". 3. I knocked the nail ............... the door. 4. We were swimming ............... the lake. 5. Today's a holiday and there are a lot of people ............... the lake. 6. The lake was frozen and we went skating ............... the lake. 7. I saw Ann ............... the bus. 8. There was no label ............... the bottle, but there was some delicious wine ............... it. 9. There was an enormous poster ............... the wall. 10. The explosion made hole ............... the wall. an enormous

6. We managed to pull him ............... the swimming pool. 7. He was so fat that he get ............... his old trousers. couldn't

8. I usually sit ............... the table for meals. 9. He fell ............... the ladder and broke his arm. 10. She had a tattoo ............... her arm. 11. I've got ink ............... my hands, I'll have to wash it ............... . 12. When I saw the jumped ............... the table. mouse I

I walked along the path I walked across the road I walked through the building

11. We arranged to meet ............... the busstop. 12. He was fined for parking ............... a yellow line. + Movement to on[to] in[to] Position at on in - Movement away (from) off out (of)

I jumped over the fence I walked under the ladder I walked around the corner

2.Fill in the blanks with the appropriate preposition or adverb. 1. You'll have to taken ............... . have that tooth

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I walked building past the below movemen t position 3. Fill in the blanks with one of the prepositions in the table above. 1. They dug a tunnel ............... the wall of the prison. 2. He didn't stop to say hello, he just walked right ............... me. 3. Before landing the plane flew ............... Venice. 4. Don't go ............... the forest, you'll probably get lost. 5. It's safer to walk ............... the street on a pedestrian crossing. 6. I was walking ............... the pavement. over movemen t position covering covering lower level text ref. can't be used movement to indicate

there was a cupboard below the sink can't be used for covering It is below average/sea-level It is ten degrees below zero As you can see below of the

4.Fill in the blanks with one prepositions in the table above.

1. In winter the temperature reaches 20 degrees ............ zero. 2. The horse jumped ............ the fence. 3. I managed to crawl ............ the table. 4. I'm glad to say that their work is well ............ average.

we flew over the city there was a cloud over the city I put the tablecloth over the table

5. I put a sheet ............ the body. 6. As we shall explain ............, this is not the real reason. 7. There were ............ 100,000 people at the demonstration. 8. As we explained ............ capitalism is incompatible with respect for the ecosystem. 5. Some metaphorical uses of prepositions. 1. It converts any sequence of written text ............ speech. 2. There were ............ 50 people there, more or less. 3. He's very helpful ............ a civil servant. 4. When you finish, remember to switch the display ............ . 5. We have run ............ paper again. 6. You can rely ............ her. 7. Do you see that man ............ bright red shoes? 8. Only one ............ ten students agree with the plan. 9. I had a very strange dream ............ her.

more than There were over 50 people text ref. under movemen t position covering less than text ref. above movemen t position covering higher level text ref. can't be reference used for textual

they walked under the bridge there was a cupboard under the sink He had sweater a shirt under his

There were under 50 people can't be reference used for to textual indicate

can't be used movement

there was a cloud above the city can't be used for covering It is above average/sea-level It is ten degrees above zero As I explained above

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10. The book is aimed ............ experienced users. Keys 6. Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings. 1. We followed the street until we got to the palace. We went ........................................................ ..... 2. She left the house in a hurry. She hurried ..................................................... ..... 3. They boarded the bus. They got ........................................................... .... 4. You must remove the disk from the disk drive. You must take ...................................................... 5. Ann will lend you the money. You can borrow money .................................. 6. I pass that building every day. I walk ......................................................... ............ 7. If you work so hard you'll have a nervous breakdown. You'll have a breakdown ............................. 8. Once again I'm unlucky. Once again I'm ........................................................... 9. We entered the building. We went ........................................................ ............. 10. We removed the books from the shelf. nervous the Solutions Prepositions 1.Fill in the blanks with at, on or in: We took the books ....................................................

1. John was standing at the door. 2. There was a notice on the door saying
"Do not disturb".

3. I knocked the nail in the door. 4. We were swimming in the lake. 5. Today's a holiday and there are a lot of
people at the lake. 6. The lake was frozen and we went skating on the lake. 7. I saw Ann on the bus. 8. There was no label on the bottle, but there was some delicious wine in it. 9. There was an enormous poster on the wall. 10. The explosion made an enormous hole in the wall. 11. We arranged to meet at the bus-stop. 12. He was fined for parking on a yellow line. 2.Fill in the blanks preposition or adverb. with the appropriate

1. You'll have to have that tooth taken out. 2. You mustn't park on a yellow line. 3. Get up, we're going to get off the bus at
the next stop. 4. He walked slowly out of the classroom because he was tired after the class. 5. I drive past her house every day on my way to work. 6. We managed to pull him out of/in(to) the swimming pool. 7. He was so fat that he couldn't get in(to) his old trousers. 8. I usually sit at the table for meals. 9. He fell off the ladder and broke his arm. 10. She had a tattoo on her arm. 11. I've got ink on my hands, I'll have to wash it off. 12. When I saw the mouse I jumped on(to) the table. 3.Fill in the blanks with one of the prepositions in the table above.

17 1. They dug a tunnel under the wall of the 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

prison. He didn't stop to say hello, he just walked right past me. Before landing the plane flew over Venice. Don't go through the forest, you'll probably get lost. It's safer to walk across the street on a pedestrian crossing. I was walking along the pavement.

1. It converts any sequence of written text

into speech.

2. There were about/around 50 people

there, more or less.

3. He's very helpful for a civil servant. 4. When you finish, remember to switch the
display off.

5. We have run out of paper again. 6. You can rely on her. 7. Do you see that man in bright red
shoes? 8. Only one out of ten students agree with the plan. 9. I had a very strange dream about her. 10. The book is aimed at experienced users. 6.Rewrite the beginnings. sentences with the new

4.Fill in the blanks with one of the prepositions in the table above.

1. In winter the temperature reaches 20

degrees below zero.

2. The horse jumped over the fence. 3. I managed to crawl under the table. 4. I'm glad to say that their work is well 5. 6. 7. 8.
above average. I put a sheet over the body. As we shall explain below, this is not the real reason. There were over 100,000 people at the demonstration. As we explained above capitalism is incompatible with respect for the ecosystem.

5.Some metaphorical uses of prepositions.

1. We went along the street (until we got) to the palace. 2. She hurried out of the house. 3. They got on(to) the bus. 4. You must take the disk out of the disk drive. 5. You can borrow the money from Ann. 6. I walk past that building every day. 7. You'll have a nervous breakdown by working so hard. 8. Once again I'm out of luck. 9. We went into the building. 10. We took the books off the shelf.

18

The tense system: tenses referring to present and future time

Present Simple Progressive The present DURATION vs. Present 4. Speak more slowly! I ...................... (not understand) what you ................... (say). 5. What .......................... (happen)? I .................... (not know), I've only just arrived. 6. Don't disturb her, she ................. (think) about the problem. 7. The price of flats .................... (go up). 8. I'll phone you I ..................... (get) home. when

simple

UNLIMITED

Water boils at 100 She works as a systems analyst I live in Valencia The present progressive LIMITED DURATION I am reading this sentence I am reading "Paradise Lost"

(not right

now but this month) The cost of living is going up (a change in progress) EXCEPTIONS a) State verbs Verbs used statively cannot be used in the present progressive: I know they are listening I think he is pretending The land belongs to the people (Some verbs have stative and dynamic uses: I think you're right I'm thinking about the problem) b) Set expressions: How do you do? Why don't we/you go for a walk c) In subordinate sentences with future reference When I get home, Ill have a drink 1. Fill in the correct form of the verb. 1. Where ........................ usually get) the bus? (you

9. -What ...................... (you do)? -I ........................ (look for) that book I lent you. 10. This week I ....................... (go) to work by bus, because I've lent my bicycle to a friend. 11. I ................ (know) he ................. (not tell) the truth about the incident.

12. I

....................... Rerum Natura again.

(read)

De

13. Why

.................. (we organize) a protest against Government.

not the

14. As soon as I .................. (get) home, I'll have a drink. Modal adjectives with present and future reference. There are a number of adjectives that refer to probability and certainty that allow two constructions in English. For example the adjectives probable and likely have the same meaning, but likely allows two constructions: It's probable that she will succeed succeed She is likely to succeed Other adjectives that behave like likely are unlikely, sure, and certain. The adjective bound can only take the infinitive construction: It's likely that she will

2. You ...................... (not believe) me! You ............... (think) I ................. (lie). 3. The sun ......................... (get) colder and colder.

19
Shes bound to pass the exam -I am looking for that book I lent you. 10. This week I am going to work by bus, because I've lent my bicycle to a friend. 11. I know he isn't telling the truth about the incident. 12. I am reading De Rerum Natura again. 13. Why don't we organize a protest against the Government? 14. As soon as I get home, I'll have a drink. 2. Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings:

2. Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings: 1. It's certain that the train will be delayed. The train ................................................. 2. They'll definitely agree with us.

They are ................................................ 3. The weather improve. will probably weather she will

1. The

The is ...................................... 4. It's probable that overcome the problem.

train is sure/certain/bound to be late. 2. They are sure to agree with us. 3. The weather is likely to improve. 4. She is likely to overcome the problem, 5. There sure to be difficulties. 6. The strike is sure to be massively supported

She is .................................................... 5. There difficulties. will certainly be

The tense system: tenses referring to past time

1. Past simple and perfect tenses. past time exclusive of

There are .............................................. 6. The strike will definitely massively supported. The is .......................................... be

Past simple present

Present perfect past time inclusive of present I saw him yesterday I have seen him today I didn't go to England last year I have never been to China (in all my I flew to Italy last life) August It's the first time I have flown (in all I saw him a few my life) minutes ago I've just seen him I lived there from 1990 to 1993 I have lived here since 1994 Frank Zappa made excellent records The Amps have I broke my leg made excellent yesterday records I can't because go out I have

strike

Solutions 1 1. Where do you usually get the bus? 2. You do not believe me! You think I am lying. 3. The sun is getting colder and colder. 4. Speak more slowly! I do not understand what you are saying. 5. What is happening? I do not know, I've only just arrived. 6. Don't disturb her, she is thinking about the problem. 7. The price of flats is going up. 8. I'll phone you when I get home. 9. -What are you doing?

20
broken my leg

perfect or future perfect of the verbs in brackets:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I ................... (live) in Valencia at the moment. I .................. (study) at the Polytechnic since last October. I met my wife while I .................... (live) in Paris. I .................. (live in Paris) for a month when I met my wife. By the end of next year I ..................... (be) married for a long time. I .................. (live) in Oxford from 1972 to 1976. Next year I .................. (go) to Donosti for my holidays. I ..................... (be) sceptical since I was a child.

1. Fill in the blanks with the present perfect or past simple tense of the verb in brackets: 1. I .......................... (not go) to the party last week. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. I ........................... (not see) Peter this week. ........................... (you ever visit) Cuba? Vladimir ................ (phone) a few seconds ago. The Commune .................... (be set up) in 1871. I ...................... (live) in England until I was 22. I ...................... (live) in Spain since I was 22. -Can you hear me? -What ................ (you I .............. (not hear) you. say)?

6. 7. 8.

3. Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings.

1. Petrol is more and more expensive. The price of petrol ............................

9.

It's the first time I ....................... (read) a novel in Swahili.

We use the present perfect to talk about DURATION from the past into the present I began to live here in 1990, I live here now I have lived here for12 years/since 1990 We use the past perfect to talk about DURATION from a more distant to a more recent past I began to wait at 7:00, they arrived at 8:00 I had waited for an hour when they arrived We use the future perfect to talk about DURATION from the past or present into the future I began to work here in 1990, I will be working here in 2015 By the year 2015 I will have worked here for 25 years

2.

She had the idea during lunch. She had the idea while .....................

3.

The movie started a few minutes ago. The has ..................................... movie

4.

She began to work here in 1997. By the year she ........................... 2020

5.

I've never eaten raw fish before. This is the time ............................. first

6.

I'll phone you on my arrival. I'll phone you when .............................

7.

I last saw Laura in 1986. I have ...................................................

2. Perfect tenses. In the following exercise you must fill in the blanks with the present, past simple, past progressive, future, present perfect, past

8.

They began to argue at 8:30 and I didn't arrive till 10. By the time they ................... I arrived,

21
9. He'll probably be fired. He is ..................................................... Solutions 1. 1. I didnt go to the party last week.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8.

I havent seen Peter this week. Have you ever visited Cuba? Vladimir phoned a few seconds ago. The Commune was set up) in 1871. I lived in England until I was 22. I have lived in Spain since I was 22. -Can you hear me? -What did you say? I didnt hear you. It's the first time I have read a novel in Swahili. I live/am living in Valencia at the moment. I have studied at the Polytechnic since last October. I met my wife while I was living in Paris. I had lived in Paris for a month when I met my wife. By the end of next year I will have been married for a long time. I lived in Oxford from 1972 to 1976. Next year I will go to Donosti for my holidays. I have been sceptical herd since I was a child.

9.
2. 1. 2.

3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 3.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The price of petrol is increasing/going up. She had the idea while she was having lunch. The movie has just started. By the year 2003 she will have worked here for 6 years. This is the first time I have (ever) eaten raw fish. I'll phone you when I arrive. I have not seen Laura for 13 years/since 1986. By the time I arrived, they had argued/had been arguing for one and a half hours. He is likely to be fired.

22

Conditional sentences
0.To talk about general truths: If I have a big lunch, it makes me sleepy. We use the present tense in both clauses. 1. To express an open future: If it rains, we'll go to the cinema. We use the present tense in the subordinate clause and a tense with future reference in the main clause. 2a. To express an unreal present: If I had money, I would travel around the world. 2b. To express an unlikely future: If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world. We use the past tense in the subordinate clause and a conditional tense in the main clause. 3. To express an unreal past: If you had seen the film, you would have enjoyed it. We use the past perfect in the subordinate clause and the conditional perfect in the main clause. II. Other modal uses of the past tenses 1. After the expressions "I wish..." and "If only...": a. we use the past tense to express regret about the present (to say that we would like something to be different): I wish I had a bike. If only I were more intelligent! b. we use the past perfect tense to express regret that something happened or did not happen in the past. I feel sick. I wish I hadn't drunk so much. If only you had explained the situation to me! 2. After the expression "it's time...", we use the past tense when we think that someone should have already done something. It is late. It is time we left. 3. After the expression Id rather: Id rather you didnt go alone III. Conditional Sentences: Inversion

Each of the three types of conditional sentences can be rewritten without using a conditional conjunction by means of inversion. For the first conditionals we have to use the modal verb "should": If you find the answer, please let me know. Should you find the answer, please let me know. For the second conditionals we have to use the past of the "be to " construction: If they offered you the post, would you accept it? Were they to offer you the post, would you accept it? For the third conditionals we simply omit the "if" and invert the subject with the auxiliary "had": If he had been careful, he wouldn't have broken the glass. Had he been careful, he wouldn't have broken the glass. IV Typical problems 0- conditionals The more you eat, the fatter you get If you eat a lot, you get fat 1- conditionals Youll get tired by working so much If you eat so much, youll get tired 2- conditionals I am tired because I have too much work If I didnt have too much work, I wouldnt be tired 3- conditionals I was tired because I had too much work If I hadnt had so much work, I wouldnt have been tired Modal uses of the past/past perfect I would like to have more time to study If only I had more time to study I shouldnt have drunk so much I wish/If only I hadnt drunk so much I really must leave now Its time I left Inversion 1 If you come, give me a ring Should you come, give me a ring

23
Inversion 2 If we gave you the job, when could you begin? Were we to give you job, when could you begin? Inversion 3 If I had known her number, I would have phoned Had I known her number, I would have phoned

1. Fill in the blank with the appropriate tense of the verb in brackets. 1. I wouldn't go to the meeting if I ............... (not have) to. 2. I ............... (not do) anything unless they tell me to. 3. If I were you, I ............... (not tell) anybody about it just yet. 4. If she ............... (not study) computer science, she would have become a film star. 5. What ............... (happen) if we decided to go on strike? 6. I ............... (can tell) you, if you had asked me. 7. I may go to the country weather ............... (keep) fine. if the

2. Rewrite the sentences with the new beginning. 1. He didn't understand because he wasn't paying attention. If ......................................................................... ...... 2. He isn't happy because he hasn't any friends. If ......................................................................... ..... 3. I shouldn't have drunk all that whisky. I wish .................................................................... .. 4 If Ann doesn't agree, Paul won't agree. Unless ................................................................. ..... 5 Stop whistling or I'll hit you! If ......................................................................... ..... 6 I think we ought to leave now. It's time ................................................................... 7 I was afraid because she had a knife in her hand. If ......................................................................... ..... 8 We didn't go to the beach because it was raining. If ......................................................................... ..... 9 It's very hot, so we can't work If ......................................................................... .... 10 If there is any problem, give me a ring. Should ................................................................. ....

8. They ............... (not misunderstand) if you had given a clearer explanation. 9. What ............... (you do) if you didn't get the job? 10. It's time we ............... (finish)

11. I wish the instructions ............... (be) clearer. 12. If you ............... (not point out) problem, we would never have noticed it. the

13. I would rather you ............... (deal with) the matter personally. 14. You shouldn't have any important problems providing you ............... (follow) these instructions. 15. Even if you ............... (tell) them the truth, they would never believe you. 16. I wish I ............... (not drink) so much yesterday. 17. If you hadn't warned us, there ............... (may be) a terrible mix up. 18. If they ............... (think) a little more about the problem, they could have solved it.

24
11 If we offered her the post, she would accept. Were ................................................................... . 12 If I had known her number, I could have phoned. Had ..................................................................... Keys: Conditional Sentences 1. 1. I wouldn't go to the meeting if I didn't have to. 2. I won't do anything unless they tell me to. 3. If I were you, I wouldn't tell anybody about it just yet. 4. If she hadn't studied computer science, she would have become a film star. 5. What would happen if we decided to go on strike? 6. I could have told you, if you had asked me. 7. I may go to the country if the weather keeps fine. 8. They wouldn't have misunderstood if you had given a clearer explanation. 9. What would you do if you didn't get the job? 10. I wish the manual were/was clearer. 11. I wish the instructions were clearer. 12. If you hadn't pointed out the problem, we would never have noticed it. 13. I would rather you dealt with the matter personally. 14. You shouldn't have any important problems providing you follow these instructions. 15. Even if you told them the truth, they would never believe you. 16. I wish I hadn't drunk so much yesterday. 17. If you hadn't warned us, there might have been a terrible mix up. 18. If they had thought a little more about the problem, they could have solved it. 2. 1. If he had been paying attention, he would have understood the problem 2. If he had (some) friends, he would be happy. 3. I wish I hadn't drunk all that whisky. 4 Unless Ann agrees, Paul won't (agree). 5 If you don't stop whistling, I'll hit you. 6 It's time we left. 7 If she hadn't had a knife in her hand, I wouldn't have been afraid. 8 If it hadn't been raining, we would have gone to the beach. 9 If it weren't so/very hot, we could work. 10 Should there be any problem, give me a ring. 11 Were we to offer her the post, she would accept. 12 Had I known her number, I could have phoned

TYPICAL INTENSIFIERS
There are a number of small distinctions between the typical intensifiers quite, fairly, rather and pretty. QUITE The meaning of quite varies according to the adjective. With gradable adjectives quite is a downtoner, i.e. it generally indicates that the adjective is not very high on its scale That's quite good (fairly good) He's quite slim (rather slim) With non-gradable adjectives, however, quite is an amplifier: He's quite dead (completely dead) You're quite right (absolutely right) That's quite impossible With "extreme" adjectives quite is also an amplifier He was quite angry (rather angry) He was quite furious (absolutely furious) I was quite tired (rather tired) I was quite exhausted (absolutely wrecked) Finally notice the usual position of quite with sequences of adjective + noun It was quite a nice day (downtoner) It was a quite impossible task (amplifier) FAIRLY, RATHER, PRETTY These words are similar to the downtoner quite, but: fairly is generally used with adjectives that have positive connotations; rather tends to be used with adjectives that have negative connotations2; pretty is the strongest and most informal of the three and can be used with adjectives having both negative and positive connotations

When we use rather with positive adjectives, it often tends to indicate surprise: I was pleasantly surprised to find that the bar was rather clean

25
It's fairly clean It's rather dirty It's fairly warm (I like it) It's rather warm (Open a window!) Unlike fairly and pretty, only rather can be used with explicit or implicit comparison: It's rather better than I imagined It's rather too expensive Unlike fairly and pretty, only rather can be used with noun phrases that have an adjectival function: That's rather a pity There was rather a crowd Unlike fairly and pretty, only rather can be used with verbs (if the verb has positive connotations it contrasts with quite and indicates surprise): The whole business rather upset me I rather like The Grateful Dead surprise!) (surprise, 2) Use fairly or rather to fill in the blanks (unless otherwise specified, assume "normal" conditions). 1. The game was ................ exciting, especially towards the end of the second half, when Valencia finally touched the ball. 2. It was ................. a drag to have to go back to my flat to get all the books I had forgotten. 3. I'd say that that the explanation is ................. too simple for my liking. 4. He's a ................... pleasant sort of person. They threw me into quite a small cell. a) rather b) unbelievably

The amount of money invested in Higher Education is quite insufficient, if we compare ourselves to our immediate neighbours. a) pretty b) utterly

Unlike fairly and pretty, only rather has a variable position when used with the sequence adjective + noun: It was a fairly/rather/pretty weird experience It was rather a weird experience

5. We had ..................... a nice experience

despite our initial apprehension. 6. When I got home at the end of the day, I was ................. tired so I had drink.

Exercises

7. I was feeling ..................... relaxed so I had a drink. 8. His behaviour ...................... annoyed me so I had a drink. 9. All the people that you mention, I know them they are ................... lame, I had to rearrange their faces and give them all another name. (Almost Bob Dylan) 10. The whole exercise was ..................... amusing to write. Solutions 1) Decide which of the two adverbs expresses the meaning of quite in each sentence (remember gradable vs. non-gradable/extreme vs. normal adjectives):

1)

Decide which of the two adverbs expresses the meaning of quite in each sentence (remember gradable vs. non-gradable/extreme vs. normal adjectives):

In this perpetual night-club, I'll be yours eternal, although the hours are long and the noise is quite infernal. (Almost Elvis Costello) a) rather b) totally

The music was quite loud. a) rather b) terribly

You were quite right to object to the plan. a) fairly b) totally

It was getting quite late when I remembered I had a home. a) rather b) really

1. In this perpetual night-club, I'll be yours

eternal, although the hours are long and the noise is totally infernal. (Almost Elvis Costello) (infernal = extreme)

26 2. The music was rather loud. 3. You were totally right to object to the 4. 5. 6.
plan. (right = non-gradable) It was getting rather late when I remembered I had a home. (late = gradable and normal) They threw me into rather a small cell. The amount of money invested in Higher Education is utterly insufficient, if we compare ourselves to our immediate neighbours. (insufficient = non-gradable [notice that utter(ly) means complete(ly) and is used only with words having negative connotations])

2. It was rather a drag to have to go back

to my flat to get all the books I had forgotten. 3. I'd say that that the explanation is rather too simple for my liking. 4. He's a fairly pleasant sort of person. 5. We had rather a nice experience despite our initial apprehension. 6. When I got home at the end of the day, I was rather tired so I had drink. 7. I was feeling fairly relaxed so I had a drink. 8. His behaviour rather annoyed me so I had a drink. 9. All the people that you mention, I know them they are rather lame, I had to rearrange their faces and give them all another name. (Almost Bob Dylan. In the original it was "quite lame" = "completely lame", "lame" can be mean having problems with your legs, or having problems with authenticity.) 10. The whole exercise was fairly amusing to write.

2) Use fairly or rather to fill in the blanks (unless otherwise specified, assume "normal" conditions).

1. The game was fairly exciting, especially

towards the end of the second half, when Valencia finally touched the ball.

27

Modal Verbs: introduction

Modal verbs express very basic meanings like ability, permission, certainty etc. They differ from normal verbs in various syntactic features: The difference is important because we make reference to past time differently. With deontic uses we refer to past time by changing the verb. With epistemic uses we refer to past time by changing the infinitive. Deontic Epistemic

Normal verb Modal verb He swims very well He can swim very well Does he swim well? Can he swim well? He doesnt swim very well He cannot swim very well He tries to swim well He can swim well Modal verbs deontic vs. epistemic Deontic uses of modal obligations, permissions etc. Epistemic uses of modal certainty, possibility etc. verbs verbs refer refer to

I couldnt smoke He cant have at school been French I had to work hard It must have been at school about 12 o clock Verb Meaning certainty possibility negative certainty

to

must may/might/can cant

Deontic You may leave I give permission leave

Epistemic She may succeed

you to Its possible that she will succeed

Modal Verbs: typical problems: Im sure he is here He must be here Im sure he isnt telling the truth He cant be telling the truth Perhaps he arrived early He may have arrived early Im sure they were lying They must have been lying

You must work It must be 12 o harder clock Its obligatory for Im certain its 12 you to work o clock harder You cant He smoke here cant French be

Im certain he is It is forbidden to not French smoke here

28
1. Use "must", "may (not)/might(n't)" or "can't" with the appropriate infinitive to rewrite the sentences. 1. Perhaps you have a virus. You .................................................... 2. I'm quite sure he is wrong. He ..................................................... 3. I'm sure he doesn't understand the problem. He ..................................................... 4. I'm positive they aren't using the same method. They ................................................... 5. Maybe he misunderstood. He ..................................................... 6. It's certain that he was hiding important information. He ..................................................... 7. I'm sure he didn't foresee this problem. He ..................................................... 8. Perhaps they'll try to undercut our prices. They ................................................... 9. I'm sure she hasn't misjudged the situation. She .................................................... 10.Perhaps they have overcharged you. They ................................................... 2. Instructions as above. 1. I'm quite certain that the mistake was accidental. 1. It's a virus, there's no doubt about it. It .................................................. 2. Perhaps you won't find him at home. You ................................................. 3. I'm quite sure that he panicked and ran away. The mistake .................... 2. It's possible that the plan will succeed. The plan .................... 3. It would be better for us to wait before ringing. We .................... 3. Rewrite the sentences using a suitable modal verb He .................................................. 4. I'm positive that she wasn't listening to our conversation. She .................................................. 5. Maybe they are planning a surprise attack. They ................................................. 6. I'm sure he overheard what you said. He ................................................... 7. I'm sure there misunderstanding. was some kind of

There ................................................. 8. Perhaps password. she couldn't remember the

She ................................................... 9. It's obvious that he pressed the wrong button. He .................................................... 10.I'm sure that he hasn't found out about the plan. He .................................................... 11.It's obvious that there wasn't anybody at home. There ................................................. 12.There's no doubt about it, he's bluffing. He ....................................................

29
4. I'm sure he isn't telling the truth. He .................... 5. Accessing that directory is forbidden. That directory .................... 6. It's possible to double your disk capacity with this compressor. You .................... 7. Perhaps they have had an accident. They .................... 8. It's vital that we should finish the project on time. The project .................... 9. I'm sure he didn't solve the problem by himself. He .................... 10. I managed to break the code. 18. It's obvious that the firm has not been making profits. The firm .................... 19. It's quite clear that they weren't making any progress. They .................... 20. It is forbidden to make copies of that file.

You .................... 21. Perhaps he was trying to contact us.

He .................... 22. I'm sure she isn't trying hard enough.

She .................... 23. It's obvious message. They .................... Modal 1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Verbs that they received the

I .................... 11. It's not obligatory to wear a tie.

You .................... 12. I'm positive they have met that man before. They .................... 13. It would have been a good idea for us to consult a price list before buying a new machine. We .................... 14. He is unwilling to collaborate.

You may/might/could have a virus. He must be wrong. He can't understand the problem. They can't be using the same method. He may/might/could have misunderstood. 6. He must have been hiding important information. 7. He can't have foreseen this problem. 8. They may/might/could try to undercut our prices. 9. She can't have misjudged the situation. 10. They may/might/could have overcharged you. 1. It must be a virus. (certainty, present) 2. You may not/mightn't find him at home. (factual possibility) 3. He must have panicked and run away (certainty, past) 4. She can't have been listening ........ (certainty + negative past progressive) 5. They may/might/could be planning a surprise attack. (factual possibility, present progressive) 6. He must have overheard what you said. (certainty, past) 7. There must have been some kind of misunderstanding. (certainty, past, "there" as subject) 8. She may not/mightn't have been able to remember the password. (factual

2.

He .................... 15. It's possible that he made the same mistake. He .................... 16. I'm sure the company is losing money.

The company .................... 17. It's not necessary for you to make backups. You ....................

30
possibility, past, "been able" as past participle of "can") 9. He must have pressed the wrong button. (certainty, past) 10. He can't have found out about the plan. (certainty + negative, past) 11. There can't have been anybody at home. (certainty + negative, past, "there" as subject) 12. He must be bluffing. (certainty, present progressive) 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The mistake must have been accidental. The plan may/might/could succeed. We should wait before ringing. He can't be telling the truth. That directory mustn't be accessed. You can double your disk capacity .... They may/might/could have had an accident. 8. The project must be/has to be finished on time. 9. He can't have solved the problem by himself. 10. I was able to break the code. 11. You don't have to wear a tie. 12. They must have met the man before. 13. We should have consulted a price list ..... 14. He won't collaborate. 15. He may/might/could have made the same mistake. 16. The company must be losing money. 17. You don't have to make back-ups. 18. The firm can't have been making profits. 19. They can't have been making any progress. 20. You mustn't copy that file. 21. He may/might/could have been trying to contact us. 22. She can't be trying hard enough. 23. They must have received the message

Comparison
1. Comparison of equality and inequality Remember that we can always express a comparison of inequality (like London is bigger than Liverpool) by negating a comparison of equality and viceversa. So the two sentences below have the same meaning: London is bigger than Liverpool Liverpool isn't as big as London 5. The plane is faster than the train. The train isn't .............................................. 6. His last novel wasn't as successful as his first one. His novel ................................................ 7. The mouse is easier to use than a keyboard. A isn't ............................................ 8. keyboard first

1a. In the following exercise, you must rewrite the sentences with the new beginning: 1. He isn't as clever as Ann. Ann is ......................................................... 2. This machine is faster than the old one. The old machine isn't ................................. 3. Eating out is more expensive than eating at home. Eating at home isn't .................................... 4. The new road isn't as narrow as the old one. The old road was ........................................

Palencia isn't as lively as Valencia. Valencia is ...................................................

9.

Keyboards are more reliable than mice. Mice aren't ....................................................

10.

The movie is stranger than the original novel. The original isn't ................................... novel

11.

Nobody is as clever as Ann.

Ann is .......................................................... 12. The sword isn't as mighty as the pen.

The pen is ....................................................

31
13. NATO is mightier than the pen. The following sentences have the same meaning: The task was too difficult The task wasn't easy enough Notice that with the adverbs too and enough we can use an infinitive and, if necessary, introduce its subject by for. With the adverb so and the adjective such the same information is expressed in a that-clause: The task was too difficult for me to perform The task wasn't easy enough for me to perform The task was so couldn't perform it difficult that I

The pen isn't ................................................. 14. The USA sells more arms than Irak

Iraq doesn't sell .............................................. 15. Education is more useful than the military.

The military isn't ........................................... 16. Nothing travels as fast as light.

Light travels .................................................. 1b. We can complicate things by forcing you to use an adverb when the original sentence has an adjective and vice versa. Ann works more quickly than me I'm not as quick a worker as Ann Re-write the sentences with the new beginning: 1. She is a more careful driver than I am. I don't drive ..................................................... 2. Planes are quicker than trains. Trains don't ..................................................... 3. I'm a better footballer than my niece's baby daughter. My niece's doesn't ................... baby daughter

It was such a difficult task that I couldn't perform it

Rewrite the beginning:

sentences

with

the

new

1. I was so tired that I couldn't go to the party. I was too ..........................................................

2. The problem was too complex for me to solve

alone. The was .............................................. problem

4. The old system worked more efficiently than the present one. The present isn't .................................. system

3. The problem was too complex for me to solve by myself. The wasn't .......................................... 4. I am so busy that I can never go out. I am .................................................................. 5. I am so busy that I can never go out. I don't have ....................................................... 6. She is too intelligent to believe that kind of nonsense. problem

5. The Queen is a cleverer poker player than the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister doesn't ............................ 6. The Queen is a heavier whisky drinker than the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister doesn't ............................ 2. Implicit comparison 2a. Implicit comparison

32
She is ................................................................ 7. He's so selfish that he never helps anyone. He's too ............................................................. 8. The novel was too boring for me to finish. The was .................................................. novel Rewrite the beginning. sentences with the new

1. Their daughter is so intelligent that she goes to a special school. They have ............................................................... 2. Her friends are so strange that I never know what to talk about with them. She has ................................................................. ... 3. He is such a reliable person that we can count on him.

9. It was so expensive that I couldn't buy it. It was ................................................................ 10. The exercise was so long that I didn't finish it. The exercise too ........................................ 2b. so and such. Remember that we use so with adjectives and adverbs, but we must use such with noun phrase. If the noun is count singular, we need to use the indefinite article a(n): COUNT SINGULAR The task was so difficult couldn't perform it that I was

That person is ......................................................... 4. The book was so fascinating that I read it twice. It was ..................................................................... 5. The cheese was so strong that I couldn't eat it. It was ..................................................................... 6. The problem was so difficult that it took me hours to solve. It was ................................................................. ..... 7. The weather was so bad that we spent our holidays in the hotel. We had ................................................................. ... 8. He is so silly that he believes everything I tell him. He is 3. Proportional Comparison and Coordinated

It was such a difficult task that I couldn't perform it COUNT PLURAL The tasks were so difficult that I couldn't perform They were such difficult tasks that I couldn't perform them NON COUNT The work was so hard that I couldn't do it It was such couldn't do it hard work that I

The exception to the general rule are the multal adjectives (much, many, little and few) which always take so, even when they modify an adjective: I have so many problems that I don't know what to do

33
The correlative comparative structure uses the to indicate a proportional relationship between two states or actions: If you work a lot, you get tired The more you work, the more tired you get. We can use repetition of a comparative form with the word and to indicate progressive change: Pollution is increasing There is more and more pollution 3a Fill in the correct form of a suitable adjective. 1. 2. feel. ............... the PC, the more portable it is. The more whisky you drink, ............... you

2. The old machine isn't as fast as this one. 3. Eating at home isn't as expensive as
eating out. 4. The old road was narrower than the new one. 5. The train isn't as fast as the plane. 6. His first novel was more successful than his last one. 7. A keyboard isn't as easy to use as a mouse. 8. Valencia is livelier than Palencia. 9. Mice aren't as reliable as keyboards. 10. The original novel isn't as strange as the movie. 11. Ann is cleverer than anybody/the cleverest 12. The pen is mightier than the pen 13. The pen isn't as mighty as NATO. 14. Iraq doesn't sell as many arms as the USA. 15. The military isn't as useful as education. 16. Light travels faster than anything/the fastest. 1b. Re-write the sentences with the new beginning: 1. I don't drive as carefully as she does. 2. Trains don't travel as quickly as planes. 3. My niece's baby daughter doesn't play football as well as me. 4. The present system isn't as efficient as the old one. 5. The Prime Minister doesn't play poker as cleverly as the Queen. 6. The Prime Minister doesn't drink whisky as heavily as the Queen 2a. Implicit comparison 1. I was too tired to go to the party. 2. The problem was so complex that I couldn't solve it alone. 3. The problem wasn't easy enough for me to solve by myself. 4. I am to busy to (be able to) go out. 5. I don't have enough time to go out. 6. She is so intelligent that she doesn't believe that kind of nonsense. 7. He's too selfish to help anyone. 8. The novel was so boring that I couldn't finish it. 9. It was too expensive for me to buy. 10. The exercise was too long for me to finish. 2b. so and such. 1. They have such as intelligent daughter that she goes to a special school. 2. She has such strange friends that I never know what to talk about with them.

3. ............... the exam is, the more students pass. 4. ............... the integrated circuit, the faster it works.

5. The more environmentally friendly, the process is, ........ 3b Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings. 1. The ozone hole is growing. The ozone hole .. 2. The number increasing. of is getting is

unemployed

There are . 3. The cost of living is going up. The cost of living is getting

4. The design process for electronic goods is lengthening. The design process for electronic goods is becoming 5. The size of ICs is decreasing ICs are .. Solutions 1a. becoming

1. Ann is cleverer than him..

34 3. That person so reliable that we can count

on him.

4. It was such a fascinating book that I read

it twice.

5. It was such strong cheese that I couldn't

eat it.

4.

6. It was such a difficult problem that it took

me hours to solve.

2. The more whisky you drink,better/worse you feel. 3. The easier the exam is, the more students pass. 4. The smaller the integrated circuit, the faster it works. 5. . The more environmentally friendly the process is, the better. 3b 1. The ozone hole is getting bigger and bigger. 2. There are more and more unemployed. 3. The cost of living is getting higher and higher 4. The design process for electronic goods is becoming longer and longer 5. ICs are becoming smaller and smaller..

7. We had such bad weather that we spent

our holidays in the hotel. 8. He is such a silly person that he believes everything I tell him.

3a 1. The smaller the PC, the more portable it is.

35

The Passive Voice

1. Transform the following active sentences into the passive, omit the agent if it does not seem semantically relevant. 1 They grow a lot of coffee in Brazil.

11 Did Baird invent the television? Was .................................................................. ............... 12 They have put the meeting off. The meeting ............................................................ ....... 13 They are company. completely reorganizing the

A lot ........................................................................... .. 2 The police are looking into the company's accounts. company's

The accounts ........................................... 3 They have fired him.

He ..................................................................... ......... 4 They accused him of theft. He ..................................................................... .......... 5 Somebody was interviewing the singer when I arrived. The singer ............................................................... .... 6 Will they finish work on the tunnel next year? Will work on tunnel ............................................... 7 I think they have misunderstood me. I think I ........................................................................ . 8 Somebody is following us. We .................................................................... .............. 9 The Queen is going laboratory. to open the new the

The company .......................................................... ........ 14 Nobody is using the car tonight. The car .................................................................... ......... 2. A special problem is posed by the passive transformation of verbs that have two objects in the active. Although with most verbs either object can become the subject of the passive sentence, it is more usual to make the indirect object the passive subject and with some verbs this is the only possibility. Make the following active sentences passive. 1 They gave a gold watch to Mr. Brown. Mr. Brown ............................................................... ........ 2 They warned me not to touch that button. I ........................................................................ ................ 3 They have already told me the news. I ........................................................................ ................ 4 Have they asked you to go to the party? Have you ................................................................... ...... 5 Somebody is sending me poison-pen letters.

The new laboratory ........................................................ 10 Somebody was shooting at us. We .................................................................... ...............

36
1. They think she is a spy. I ........................................................................ ................ 6 Why didn't somebody tell me that he was here? Why .............. I ................................................................ 7 They're going to offer the post to Ann. Ann ................................................................... ............... 8 They've told me to wait here. I ........................................................................ ................ 9 Did they teach you Greek at school? ............ you ................................................................... ... 10 They have granted permission to build to the company. The company .......................................................... ......... The passive voice of certain verbs of opinion and communication pose a special problem. In the passive the subject of the subordinate that clause can become the subject of the passive sentence, the verb of the that clause must then become an infinitive They believe that she is a genius It is believed that she is a genius She is believed to be a genius We must pay special attention to the infinitive. The progressive infinitive expresses limited duration and the perfect infinitive expresses past time: They think he is living in Paris He is thought to be living in Paris They say that he escaped He is said to have escaped They believe that he was lying He is believed to have been lying 3.Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings. She ................................................................ .............. 2. They say he is working for the competition. He ................................................................. .............. 3. There are rumours that he resigned last night. He ................................................................. .............. 4. They believe that he was organizing the campaign. He ................................................................. .............. 5. They report that the police have arrested him. The police ............................................................ ....... 6. They think that the company is hiding the truth. The company ....................................................... ....... 7. They say that the president was totally baffled. The president ....................................................... ....... 8. They report that the unions are planning a severe reply. The unions ............................................................ 4. Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings. 1 The user can train a neural network to behave in a given way.

A neural network .......................................................... 2 They say that the program compresses data very efficiently.

The program ................................................................. .

37
3 They fear that all the passengers have died. He ........................................................................... ....... 14 They say that travel broadens the mind. Travel ............................................................... ................ Solutions We .......................................................................... ....... 5 They used fuzzy logic to get over the problem. Passive Voice 1.

All the passengers ......................................................... 4 Nobody warned us about this problem.

Fuzzy logic .................................................................... 6 It is claimed that the up-grade is completely compatible with earlier versions.

1 A lot of coffee is grown in Brazil. 2 The company's accounts are being looked
into by (the police).

3 He has been fired. 4 He was accused of theft. 5 The singer was being interviewed when I
arrived. 6 Will work on the tunnel be finished next year. 7 I think I have been misunderstood. 8 We are being followed. 9 The new laboratory is going to be opened by the Queen. 10 We were being shot at. 11 Was the television invented by Baird? 12 The meeting has been put off. 13 The company is being completely reorganized. 14 The car isn't being used tonight. 2. The passive transformation of verbs that have two objects in the active.

The upgrade ................................................................. 7 They didn't ask me to tell you anything.

I .............................................................................. ........ 8 They are going to reject the proposal.

The proposal ................................................................. . 9 We all know that she was risking her life.

She ......................................................................... ........ 10 Will the author sign copies of the book? ................................................................ by the author? 11 The Commons tomorrow. will debate the issue

The issue ....................................................................... . 12 You should now refine the program. The program ................................................................. . 13 They think that he was selling state secrets.

1 Mr. Brown was given a gold watch. 2 I was warned not to touch that button. 3 I have already been told the news. 4 Have you been asked to go to the party? 5 I am being sent poison-pen letters. 6 Why wasn't I told that he was here? 7 Ann is going to be offered the post. 8 I was told to wait here. 9 Were you taught Greek at school? 10 The company has been granted
permission to build. 3. Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings.

1. She is thought to be a spy. 2. He is said to be working for the

competition.

3. He is rumoured to have resigned last 4.

night. He is believed to have been organizing the campaign.

38 5. The police are reported to have arrested

him.

6. The company is thought to be hiding the

truth.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

7. The president is said to have been totally 8.

baffled. The unions are reported to be planning a severe reply.

4. Rewrite the sentences with the new beginnings. 1 2 A neural network can be trained to behave in a given way (by the user). The program is said to compress data very efficiently.

All the passengers are feared to have died. We weren't warned about this problem. Fuzzy logic was used to get over the problem. The up-grade is claimed to be completely compatible with earlier versions. I wasn't asked to tell you anything. The proposal is going to be rejected. She is known to have been risking her life. Will copies of the book be signed by the author? The issue will be debated by the Commons tomorrow. The program should now be refined. He is thought to have been selling state secrets. Travel is said to broaden the mind.

MULTIWORD VERBS
Intransitive Phrasal Verbs The machine broke down/went down Phrasal Verbs: They carried the plan out They carried out the plan They carried it out They carried out it Prepositional Verbs: You can rely on Ann You can rely on her Phrasal Prepositional Verbs I won't put up with this situation I won't put up with it Multiword verb
to ask for something to bank on something/someone to be made up of some things/some people to be up to someone to break down to break into something to bring something about to carry on with something to carry something out to come up against something to come up with something to count on someone/something to depend on something/something to do without something to face up to something to figure something out to find something out to go down to let somebody down

Type of verb
prep. prep. phrasal-prep. phrasal-prep. intrans. prep. phrasal phrasal-prep. phrasal phrasal-prep. phrasal-prep. prep. prep. prep. phrasal-prep. phrasal phrasal intrans. phrasal

Meaning
to say that you want something to count on to be composed of the decision/choice corresponds to to stop working to enter illegally to cause to continue with to perform to meet with (a problem) to suggest/to think of to depend on to rely on to manage/survive without to recognise (an unpleasant fact) to find out by calculations or reasoning to discover to stop working to disappoint

39
to to to to to to to to to to look after something/someone look for something look something up pick something up point something out put up with something rely on someone run out of something turn X into Y work something out prep. prep. phrasal phrasal phrasal phrasal-prep. prep. phrasal-prep. prep. phrasal to take care of to seek to seek something in a book or list to lift to indicate linguistically to tolerate to depend on, to trust to have no more X left to convert X into Y to find out by calculations or reasoning

1. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate multiword verb, if there is an object, you must place in the correct position. 1 2 3 4 5 6 If you depend on something, you .............................. (it). If you discover something, you .............................. (it) If a computer stops working, it .............................. . If you think of or suggest the answer, you .............................. (it). If you use language to indicate a thing, you .............................. (it). If you convert a person into a frog, you .............................. him/her .............................. a frog. If you don't need tobacco to survive, you can .............................. (it). If you perform an operation, you .............................. (it). If you recognize an unpleasant fact, you .............................. (it). 13 If you seek something, you .............................. (it). 14 If you cause an accident, you .............................. (it). 15 If a machine stops working, it .............................. . 16 If you look for a word in a dictionary, you .............................. (it). 17 If you enter a place illegally, you .............................. (it). 18 If you take care of a person, you .............................. (him/her). 19 If you have no tea left, you have .............................. (it). 20 If you meet with a problem, you .............................. (it). 21 If you lift something from the floor, you .............................. (it) 22 If you say that you want a thing, you .............................. (it). 23 If a thing is composed of two parts, it is .............................. (them). 24 If you continue with your work, you .............................. (it). 25 If you can choose in a situation, we say it is .............................. (you). Solutions 1 If you depend on something, you rely/count/bank on it. 2 If you discover something, you find it out. 3 If a computer stops working, it goes down. 4 If you think of or suggest the answer, you come up with it. 5 If you use language to indicate a thing, you .point it out.

7 8 9

10 If you tolerate something, you .............................. (it). 11 If you disappoint a person you .............................. (him/her) 12 If you find something out by reasoning, you .............................. (it).

6 If you convert a person into a frog, you turn

him/her into a frog.

7 If you don't need tobacco to survive, you

can do without it.

8 If you perform an operation, you carry it 9

out. If you recognize an unpleasant fact, you face up to it.

40 10 If you tolerate something, you put up with

it. 11 If you disappoint a person you let him/her down. 12 If you find something out by reasoning, you work/figure it out. 13 If you seek something, you look for it. 14 If you cause an accident, you bring it about. 15 If a machine stops working, it breaks down. 16 If you look for a word in a dictionary, you look it up. 17 If you enter a place illegally, you break into it.

18 If you take care of a person, you look after

him/her.

19 If you have no tea left, you have run out of

it.

20 If you meet with a problem, you come up

against it.

21 If you lift something from the floor, you pick

it up.

22 If you say that you want a thing, you ask

for it. 23 If a thing is composed of two parts, it is made up of them. 24 If you continue with your work, you carry on with it. 25 If you can choose in a situation, we say it is up to you.