I. Art A.Introduction 1.

Art is a product of creative human activity in which materials are shaped or selected to convey an idea, emotion, or visually interesting form 2. The definition of art in Europe is more closed than the open definition above 3. For Europeans, art refers to the visual arts, including painting, sculpture, architecture, photography, decorative arts, crafts, and other visual works that combine materials or forms 4. The major difficulty in the definition of art lies in the fact that art implies valuemonetary, social, and intellectual a. Art is usually a very expensive object. b. Many objects we call art represent significant ideas, but some do not c. Artists are generally more concerned with how best to use materials to convey their ideas than with deciding what is or is not art 5. Art is a category with changing boundaries, not only in its general definition but also in its subdivisions 6. Qualities Associated with Art a. Originality products of artistry is not only original in the object itself but also original in the idea behind the work of art b. Individual Expression art must present the emotion of the artist creating it. c. Something to contemplate rather than use works of art must be meaningful. However, most of the time artworks do not have practical purpose B. History of Art 1. Antiquity: Art is a technique or skill a. Contrary to the qualities associated with art, the first artist were workers and skilled craftsmen who are more concerned in making and perfecting their craft rather than beautifying it b. Greeks i Art is techne: means work or technical skill ii Appreciation is mimesis: the imitation of reality c. Romans i Ars: a technique or a method of working but not to the expressive, creative activities associated with art 2. Middle Ages (350 - 1450): Art is Craftmanship a. Christianity dominated Western culture i Art taught the people to understand spirituality and religion ii The building of cathedrals and other Christian monuments employed hundreds of craftsmen to create artistic masterpieces for the medieval churches b. No particular form of art was considered superior during these times i High value was placed on small-scale luxury objects such as illuminated manuscripts, jewelry, and metal objects used in church services ii The great medieval cathedrals became the pride of entire cities iii Wealthy people decorated their homes with huge tapestries that told stories from mythology iv Even clothing could be elaborately decorated and express a persons status and moral views c. Masterpiece: this word came from a workshop tradition referring to the work of a craftsman at the end of his training to show that he acquired the skill of a master craftsman 3. Renaissance: Art is a design created by a genius a. Renaissance is an artistic and literary revival that began in 1400 b. Before 15th century i Guilds or trade associations of Italy painters were grouped with doctors because both used chemicals, ii Sculptors who worked in bronze were grouped with makers of armor

c. In 15th century i Painters and sculptors associated informally with poets, who occupied a higher social status because poetry had long been considered a higher art ii Books were written to explain the theory of art and architecture iii Artists claimed that they were inspired geniuses and not merely workers d. 16th century i Italian theorists began to group architecture, painting, and sculpture as the arts of disegno ii Disegno: (means drawing and design) creative activities that required an artist to visualize an idea and to transfer this idea to a drawing iii Narrative paintings (paintings that tell a story; also known as historia or history painting) became more valuable than other forms of paintings iv Narrative paintings became valuable pieces of art until 19th century 4. Modernity (17th 19th century): The Fine Arts a. 17th century: The early beginnings of fine arts i The 17th century movement began when artists across Europe were seeking more freedom because they feel that the freedom of the middle ages and of the renaissance is restrictive ii According to 17th century artists, this loss of freedom is a loss of artistic quality iii This began the academic life of art Academies emphasized ideas that connected the visual arts to the sciences or to literature The academies wanted to separate themselves from the workshops, where sign painting and figure painting were seen as two variations on the same craft Acadmie des Beaux-Arts or Academy of Fine Arts (founded in 1648, Paris, France) Fine arts are painting, sculpture and architecture Made drawing from the nude the cornerstone of its program Forced the passage of a law that prohibited figure drawing in any workshop other than the academy Considered those visual arts that did not use the human figure as crafts or mechanical arts that has a lower prestige than painting or sculpture b. 19th century: Art as Self-expression i There was the idea that artists should express their own subjective experiencewhat they personally feel about a theme or subject. This was a reaction to the 18th century feeling of artists that they lack emotional expression in their works of art ii Early 19th century: Romanticism Artists of the Romanticism (e.g. Eugne Delacroix) emphasized passionate expression This is an antiestablishment trend through its emphasis on passion, imagination, and escape from reality They chose subjects that criticized the government but still they followed academic principles of composition and technique iii Mid-19th century: Realism French artists promoted their individuality (e.g. Gustave Courbet) They not only chose subjects that the government might see as offensive, but also used techniques and compositions that went against academic teaching This is a reaction against the subjective expression of romanticism and demanded a return to depicting the actual appearance of things iv 1860: Impressionism (e.g. douard Manet) Realism led in the 1860 and 1870 efforts by the impressionists to record light and color as we see them

Then later on, created the reaction that light and color provided a way for artists to express what they felt and not what they saw. This is known as Postimpressionism 5. 20th century to present: Contemporary Art and Postmodernity a. Many trends have developed, including some that seek to destroy our definitions of art b. Artists of the dada movement or Dadaism (early 20th century) created works and sponsored events that pointed out the absurdity of all definitions i Marcel Duchamp (1917): painted a urinal turned on its back, titled Fountain, and signed with a fictitious name (R. Mutt) that plays on the urinal manufacturers name (J. R. Mott) rather than Duchamps own name. ii Jasper Johns (1960): painted flags and Andy Warhols painted soup can labels c. Contemporary artists, aware of earlier traditions, can choose to work in traditional media (painting, sculpture, printmaking), combine media (collage and assemblage), or avoid the traditional categories entirely i Christo and Robert Smithson: have rearranged the natural landscape in ways that cannot really be called architecture, landscape architecture, or sculpture ii Some artists focused attention on the monetary value we give to what we call art by creating works that cannot be sold d. Artists today can ignore the line that the Academy of Fine Arts and other academies drew to separate fine art from craft, or they can affirm essential differences between one art form and another according to their beliefs C. Other Concepts in Art 1. Criticisms on the History of Art a. The general history of art is based on a western perspective i Westerners tend to impose Western categories and Western values on the art of other cultures ii Eastern interpretation of art is ritualistic, symbolic and tradition based art b. Chinese Art In Chinese art, individual strokes of ink themselves conveyed meaning and were not simply a way to represent the subject Artists in China were carefully trained to form a variety of strokes, a skill very close to the art of calligraphy Chinese writings about art set calligraphy above all other art forms, rather than painting, sculpture, and architecture Chinese artists even thought of the inkstone on which they prepared their inks as an art object in itself, whereas Western painters give little thought to how their tubes of paint or palettes look c. African Art (Africa, Egypt and Ethiopia) African language of art means accomplishment, skill and value Closely related to their culture and to their beliefs. To some extent, artworks are pieces that are used in rituals. 2. Fine Arts and Other Arts i The fine arts use the human figure as their subject ii they can convey ideas or moral values iii they are interpreted or discussed in theoretical writings iv they can be appreciated for their own sake, without regard to their usefulness D.Elements of Art 1. Composition a. Refers to the arrangement of elements in a work of art b. Techniques: balanced and symmetrical, swirling and dynamic, even chaotic and seemingly random 2. Illusionism

a. It is the illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface b. Techniques: overlapping shapes, use of light-to-dark shading, use of full linear perspective c. Perspective creates the illusion of three-dimensionality through lines that seem to extend back in space and meet at a single point known as the vanishing point 3. Realism, Naturalism and Idealism a. are used to describe how closely objects seen in a work of art resemble those we experience in everyday life b. Realism is a precise copying of the actual appearance of object c. Naturalism is a way of depicting objects as they might exist. This implies a certain amount of improvement of the actual appearance d. Idealism refers to a perfected, or idealized, view of nature. this idealized image comes from an idea in the mind, rather than anything actually observed in nature 4. Abstraction and non-objective a. Abstract and nonobjective are terms most often used in reference to modern art, although abstraction also commonly occurs in ancient art and in the art of many world cultures b. Abstraction usually begins with a recognizable object, that the artist then simplifies to show some purer underlying form c. . Nonobjective art goes a step further and removes any references to recognizable objects 5. Expression a. This is a technique that an artist use to express the emotions that they feel when creating the artwork. b. Basic Techniques i Clashing colors or rough brushstrokes often convey violent emotions ii Gentle curves and subdued colors can elicit quieter emotions 6. Style a. Style refers to the distinctive and identifiable quality of the artwork created by the artist b. This can be divided into either the personal style of the artist and the style of the period to which the artist belongs 7. Subject Matter refers to the object of the artwork whether it comes from literature, mythology or from the real world. II. Painting A.Techniques 1. Fresco painting = involves the application of paint to wet or fresh plaster or to dry plaster 2. Tempera painting = involves the use of powdered pigments mixed with egg yolk applied to a prepared surface 3. Oil painting = art of applying oil-based colors to a surface to create a picture or other design 4. Watercolor painting = a technique of painting in which only gray tones are used 5. Enamel painting = involves the spreading of white enamel paste over a surface to achieve a relief effect 6. Encaustic painting = involves a painting in a medium that combines dry colors with heat softened wax or resin 7. Gouache painting = a form of watercolor that uses opaque pigments rather than the usual transparent watercolor pigments. Gouache colors are produced by adding white pigment to regular watercolor paint 8. Grisaille painting = a technique of painting in which only gray tones are used B. Historical Background 1. Cave paintings in Spain and Southern France portray horses, bisons and deers with accuracy 2. Egyptian paintings are done in tombs with mythological representations and scenes from everyday activities. These paintings are conceptual in nature. 3. Minoan paintings are lively, realistic paintings on the walls of their palaces in Crete and in their potteries. a. Toreador Fresco = shows a ritual game in which performers somersault over a bull's back. b. Dolphin Fresco = creates a marine subject on the walls of the palace of King Minos in Knossos

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c. Octopus Vase = a globular container decorated with octopus tentacles that undulate around the pot, defining and emphasizing its shape Greek paintings have naturalistic representations of mythological scenes on potteries Roman paintings can be seen in roman villas as mosaic floors and wall frescoes portraying rituals, myths, landscapes, still-life, and scenes of daily activities. These paintings use aerial perspective to achieve spatial effects and illusions of reality. Most roman paintings today are found in the remains of the City of Pompeii and Herculaneum Early Christian and Byzantine Paintings. a. Surviving Early Christian painting dates from the 3rd and 4th centuries and consists of fresco paintings in the Roman catacombs and mosaics on the walls of churches. Certain stylizations and artistic conventions are characteristic of these representations of New Testament events. b. Byzantine paintings contain otherworldly presentations. This style came to be associated with the Imperial Christian Court of Constantinople (present-day stanbul). i The Byzantine style is also seen on icons, conventionalized paintings on wooden panels of Christ, the Virgin, or the saints, made for veneration. ii Illuminated manuscripts both of non-Christian texts (e.g. Vatican Virgil) and Christian writings (e.g. Paris Psalter) show remnants of Greco-Roman art style Medieval Paintings outside the Byzantine Empire a. Anglo-Irish art (7th - 9th century) i Found in monasteries in various parts of the British Isles ii Contains largely an art of intricate calligraphic designs b. Romanesque period (11th 12th century) i no single style appeared in the manuscripts of northern Europe ii some illuminations were of classical inspiration, while others show a new, highly charged, energetic drawing style c. Gothic period (later part of the 12th century to the beginning of the Italian Renaissance) i A larger repertoire of media was introduced ii Painting ceased to be entirely the product of the monasteries. Gothic Painting a. Cathedral structures gave emphasis to windows and stained glass occupied a more prominent role in the arts than did manuscript illumination b. Paintings of secular subjects also survive from this period International Gothic Style a. It is a product of the merging of artistic traditions of northern Europe and Italy that took place at the beginning of the 15th century b. It has an attention to realistic detail that shows the artist's acute observation of human beings and of nature Renaissance Painting a. The achievements of antiquity were revered, but at the same time a virtual rebirth of human potential occurred when new authority was accorded the individual's direct observations b. Early Renaissance Painting i The development of the principles of linear perspective by various architects and sculptors early in the 15th century enabled painters to achieve in two-dimensional representation the illusion of threedimensional space ii Innovations were also made in representing human anatomy and in exploiting new media, with oil painting competing with the general use of the tempera and fresco techniques c. High Renaissance Painting i The masters of the High Renaissance were Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, and Titian

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ii Da Vinci left but a handful of paintings because he was so occupied with the scientific observation of phenomena and with technological inventions. Da Vinci attempted to use oil pigments on dry plaster. His surviving fresco paintings have badly deteriorated (e.g. The Last Supper) iii Raphael perfected earlier Renaissance discoveries in matters of color and composition, creating ideal types in his representations (e.g. The Virgin and Child) iv Michaelangelo created the Vatican's Sistine Chapel in Rome, with its ceiling frescoes of the Creation and the Fall and the vast wall fresco of the Last Judgment v Titians work portraits demonstrate a profound understanding of human nature. His masterpieces also include representations of Christian and mythological subjects, and his numerous renderings of the female nude are among the most celebrated of the genre. Mannerism a. It is a self-conscious and somewhat artificial style that arose in Italy in 1520 b. Complexity and distortion were emphasized rather than harmony of line, color, or composition c. E.g. Pontormo, Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino, Tintoretto, and Agnolo Bronzino and El Greco (View of Toledo was known for its apocalyptic meaning) Baroque Painting a. It is a 17th century reaction against mannerist art by attempting to emulate more closely to the natural world. b. It is characterized by its dynamic appearance, in contrast to the relatively static classical style of the Renaissance c. Typical of the baroque style are diagonal compositional lines, which give a sense of movement, and use of strong chiaroscuro (contrasts of light and shadow) d. Both these techniques created a grandiose, dramatic style appropriate to the vital spirit of the Counter Reformation Rococo painting a. flourished in France and Germany in the early 18th century, was in many respects a continuation of the baroque, particularly in the use of light and shadow and compositional movement b. However, Rococo is a lighter, more playful style, that are highly suited to the decoration of city residences c. Example i William Hogarth = known for his moralistic narrative paintings and engravings satirizing contemporary social follies (Marriage la Mode: traces the ruinous course of marriage for money) ii Thomas Gainsborough and Sir Joshua Reynolds = concentrated on portraits of the English aristocracy. The verve and grace of their paintings and their astute psychological interpretations raise them from mere society portraiture to an incomparable record of period manners, costumes, and landscape moods Neoclassical Painting a. Developed as an 18th century revolution in painting against the exuberant Rococo style b. It was influenced by the following i much archaeological excavation began to be done in the mid-18th century in Italy and Greece; books were published containing drawings of ancient buildings, which were eagerly copied by English and French architects ii n 1755 the German art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann published his influential essay Gedanken ber die Nachahmung der Griechischen Werke in der Malerei und Bildhauerkunst (Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture), praising Greek sculpture. This work impressed, among others, four foreign artists living in Rome. They were the Scotsman Gavin Hamilton, the German Anton Raphael Mengs, the Swiss Angelica Kauffmann, and the American Benjamin West; all were inspired to create paintings with themes based on classical literature.

15. Romantic Painting a. The Romantic Movement introduced a taste for the medieval and the mysterious, as well as a love of the picturesque and sublime in nature b. This is characterized by a play of individual imagination and giving expression to emotion and mood. c. In effect, romantic paintings superseded the reasoned intellectual approach of the neoclassicists as generally, romantic painters favored coloristic and painterly techniques over the linear, cool-toned neoclassic style d. e.g. i Caspar David Friedrich = used landscapes to imbue hypnotic pictures with religious mysticism, portraying the earth undergoing transformations at dawn and sunset, or in the fog and mists, perhaps alluding thereby to the transience of life ii Baron Antoine Jean Gros = portrayed Napoleon in full regalia and in large canvases, vividly depicted the Napoleonic campaigns iii Thodore Gricault = made dramatic and monumental interpretations of actual events. His Raft of the Medusa endows the suffering of the survivors of a shipwreck with a heroic quality. iv John Constable and Joseph Mallord William Turner = both artists were ultimately concerned with depicting the effects of light and atmosphere. Constable had a factual and scientific approach and painted numerous studies of cloud formations and made notes on light and weather conditions. However, his canvasses are poetic, expressing the cultivated gentleness of the English countryside. Turnersought the sublime in nature, painting cataclysmic snowstorms or depicting the elements earth, air, fire, and waterin a sweeping, nearly abstract manner. His way of dissolving forms in light and veils of color was to play an important role in the development of French impressionist painting th 16. 19 century non-romantic paintings a. Realism i Started in the middle of 19th century when Gustave Courbet, rejecting both neoclassicism and romanticism, proclaimed a one-man movement called realism Courbet believed that an artist should be realistic and paint everyday events involving ordinary people Courbets subjects were laborers building a road, townspeople attending a funeral, or men sitting around the dinner table listening to music and smoking ii Other Realists Honor Daumier = known for his lithographs and painted small realistic canvases of Paris street life Jean Millet, of the Barbizon school, is sometimes termed a social realist th b. Late 19 century American Painting i Winslow Homer = explored humanity's struggle against the forces of nature in numerous oils and watercolors of the sea and shore ii Thomas Eakins = used light with great effectiveness in his powerful realistic paintings of surgeons (e.g. The Gross Clinic) and a series of portrayals of rowers on the Schuylkill River, meticulously planned and executed in every detail. iii Albert Pinkham Ryder = turned from external reality to explorations of the interior self. He also made reduction of objects to patterns and silhouettes which have affinities with the symbolists. 17. Impressionism a. douard Manet (also referred to as the first modern painter) was the major innovator of the 1860s, and his style was a precursor of impressionism b. The impressionist style was evolved by painters who were increasingly interested in studying the effects of light on objects and in transferring their observations directly to the canvas. Their disregard

for exact details of form and their use of small, separate touches of pure color aroused the animosity of both the critics and the public. c. e.g. Claude Monet = his chief interest was landscape, which he rendered in all kinds of weather and in various seasons; he captured the sparkling effects of sunlight on trees in springtime and the drab light of winter on snow-tracked ground Camille Pissarro = favorite motifs were landscapes, river scenes, views of Paris streets, and figures of peasants at work 18. Postmodernist Movements a. Three major artists of the late 19th century showed influences of impressionism in their early works but went on to develop distinctively individual postimpressionist styles: i Vincent van Gogh experimented briefly with color division Typical of his developed style was the use of pure color applied thickly in flickering strokes, conveying intense emotional expression Many of his canvases, especially those of wind-tossed cypress trees and wheat fields under stormy skies, are expressions of his own moods as reflected in the forces of nature ii Paul Gauguin His work displays distortions of line and color, but it is quite different from van Gogh's, being symbolic rather than expressionistic Areas of flat, bold colors form decorative patterns, heavily outlined Gauguin was the central figure of a new movement known as synthetism or symbolism; his immediate followers, a group active during the 1890s, were called the Nabis. iii Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec Toulouse-Lautrec was largely a painter of people, choosing as his subjects cabaret singers, dance-hall performers, and prostitutes; these figures were an expression of the social decay of Paris in the so-called Gay Nineties he was influenced by the flat style and seemingly casual composition of Japanese prints Toulouse-Lautrec's excellent sense of line is seen also in his drawings and color lithographs; he contributed greatly to this last medium, particularly with his posters for the Moulin Rouge and other Parisian places of entertainment 19. Paintings before the World War II a. Fauvism (from fauves: wild beast) i Developed when the German and French artists in the turn of the century became interested in aboriginal art ii They rejected the impressionist palette of soft, shimmering tones in favor of the violent colors used by the postimpressionists Paul Gauguin and Vincent van Gogh for expressive emphasis. iii They achieved a poetic energy through vigorous line, simplified yet dramatic surface pattern, and intense color. b. Expressionism i It is a movement involving artists more concerned with recording subjective feelings and responses, via distortions of line and color, than with the faithful representation of outer reality ii It is a movement or tendency that strives to express subjective feelings and emotions rather than to depict reality or nature objectively c. Cubism i developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in Paris between 1907 and 1914 ii emphasizes the flatness of the picture plane, or surface, and rejects traditional perspective, foreshortening, modeling, and chiaroscuro

iii Cubist paintings create an ambiguous sense of space through geometric shapes that flatten and simplify form, spatial planes that are broken into fragments, and forms that overlap and penetrate one another. iv Art historians generally consider cubism to have been the most influential art movement of the first half of the 20th century. d. Abstract Painting i First developed in Germany, the United States, Russia, and the Netherlands in the second decade of the 20th century ii It can be considered as a major evolution of cubism iii It uses forms having no direct reference to external or perceived reality iv The term abstract also refers to images that have been abstracted or derived from nature, but which in the process have been considerably altered or have been simplified to their basic geometric or biomorphic forms. e. Dadaism (from Dada: hobbyhorse) i It developed as a reaction of a group of war resisters in Zurich, Switzerland during the World War I ii This was developed to show their disgust of the bourgeois values iii The word Dada is used to describe their protest activities and the art they created in defiance of established aesthetic criteria f. Surrealism i This art movement is considered as the successor of Dadaism. ii Andr Breton (1924) = gave surrealism its name and manifesto, asserting the superiority of the unconscious and the role of dreams in artistic creation 20. Post World War II Paintings a. Abstract Expressionism i Developed from surrealism when European refugees, who happen to be surrealists, centered their artistic activities in New York City in 1940 to 1950 ii Abstract Expressionism favored surrealist automatism (a technique similar to automatic writing) and expressionism, were known as gestural painters iii It is a movement that is more concerned with the spontaneous assertion of the individual through the act of painting iv The movement contains a variety of styles and is characterized more by the concepts behind the art than by a specific look. v Abstract expressionist art is without recognizable images and does not adhere to the limits of conventional form vi Has the most intense subjectivism of all artistic movements b. Op Art and Pop Art i Op Art = relies heavily in abstraction producing generally abstract optical illusions for its effect ii Pop Art = started by Richard Hamilton. It is witty and representational and draw imagery from advertising billboards, movies, comic strips, and ordinary, everyday objects c. Neo-Realism i Had elements of realism combined with some of the aesthetic concerns of abstract art d. Minimalism i This developed as a reaction against the extreme subjectivism of abstract expressionism which moved abstract painting toward a more impersonal, rigorous formal purity ii Characterized by abstract painting being reduced to simple geometric forms, rhythmic patterns, or single colors e. Neo-Expressionism i It is a product of the rebellion of young European and American artists in 1980s against the austere, impersonal formalist purity oof much abstract art (Minimalism) ii Most neoexpressionists avoided any attempt at realistic depiction, instead employing rough brushwork and bold color to convey their highly subjective, often ambiguous and cryptic visions III. Sculpture (from Sculpere: to carve) A.Basic Concepts

1. three-dimensional art concerned with the organization of masses and volumes 2. The processes specific to making sculpture date from antiquity and, up to the 20th century, underwent only minor variations 3. Materials and Techniques a. Sculpture can be made from almost any organic or inorganic substance stone, metal, clay, wood and neon tubing b. Methods are Carving, Modeling, Casting, Welding and Assemblage c. Carving i A procedure dating from prehistoric times, carving is a time-consuming and painstaking process ii The artist subtracts, or cuts away, superfluous material until the desired form is reached d. Modeling i Modeling consists of addition to, or building up of, form. ii The materials used are soft and yielding and can be easily shaped, enabling rapid execution. iii Clay or claylike substances, baked to achieve increased durability, have been used for modeling since ancient times e. Casting i The only means of obtaining permanence for a modeled work is to cast it in bronze or some other durable substance ii Basic methods are: cire perdue, or lost-wax process and sand-casting iii Stages First, an impression or negative mold is formed from the original Second, a positive cast or reproduction is made of the original work from the negative impression f. Construction and Assemblage i These methods have their origin in collage, a painting technique devised by Pablo Picasso and the French artist Georges Braque in 1912, in which paper and foreign materials are pasted to a picture surface ii Picasso also made three-dimensional objects such as musical instruments out of paper and scraps of diverse materials, which were termed constructions iii The term assemblage, which is now sometimes used interchangeably with construction, was coined by the French painter Jean Dubuffet to refer to his own work, which grew out of collage B. History 1. Prehistoric Sculpture a. The earliest sculptured objects, cut from ivory, horn, bone, or stone, are 27,000 to 32,000 years old b. A small ivory horse with graceful, curving lines is among the oldest of these objects; it was found in a cave in Germany c. Also found on cave floors are little stone female figurines carved with emphasis on the reproductive organs, the breasts, and the buttocks. These figures are thought to represent fertility goddesses and therefore are given the name Venus. d. One such figure, the Venus figurine from the area of Willendorf, Austria, with bulbous proportions although a mere 11.5 cm (4.5 in) high, was painted red to resemble blood, thereby signifying life. e. In Jericho, human skulls covered with plaster were naturalistically rendered some 9000 years ago 2. Egyptian Sculpture a. The earliest Egyptian sculpture is the Palette of King Narmer. i It portrays the victory of Upper over Lower Egypt, depicting the kings, armies, servants, and various animals. ii Strong geometric emphasis was given to the body, with the shoulders and chest plane resembling an inverted triangle, as in a carved diorite sculpture of the pharaoh Khafre.

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b. During the reign of Akhenaton, greater naturalism of representation was attained, as seen in the exquisite painted limestone portrait bust of his queen Nefertiti Mesopotamian Sculpture a. Mesopotamian art includes several civilizations: Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian b. About 2600 BC the Sumerians carved small marble deities noted for their wide, staring eyes. Other detailshair, facial expression, body, clothingwere schematically treated with little interest in achieving a likeness. These qualities remained characteristic of later Mesopotamian sculpture. c. The Mesopotamians were also fond of portraying animals and did so with great skill, as can be seen on palace gates and reliefs on walls during the Assyrian period Aegean and Greek Sculpture a. Aegean art includes Minoan sculpture, such as terra-cotta and ivory statuettes of goddesses, and Mycenaean works, consisting of small carved ivory deities. b. The Greeks, masters of stone carving and bronze casting, created some of the greatest sculpture known. Working on a monumental scale, they brought depiction of the human form to perfection between the 7th and 1st centuries BC. c. In the earliest period, the Archaic, figures appeared rigid and bodies were schematized along geometric lines, as in Egyptian art. d. By the Classical period, in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, however, naturalism was attained; figures were well proportioned and shown in movement, although faces remained immobile. Gods and athletes were favorite subjects during this period; the most famous sculptors were Phidias, Polyclitus, Praxiteles, and Lysippus. e. Highly esteemed is the architectural sculpture made for the Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens, such as Three Goddesses, whose rhythmically swirling drapery clings to their reclining bodies. f. During the Hellenistic period, works became increasingly expressive, as reflected in the facial features and complicated body positions. The Nike of Samothrki, or Winged Victory, is a highly dramatic masterpiece from this time. Etruscan and Roman Sculpture a. Etruscans, who inhabited the area of Italy between Florence and Rome (8 th - 3rd century BC) made lifesize terra-cotta sculptures portraying the gods. b. They also depicted themselves, in reclining positions, on the lids of terra-cotta sarcophagi c. The Romans were avid collectors and imitators of Greek sculpture, and modern historians are indebted to their copies for knowledge of lost Greek originals. d. Their distinctive contribution to the art of sculpture was realistic portraiture, in which they recorded even the homeliest facial details. e. The Romans' sense of the importance of historic events is evident in many sculptured commemorative monuments in Rome, such as the Arch of Titus, Trajan's Column, and the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius Early Christian Sculpture a. Surviving examples of Early Christian sculpture date from the 4th century b. These works stylistically no longer corresponded to the classical ideal of beauty. c. Early Christians carved the marble sarcophagus of Junius Bassus portrays ten biblical scenes; its figures are oddly proportioned, wearing drapery that falls in rather monotonous folds. d. The Early Christian Sculpture Style called Late Antique is the result of influences from invading Germanic tribes and may be the work of less skilled artists e. As the centuries passed, sculpture had a diminished role because of the biblical prohibition of graven images. f. Instead of life- size statuary, small-scale sculptures were made: portable ivory altarpieces, diptychs (two hinged panels of carved ivory), or little enameled caskets in the Byzantine style.

7. Scandinavian and Carolingian Sculpture

a. During the early Middle Ages in northern Europe, particularly from the 9th to the 12th century, Scandinavian artisans were masters of metalwork and woodcarving. b. The prow posts and sternposts of Viking ships, sleds, and other objects of daily use were decorated with figures of animals that were transformed into semiabstract linear patterns. c. The Norwegian stave churches (11th and 12th centuries) are profusely decorated in carved wood of the same design. This style, combining organic and abstract shapes, was also important in Celtic-Germanic art. d. Little sculpture has survived from the Carolingian period, despite Charlemagne's great interest in the arts and his revival of classicism. e. A 9th-century bronze statuette depicting Charlemagne on a horse, with his crown, sword, and imperial globe, is evidence of knowledge of Roman sculpture. 8. Romanesque Sculpture a. The revival of monumental stone sculpture, an art that had virtually disappeared with the ancients, took place in the Romanesque period, during the 11th and 12th centuries. b. Churches in southern France display on their exteriors an abundance of sculpture, meant to attract and to instruct the worshiper. Attached to the stonework rather than freestanding, the carved image becomes an integral part of the architecture, conforming in design to the area where it was placed portal, tympanum, or jamb. c. A favorite subject was the Last Judgment, with angels and demons vividly portrayed. d. Different styles are apparent: On some churches, such as those at Moissac, Autun, or Vzelay, a nervous intensity is conveyed; on others, such as those at Toulouse or Saint-Gilles-du-Gard, serene classicism is evident. 9. Gothic Sculpture a. In the Gothic period, remarkable sculpture was produced in France, Germany and Italy. As in Romanesque times, much of it was made in conjunction with church architecture, although sculptured figures are also found on tombs, pulpits, and other church furnishings. b. Frances Chartres Cathedral: i West entrance (built in the mid-12th century) displays rigid, columnar figures with schematic drapery and similar, almost undifferentiated facial expressions ii North and South transepts: show greater differentiation of personality and costume, and even convey movement by means of a Gothic S-curve given to the axis of the body iii Chartres Cathedral sculptures: It gives biblical narratives and depictions of various saints and also portrays astrology. It depicts the life of the medieval age the labors of the months, the liberal arts, and the virtues and vices portrayed c. Germanys Naumburg Cathedral i Gothic sculpture frequently shows an emotional intensity and characteristic German expressionism ii Medieval passion plays were a source of inspiration to many of the Gothic sculptors of northern Europe. iii Pathos is conveyed in the 13th-century choir-screen carvings, at Naumburg Cathedral, of the crucifixion and the kiss of Judas. d. Italys Roman Influence i Gothic Italy can be found in their acquaintance with the Roman works such as the sarcopahgus ii Nicola Pisano: created a marble pulpit, with a strong classical flavor in its architectural elements and sculptured panels, for the baptistery of Pisa Cathedral in the mid-13th century. 10. Italian Renaissance Sculpture (early 15th century) a. It was influenced by the interest of artists and scholars of Italy in the ancient past

b. Lorenzo Ghiberti: casted two sets of bronze doors for the Florence Baptistery (Gates of Paradise). These works show his mastery of the laws of scientific perspective and his knowledge of ancient sculpture. c. Donatello was the greatest sculptor of the early Renaissance. His works demonstrate that he was not only a master stonecutter, but also possessed a profound understanding of human psychology. i St. George: represented sheathed in armor, his sensitive face shows he is not invulnerable. ii Mary Magdalen: a carved wood statue, polychromed and gilded. Customarily portrayed as a beautiful young woman with lovely long hair, this Magdalen is a semitoothless, emaciated old woman with tangled hair almost to her feet. d. Jacopo della Quercia of Siena: i Creation of Adam, Temptation, and Expulsion from Eden: made for the main portal of San Petronio in Bologna. It shows Adam as an idealized, muscular body, like the Greek statues of gods and athletes; Eve's body and pose are based on the type known as the Venus pudica, or modest Venus. e. Michelangelo: i Piet and David ii Moses: for the tomb of Pope Julius II iii Michelangelo's earlier nude sculpture displays harmonious proportions, the reclining allegorical figures on the tombs, representing the four times of day, show bodily distortions and complexities of pose indicating his departure from High Renaissance ideals. iv His later works, such as the Piet (1554?-1564?, Castello Sforzesco, Milan), are also anticlassical. 11. Mannerist Sculpture a. Characterized by complexity, distortion, and artifice b. Italy i Benvenuto Cellini Widely known for an elegant gold and enamel saltcellar displaying graceful nude figures with elongated proportions, made for King Francis I of France ii Francesco Primaticcio Made elaborate stucco sculptures decorate major rooms in the Palace of Fontainebleau iii Giambologna. Made the Rape of the Sabine Woman which consist of three figures in twisting poses spiraling upward. This work demonstrated a mannerist ideal of complexity of form c. France (tomb sculptures) i Jean Goujon but best known are his reliefs depicting gracefully draped water nymphs for the Fountain of the Innocent ii Germain Pilon made a sculpture in the tomb figure of Valentine Balbiani which is most impressive for its realism and technical skill. It is made of delicately carved marble relief portrays the decaying corpse of Valentine Balbiani. 12. Baroque and Rococo Sculpture a. Italy i Gianlorenzo Bernini His works are highly dramatic, and their depth of emotional expression suited the intense spirit of the Counter Reformation His works are characterized by a strong interplay of light, shadow, and movement characterizes Apollo and Daphne: which also shows his incredible technical virtuosity in handling marble David: in sharp contrast to Michelangelo's restrained, classical representation of David. It is a self-contained contemplative figure, shown before his encounter with Goliath.

Cathedra Petri (Chair of Saint Peter) Ecstasy of Saint Teresa: shows how Bernini united the sensual with the spiritual experience in an unprecedented manner b. France and Germany i Franois Girardon (France): garden sculptures at the Palace of Versailles ii Pierre Puget(France): made sculptural portal for the Htel de Ville in Toulon and the marble Milo of Crotona 13. Neoclassical Sculpture (Latter half of 18 th century) a. Inspired by the archaeological excavations taking place in Italy and Mediterranean area and also influenced by the essay written by the German art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann praising ancient Greek sculpture b. e.g.
i Antonio Canova: Perseus with Medusa's Head and Venus Victrix ii Bertel Thorvaldsen: Jason iii Johan Tobias Sergel: Faun, and Mars and Venus iv Jean-Antoine Houdon: George Washington and Diana 14. Romantic Sculpture a. Franois Rude: Departure of the Volunteers (La Marseillaise) which shows a great winged figure personifying Liberty is shown above a group of men. She is rushing forward, screaming, urging them on to battle b. Jean Baptiste Carpeaux: La Danse c. Auguste Rodin: i His works reveal the inner life of the human being through gestures and attitudes of the body ii Examples are: Man with the Broken Nose, The Kiss, The Thinker, and Adam 15. 20
th

century sculptures

a. Biomorphic sculpture b. Cubist sculptures c. Constructivist Sculptures i Asserts the dynamics of sculptural space rather than the immobility of mass

ii developed primarily in Russia d. Dadaism and Surrealism e. Futurist Scuptures f. Figural and Abstract Sculptures g. Assemblage and Junk Sculptures IV. Architecture
A. Architecture is a social art 1. 2. Architecture is the practice of building design and its resulting products; customary usage refers only to those designs and structures that are culturally significant Architecture must satisfy its intended uses, must be technically sound, and must convey aesthetic meaning. But the best buildings are often so well constructed that they outlast their original use. They then survive not only as beautiful objects, but as documents of the history of cultures, achievements in architecture that testify to the nature of the society that produced them.

3. Architectural form is inevitably influenced by the technologies applied, but building technology is
conservative and knowledge about it is cumulative.

a. Precast concrete has not rendered brick obsolete. Although design and construction have become
highly sophisticated and are often computer directed, this complex apparatus rests on preindustrial traditions inherited from millennia during which most structures were lived in by the people who erected them.

b. The technical demands on building remain the elemental onesto exclude enemies, to circumvent
gravity, and to avoid discomforts caused by an excess of heat or cold or by the intrusion of rain, wind, or vermin.

B. Brief History 1. Mesopotamia a. Today as the greater part of modern Iraq, comprises the lower valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers

b. The Assyrian city of Khorsabad, built of clay and brick in the reign of Sargon II (722-705 BC), was
excavated as early as 1842, and much of its general plan is known

c. Khorsabad became the basis for the study of Mesopotamian architecture, because the far older
cities of Babylon and Ur were not discovered and excavated until the late 19th and 20th centuries.

d. Early Persian architecture left the great royal compound of Persepolis (518-460 BC), created by
Darius the Great, and several nearby rock-cut tombs, all north of Shrz in Iran.

2. Egypt a. Built their urban culture through the construction of cities made of granite, sandstone and limestone b. Each Egyptian ruler was obsessed with constructing a tomb for himself more impressive and longer
lasting than that of his predecessors

c. These immense monuments testify to the pharaohs vast social control and also to the fascination of
their architects with abstract, perfect geometrical forms, a concern that reappears frequently throughout history

d. Egyptians built temples to dignify the ritual observances of those in power and to exclude others. i Temples were built within walled enclosures with great columned halls (hypostyles) turning
inward, visible from a distance only as a sheer mass of masonry

ii This produced a hierarchical linear sequence of spaces led to successively more privileged
precincts.

iii This Egyptian design made the birth of the concept of axis, which in the Egyptian temples was
greatly extended by avenues of sphinxes in order to intensify the climactic experience of the approaching participants.

3. India a. The Indian commemorative monument takes the form of large hemispherical mounds called stupas b. In the early period of monastery and temple building, shrines were sculpted out of the solid rock of
cliffs. Examples are Ellora and Ajanta in the northeast of Bombay which are artificial caves which were built for centuries.

c. As the art of temple building developed, construction by subtraction gave way to the more
conventional method of adding stones to form a structure with more concern for sculptural mass than for enclosed volume

4. Southeast Asia a. In Southeast Asia a Buddhist temple is called a wat. The most famous of these, and perhaps also
the largest known, is Angkor Wat in central Cambodia, built in the early 12th century under the long-dominant Khmer dynasty.

b. Angkor Wat is a richly sculptured stone complex, it rises 61 m (200 ft) and is approached by a
ceremonial bridge 183 m (600 ft) long that spans the surrounding moat.

5. China a. China has a traditional reverence toward ancestors; the stable and hierarchical life of the Chinese
extended family is proverbial. It is reflected in the formality of the Chinese house, built in rectangular form, preferably at the northern end of a walled courtyard entered from the south, with auxiliary elements disposed in a symmetrical fashion on either side of the north-south axis. This pattern was the point of departure for more lavish programs for mansions, monasteries, palaces, and, eventually, whole cities.

b. City of Beijing: Divided by two contiguous rectangles The Inner City and the Outer City. The Inner
City contains the Imperial City, which in turn contains the Forbidden City, which sheltered the imperial court and the imperial family.

6. Japan

a. The Japanese express a deep poetic response to nature, and their houses are more concerned with achieving a satisfying relationship with earth, water, rocks, and trees than with establishing a social order. This approach is epitomized in the Katsura Detached Palace (1st half of the 17th century), designed and built by a master of the tea ceremony. Its constructions ramble in a seemingly casual way, but in reality constitutes a carefully considered sequence always integrated with vistas to or from outdoor features.

b. Japan had already perfected timber prototypes early in its history. The Ise Shrine, on the coast
southwest of Tokyo, dates from the 5th or 6th century; it is scrupulously rebuilt every 20 years. Its principal building, within a rectangular compound containing auxiliary structures, is a timber treasure house elevated on wooden posts buried in the ground and crowned by a massive roof of thatch. Lacking both bracketing and trussing, the ridge is supported by a beam or ridgepole held up by fat posts at the middle of each gabled end; the forked rafters, joining atop the ridgepole, exert no outward thrust. This tiny but beautifully proportioned and crafted monument is an excellent example of the understated subtlety of the art of Japan.

7. Pre-Columbian Architecture a. Found in the stone and adobe buildings in the Pueblos of Sonora, Mexico, and of Arizona and New
Mexico (? 1300). b. The Spanish conquistador Hernn Corts encountered the Aztecs in 1519 and within two years had destroyed their capital city, Tenochtitln, where Mexico City now stands. But he passed over the nearby center of the older Teotihuacn culture (100 BC AD 700), which has now been extensively restored and excavated. Teotihuacn contains two immense pyramids of the sun and of the moon that recall those of Egypt. They are arranged, along with other monuments and plazas, on a north-south axis at least 3 km in length, and the complex is embedded in what was a vast city, laid out accurately in blocks. c. The Maya civilization had existed for 2700 years when first confronted by the Spanish in the 17th century, but its greatest building periods fall within the 4th to the 11th century. The Maya occupied every part of the Yucatn Peninsula, the principal sites, in roughly the order of their development, being Copn (Honduras), Tikal (Guatemala), Palenque, Uxmal, Chichn Itz, and Tulum (Mexico). The important ceremonial monuments found in these centers are of stone; although the enclosure of space has more emphasis than in other pre-Columbian cultures, the Mayas never mastered the true vault. Nevertheless, they created impressive structures through extensive earth moving and bold architectural sculpture either integral with the stone or as added stucco ornamentation. d. The Incas thriving empire was centered high in the Andes of east-central Peru at Cuzco, which flourished from about 1200 to 1533, with other cities at nearby Sacsahuaman and Machu Picchu. Inca architecture lacks the sculptural genius of the Maya, but the masonry craftsmanship is unexcelled; enormous pieces of stone were transported over mountain terrain and fitted together with precision, in what is called cyclopean masonry. 8. Aegean Architecture a. The architecture that developed on mainland Greece and in the basin of the Aegean Sea belongs to the Greek cultures that preceded the arrival in about 1000 BC of the Ionians and the Dorians. b. The Minoan culture (3000-1200 BC) flourished on the island of Crete; its principal site is the multichambered Palace of Minos at Knossos, near present-day Irklion. c. On the Pelopnnisos near rgos are the fortress-palaces of Mycenae and Tiryns, and in Asia Minor the city of Troy all of them excavated by the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the last quarter of the 19th century. 9. Greek Architecture a. In Greek temples, the Greeks put their walls inside to protect the cella and their columns on the outside, where they could articulate exterior space. Perhaps for the first time, the overriding

concern is for the building seen as a beautiful object externally, while at the same time containing precious and sacred inner space. b. Greek architects have been praised for not crushing the viewer with overmonumentality; yet they found it appropriate to build temples on basically the same theme ranging in size from the tiny Temple of Nike Apteros of about 6 by 9 m on the Athens Acropolis to the gigantic Temple of Zeus at Agrigento in Sicily, which covered more than 1 hectare. The Greeks seldom arranged their monuments hierarchically along an axis, preferring to site their temples to be seen from several viewpoints in order to display the relation of ends to sides. c. A typical Greek agora included a temple, a council house (bouleuterion), a theater, and gymnasiums, as well as porticoes giving shape to the edges of the open space d. Greek Orders i Doric predominated on the mainland and in the western colonies The acknowledged Doric masterpiece is the Parthenon crowning the Athens Acropolis ii Ionic The Ionic order originated in the cities on the islands and coasts of Asia Minor, which were more exposed to Asian and Egyptian influences it featured capitals with spiral volutes, a more slender shaft with quite different fluting, and an elaborate and curvilinear base iii Corinthian a later development, introduced Ionic capitals elaborated with acanthus leaves It has the advantage of facing equally in four directions and is therefore more adaptable than Ionic for corners 10. Roman Architecture a. Romans built great engineering worksroads, canals, bridges, and aqueducts. b. Roman masonry was more varied. They used bricks and concrete freely, as well as stone, marble, and mosaic. c. They are the first civilization to use cement by combining limestone, sand and stones d. They introduced curved forms with the use of the arch and vault. i Curved walls produced a semicircular space, or apse, for terminating an axis. ii Cylindrical and spherical spaces became elements of design, well suited to the grandiose rooms appropriate to the Roman imperial scale. e. Roman Vaults i Dome Vault a dome provides for a one-room building but cannot easily be combined with other domes to make a larger space domes are developments from tunnel or barrel vaults Using the dome, it was possible for Hadrian to rebuild the Pantheon in Rome with a dome 43 m above the floor, but only by encircling it with a massive hollow ring wall 6 m thick that encloses eight segments of curved units. ii Groin Vault It is formed by the intersection of two identical barrel vaults over a square plan. They intersect along ellipses that go diagonally to the corners of the square. Because the curvature is in more than one direction, each barrel tends to reinforce the other. The great advantage of the groin vault is that it can be placed on four piers (built to receive 45 thrust), leaving the sides of the square for windows or for continuity with adjoining spaces. 11. Early Christian Architecture

a. The term Early Christian is given to the basilican architecture of the church prior to the reintroduction of vaulting about the year 1000. b. The surviving churches in Rome that most clearly evoke the Early Christian character are San Clemente (with its 4th-century choir furnishings), Sant Agnese Fuori le Mura (rebuilt 630 and later), and Santa Sabina (422-432). c. Early models resembled large barns, with stone walls and timber roofs. The central part (nave) of this rectangular structure was supported on columns opening toward single or double flanking aisles of lower height. The difference in roof height permitted high windows, called clerestory windows, in the nave walls; at the end of the nave, opposite the entrance, was placed the altar, backed by a large apse, in which the officiating clergy were seated. 12. Byzantine Architecture a. Byzantine architecture developed on the concept called the central church, assembled around a central dome like the Pantheon. b. Byzantine architecture has its early prototypes in San Vitale in Ravenna and in Saint Sergius and Saint Bacchus in Constantinople, both domed churches on an octagonal plan with surrounding aisles. c. Byzantine architecture has its early prototypes in San Vitale (526-547) in Ravenna and in Saint Sergius and Saint Bacchus (527) in Constantinople, both domed churches on an octagonal plan with surrounding aisles. d. Hagia Sophia (or the Church of the Holy Wisdom) demonstrated how to place a vast dome over a square plan i It was made possible by placing the dome on pendentives, or spherical triangles that make a circle out of the square by rounding its corners ii Pendentives A square drawn on the ground has two circles, one circumscribed around it, the other inscribed within it. A hemisphere set on the larger circle is intersected by vertical planes rising from the sides of the square, forming four arches. A horizontal plane is then passed through the hemisphere at the tops of these arches, providing a ring on which is built the dome, which has a diameter equal to the circle inscribed within the square. The pendentives are spherical triangles, the remaining portions of the first, or outer, hemisphere. 13. Romanesque Architecture a. Influences i The basilican plan used in earlier times needed elaboration to accommodate a new liturgy. ii The essential symbol of the cross was incorporated in the form of transepts, a cross axis that served to identify the choir (for the monks), as distinct from the nave (for the public) iii Beyond the choir, in a semicircular apse girded by the ambulatory (a semicircular extension of the aisles), stood the main altar, the focal point of the building. iv Subaltars, needed for the daily Mass required of many monks, were placed in the transepts and in the ambulatory. v At the nave entrance were placed narthexes, vestibules and reception areas for pilgrims. b. It is basically a development on the groin vault wherein the semicircular arches of the groin vault form a square in plan; thus, the nave consisted of a long series of square bays or segments. The smaller and lower vaults of the aisles were often doubled up, two to each nave bay, to conform to this configuration. 14. Gothic Architecture

a. It was a development from the Romanesque architecture. b. Influences i growing rationalism in Christian theology ii developments in vaulting Rib Vault To build a vault requires first a temporary carpentry structure, called centering, which supports the masonry until the shell has been completed and the mortar has set Centering for the ordinary groin vault must be for an entire structural unit, or bay, with a resultant heavy structure resting on the floor Carpenters have to build two intersecting diagonal arches across the bay, supported high on the nave walls, and then fill out the shell resting on secondary centering. Pointed arch and Vault Vaults of various proportions could cover a rectangular or even a trapezoidal bay, so that nave bays could correspond with the narrower aisle bays and vaulting could proceed around the curved apse without interruption. Also, the nave walls containing clerestory windows could be pushed just as high as the crown of the vault. Soon this clerestory became all windows filled with tracery and stained glass that conferred a new luminosity on the interior.