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What Is Matter?
Matter is anything with mass. Typically, we think of tiny little pieces of mass as atoms and molecules because those 117 elements behave Newtonian. There are over 200 smaller particles that behave Quantunian.
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
Matter Summary
Solids, Continued
Some solids have their particles arranged in an orderly geometric patternwe call these crystalline solids.
Salt and diamonds.
Mixtures
Heterogeneous 1. Made of multiple substances, whose presence can be seen. 2. Portions of a sample have different composition and properties.
3 Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 4 Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
Homogeneous 1. Made of multiple substances, but appears to be one substance. 2. All portions of a sample have the same composition and properties.
Other solids have particles that do not show a regular geometric pattern over a long rangewe call these amorphous solids.
Plastic and glass.
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
Chapter One
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Separation of Mixtures
Separate mixtures based on different physical properties of the components.
Physical change.
Different Physical Property Boiling point State of matter (solid/liquid/gas) Adherence to a surface Volatility Density Technique Distillation Filtration Chromatography Evaporation Centrifugation and decanting
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Boiling = liquid to gas. Melting = solid to liquid. Subliming = solid to gas. Freezing = liquid to solid. Condensing = gas to liquid. Deposition = gas to solid. State changes require heating or cooling the substance.
Evaporation is not a simple phase change, it is a solution process.
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266 grams
266 grams
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Units of Energy
Calorie (cal) is the amount of energy needed to raise one gram of water by 1 C.
kcal = energy needed to raise 1000 g of water 1 C. food calories = kcals.
Energy Conversion Factors 1 calorie (cal) 1 Calorie (Cal) 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = = = 4.184 joules (J) 1000 calories (cal) 3.60 x 106 joules (J)
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Kinetic energy is energy of motion, or energy that is being transferred from one object to another; fast moving.
When the water flows over the dam, some of its potential energy is converted to kinetic energy of motion.
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Exothermic Processes
When a change results in the release of energy it is called an exothermic process. An exothermic chemical reaction occurs when the reactants have more chemical potential energy than the products. The excess energy is released into the surrounding materials, adding energy to them.
Often the surrounding materials get hotter from the energy released by the reaction.
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An Exothermic Reaction
Surroundings reaction
Reactants
Potential energy
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Endothermic Processes
When a change requires the absorption of energy it is called an endothermic process. An endothermic chemical reaction occurs when the products have more chemical potential energy than the reactants. The required energy is absorbed from the surrounding materials, taking energy from them.
Often the surrounding materials get colder due to the energy being removed by the reaction.
Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 19 Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
An Endothermic Reaction
Surroundings reaction
Products
Potential energy
Temperature Scales
100C 25C 0C -38.9C 373 K 298 K 273 K 234.1 K 212F 75F 32F -38F 671 R 534 R 459 R 421 R
Heat Capacity
Boiling point water Room temp Melting point ice Boiling point mercury
-183C
90 K
-297F
162 R
Heat capacity is the amount of heat a substance must absorb to raise its temperature by 1 C. cal/C or J/C. Metals have low heat capacities; insulators have high heat capacities. Specific heat = heat capacity of 1 gram of the substance. cal/gC or J/gC. Waters specific heat = 4.184 J/gC for liquid.
Or 1.000 cal/gC. It is less for ice and steam.
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-269C
-273C 4 K
0 K -452F
-459 F 7 R
Celsius
Kelvin
Fahrenheit
Rankine
Powerful Review Center! Example 3.10Calculate Amount of Heat Needed to Raise Temperature of 2.5 g Ga from 25.0 to 29.9 C
1. 2. 3. 4.
Given:
Write down the quantity you want to Find and unit. Write down the appropriate Equation: Equations. Write a Solution Map. Solution Map:
m, C, DT
q = m C T
5.
Solution:
Waters high specific heat is the reason it is such a good cooling agent.
It absorbs a lot of heat for a relatively small mass.
Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 3 23 Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
q = 4.557 J
6. 7. Significant figures and round. Check. Round: Check:
2 significant figures
4.557 J = 4.6 J
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Calculate the Amount of Heat Released When 7.40 g of Water Cools from 49 to 29 C
25 Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
T1 = 49 C, T2 = 29 C, m = 7.40 g q, J
Cs m, DT q
q = m Cs T
Relationships:
Solution: Follow the T = T2 T1 concept plan to T = 29 C - (49C ) solve the = - 20 C problem. Check: Check.
q = m Cs T
= (7.40 g ) 4.18 g C (- 20 C)
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Sizes of Atoms
Using compositions of compounds and assumed formulas, Dalton was able to determine the relative masses of the atoms.
Dalton based his scale on H = 1 amu.
We now base it on C-12 = 12 amu exactly.
If atom was like a plum pudding, all the a particles should go straight through.
Nuclear Atom
. . .
Most a particles go straight through. Some a particles go through, but are deflected.
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The amount of space taken by the nucleus is only about 1/10 trillionth the volume of the atom.
4. The electrons are dispersed in the empty space of the atom surrounding the nucleus.
Like water droplets in a cloud.
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Mass g x 10 x 10
-24
Mass amu
1.67262 1.0073
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Elements
Each element has a unique number of protons in its nucleus.
All carbon atoms have 6 protons in their nuclei.
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic number.
Z is the short-hand designation for the atomic number. Because each elements atoms have a unique number of protons, each element can be identified by its atomic number. The elements are arranged on the Periodic Table in order of their atomic numbers.
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Periodicity
= Metal = Metalloid = Nonmetal
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Important Details
Atomic Number
Metals
Solids at room temperature, except Hg. Reflective surface.
Shiny
Element Symbol
Mass Number
Lose electrons and form cations in reactions. About 75% of the elements are metals. Lower left on the table.
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
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Nonmetals
Found in all 3 states. Poor conductors of heat. Poor conductors of electricity. Solids are brittle. Gain electrons in reactions to become anions. Upper right on the table.
Except H.
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Metalloids
Show some properties of metals and some of nonmetals. Also known as semiconductors.
Properties of Silicon: Shiny Conducts electricity Does not conduct heat well Brittle
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= Halogens = Actinides
= Lanthanides
= Transition metals
Rows are called Periods. Each period shows the pattern of properties repeated in the next period.
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Important GroupsHalogens
Group VIIA = Halogens. Nonmetals. F2 and Cl2 gases, Br2 liquid, and I2 solid. All diatomic. Very reactive. Cl2, and Br2 react slowly with water: Br2 + H2O HBr + HOBr React with metals to form ionic compounds.
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Very unreactive, practically inert. Very hard to remove electron from or give an electron to.
Ions
Ions with a positive charge are called cations.
More protons than electrons. Form by losing electrons.
Chemical Bonds
Chemical Bonds
Nonpolar covalent bond Bonding electrons shared EQUALLY between two atoms. NO charges on atoms.
Polar covalent bond Bonding electrons shared UNEQUALLY between two atoms. Partial charges on atoms.
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE! Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
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Chemical Bonds
Ionic bond Complete transfer of one or more valence electrons. FULL charges on resulting ions.
Chemical Bonds
Metals form cations. For each positive charge the ion has 1 less electron than the neutral atom.
Na atom = 11 p+ and 11 e; Na+ ion = 11 p+ and 10 e. Ca atom = 20 p+ and 20 e; Ca2+ ion = 20 p+ and 18 e.
Anions are named by changing the ending of the name to ide. fluorine F + 1e = F fluoride ion oxygen O + 2e = O2 oxide ion The charge on an anion can often be determined from the group number on the periodic table.
Group 7A = 1, Group 6A = 2.
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Cations are named the same as the metal. sodium Na = Na+ + 1e sodium ion calcium Ca = Ca2+ + 2e calcium ion The charge on a cation can often be determined from the group number on the periodic table.
Group 1A = 1+, Group 2A = 2+, (Al, Ga, In) = 3+.
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Table
Ion Cl-1 K S
p+ 17 19 16 38
e18 18 18 36
+1
-2 +2
Solution:
Z = 20 = #p+
Sr
Check:
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Isotopes
Atomic Number.
Number of protons. Z
Powerful How Many Protons and Neutrons Are inReview Center! an Atom 52 of 24 Cr ?
52 24 Cr
Mass Number
= Protons + Neutrons. Whole number. A
symbol
Relationships: Solution:
# n0
Z = 24 = # p+
A = Z + # n0 52 = 24 + # n0 28 = # n0
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
Check:
Ga-69 with Mass 68.9256 Amu and Abundance of 60.11% and Ga-71 with Mass 70.9247 Amu and Abundance of 39.89%. Calculate the Atomic Mass of Gallium.
Ga-69 = 60.11%, 68.9256 amu Ga-71 = 39.89%, 70.9247 amu atomic mass, amu isotope masses, isotope fractions avg. atomic mass
Atomic Mass = (0.6011)(68.9256 amu ) + (0.3989)(70.9247 amu ) Atomic Mass = 63.7 23041 = 69.72 amu
The average is between the two masses, closer to the major isotope.
Check:
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If Copper Is 69.17% Cu-63 with a Mass of 62.9396 Amu and the Rest Cu-65 with a Mass of 64.9278 Amu, Find Coppers Atomic Mass.
67 Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
Cu-63 = 69.17%, 62.9396 amu Cu-65 = 100-69.17%, 64.9278 amu atomic mass, amu isotope masses, isotope fractions avg. atomic mass
Atomic Mass = (0.6917)(62.9396 amu ) + (0.3083)(64.9278 amu ) Atomic Mass = 63.5525 = 63.55 amu
Check:
The average is between the two masses, closer to the major isotope.
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
Show that Two Samples of Carbon Powerful Review Center! Dioxide Are Consistent with the Law of Constant Composition.
Given: Sample 1: 4.8 g O, 1.8 g C; Sample 2: 17.1 g O, 6.4 g C Find: proportion O:C Solution Map: Relationships: Solution: element masses compound composition
Compare:
Since both samples have the same proportion of elements, carbon dioxide shows constantJason M. Ampoloquio, PECE! composition.
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PracticeShow that Hematite Has Constant Composition if a 10.0 g Sample Has 7.2 g Fe and the Rest Is Oxygen; and a Second Sample Has 18.1 g Fe and 6.91 g O.
Powerful Review Example 5.1Show that Two Samples of HematiteCenter! Are Consistent with the Law of Constant Composition.
Given: Sample 1: 7.2 g Fe, (10.0-7.2) = 2.8 g O; Sample 2: 18.1 g Fe, 6.91 g O Find: proportion Fe:O Solution Map: Relationships: Solution: element masses compound composition
Compare:
Tro's "Introductory Chemistry", Chapter 5 73 Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
Since both samples have the same proportion of elements, hematite shows constant composition. Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
Elements are represented by a letter symbol. A pure compound is composed of atoms of two or more elements. The number of each element is written to the right of the element as a subscript.
If there is only one atom, the 1 subscript is not written.
Table salt = NaCl, one sodium and one chlorine atom: notice that pure substances have consistent structures, these pure substance will also have consistent physical and chemical properties.
C P N H S
I Br Cl O F
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PracticeWrite Formulas for Each of the Following Compounds. HematiteComposed of four oxide ions for every three iron ions. Fe O
3 4
AcetoneEach molecule contains six hydrogen atoms, three carbon atoms, and one oxygen atom. CHO
3 6
Write the formula for each compound. a. magnesium sulfate, which has 1 magnesium atom, 4 oxygen atoms, and 1 sulfur atom b. ethylene glycol (antifreeze), which has 6 hydrogen atoms, 2 carbon atoms, and 2 oxygen atoms c. acetic acid, which has 2 oxygen atoms, 2 carbon atoms, and 4 hydrogen atoms d. potassium chlorate, which has 1 chlorine atom, 1 potassium atom, and 3 oxygen atoms
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
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Empirical Formula
the relative numbers of atoms of the elements in a compound, reduced to the smallest whole numbers.
Mg(NO3)2
Compound called magnesium nitrate. Implied 1 subscript on magnesium. Parentheses to group two NO3s.
CaSO4
Compound called calcium sulfate. Implied 1 subscript on calcium. No parentheses for one SO4.
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Write the empirical formula for the simplest binary ionic compound formed from each ion or element pair. a. Li+ and N3 b. Al3+ and O2 c. lithium and oxygen
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
Write the empirical formula for the compound formed from each ion pair. a. Ca2+ and H2PO4 b. sodium cation and bicarbonate anion c. ammonium cation and sulfate anion
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
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PracticeDetermine the Total Number of Atoms or Ions in One Formula Unit of Each of the Following. Mg(C2H3O2)2 1 Mg + 4 C + 6 H + 4 O = 15
Mg(NO3)2
Compound called magnesium nitrate. Implied 1 subscript on nitrogen, total 2 N. Stated 3 subscript on oxygen, total 6 O.
CaSO4
Compound called calcium sulfate. Implied 1 subscript on sulfur, total 1 S. Stated 4 subscript on oxygen, total 4 O. 85
Jason M. Ampoloquio, PECE!
(Hg2)3(PO4)2
6 Hg + 2 P + 8 O = 16
Classifying Materials
Atomic elements = are single atoms. Molecular elements = multi-atom molecules. Molecular compounds = molecules made of only nonmetals.
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Molecular Compounds
Two or more nonmetals. Smallest unit is a molecule.
Find the element with atomic number 7, N. Make a figure 7 by going over to Group 7A, then down. The seventh element is H2. 7A
H2
N2
O2
F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
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Ionic Compounds
Metals + nonmetals. No individual molecule units, instead have a 3-dimensional array of cations and anions made of formula units.
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