Universal Fundamental Human Rights:

Convergence & Divergence with the Cultural Context of Bangladesh

Table of Contents

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Introduction Backgrounds on international human rights Human rights issues in Bangladesh The convergence & divergence with culture perspective Analysis of some international human rights issues in Bangladesh Amnesty International Recommendations

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ANNEXURE 1: Declaration Of Human Rights

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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INTRODUCTION Universal Human Rights is the basic fundamental right of the human beings. It is a right that is endowed on every individual regardless of sex, race, color, religion, ethnicity etc. and basically it means that just because an individual born as a human, he or she has those rights. Therefore, human rights has the universal appeal. Human rights have long been a debatable issue for several reasons one of which is that there are is no general consensus on the validity of the argument on what should be considered as human rights violation or not. There are various examples regarding the debate of human rights such as the basic and most fundamental of all the human rights is right to life. So in order to preserve this right, such laws as capital punishment for killing another human being has been established in almost all the countries. However, this law contradicted with the human rights known as the right to life, therefore following some cases in the UK after 1945, which has been a subject of debate for several reasons and thus except a few notable exceptions in 1957 Homicide Act was enacted abolishing the capital punishment for murder. According to Islamic or Shariah Law rape is considered a crime eligible for capital punishment whereas in the western world capital punishment for rape is considered a violation to human rights. Another debate exists in the issue of abortion of human fetus, which is a very common scenario in the world. Now it has been long argued by the scientists that fetus have life, so abortion rather takes the life away from it, which is the violation of the most fundamental law that is right to life. However, whether is fetus constitutes the basic requirements of life is a subject of a long and tedious debate. Therefore, contradictions have always been persisted since the inception of the human rights concept and formed as law in United Nations General Assembly in 1948 following the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The term Human rights is relatively a modern concept however it dates way back, regarding the concept of natural civil rights and liberty to the Ancient Greece and Roman Empire. Since 1948 human rights has been the center of attention in the world till today.

BACKGROUNDS ON INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS As mentioned before the first International Human Rights Laws have been set through the declaration of International Human Rights in 1948 following the devastation of World War II.
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This mainly happened due to lots of violation of Human Rights especially Holocaust led by Nazis of Germany in order to exterminate European Jews. Atrocities committed in World War II made the world realize the basic fact that an international governing body is necessary in order to protect the rights of the individuals from all over the world. It came as a clear scenario that Human Rights issue is no more a concept for one country but rather a international issue which must be addressed and dealt with proper transparency. In 1941, U.S President Franklyn D. Roose first addressed this issue regarding the four main rights known as the Four Freedoms: Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Conscience, Freedom from Fear and Freedom from Fear. Now, mainly USA and its allies, victors of World War II, led the declaration as USA is thought to be the model country for human rights and justice. However, its true color came out after September 11, 2001 when it opened a notorious prison in Guantanamo Bay where all the detainees were sexually harassed by the prison guards. So, for the record it can be said that right to make Human Rights belong to those who have the bigger stick than the others. Unfortunately that is an irony everyone has to face now. Although each individual country establishes its own Human Rights Act, however regional enforcing system has been a key factor in establishing human rights in each of the continents. The laws enacted to protect the human rights in under several regions as mentioned below.

HUMAN RIGHTS ISSUES IN BANGLADESH Bangladesh, as a developing nation faces many crisis that cannot be overcome without economic development and stability. Crime rates are one of the highest in world and the increasing demographic pressure is taking its toll in such a small country. Usually it is seen that the human rights in developed nations are up to the high standard however in the developing nations such as Bangladesh human rights is an elusive right for the citizens. Each and every day violation of human rights is occurring while nothing is being done about it as the judiciary system is constantly being crippled by the respective governments of Bangladesh in each term. However, in 1993 Protection of Human Rights Act was first established in which it is said that Bangladesh will be democratic republic and it is implied indirectly in the act that fair trial will be conducted on the people accused for committing crime. In the UDHR, it also says that all men are innocent before they are found guilty through trial, complying
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with Bangladesh Human Rights Laws.. Therefore like this lots of Acts in Human Rights have coherence with the UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights) however as mentioned before its implementation is the major factor which is discussed later.

THE CONVERGENCE & DIVERGENCE WITH CULTURE PERSPECTIVE Culture is one significant factor that shapes human thinking and behavior to a great extent. Thus its influence on human beings affects their basic attribute: human rights. Culture is also a primary force in the socialization of individuals and a major determinant of the consciousness and experience of the community. The impact of culture on human behavior is often underestimated precisely because it is so powerful and deeply embedded in our self-identity and consciousness. A closer look at this issue is therefore needed. It is necessary to gather the elements that constitute the different cultures in the region and examine how they relate to human rights principles. The different dimensions of the human rights conceptualizations as follows: Whether rights claims are based on status as an individual human being or status as a member of some community or group of persons; The extent to which differential treatment of persons is permitted on grounds of achievement and ascription; The emphasis on rights compared to duties or obligations and the extent to which rights and duties are thought to be interdependent; The emphasis on so-called economic and social rights compared to the emphasis on civil and political rights, sometimes conceived as a difference between positive rights of governmental obligation to provide economic and social well-being and the negative rights of governmental obligation to refrain from abridging political and civil rights; The extent to which rights are viewed as absolute or relative. Convergence captures the imagination, but divergence captures the market. Convergence requires compromise and divergence satisfies the evolving needs of different market

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segments. Irreconcilable differences will always doom such convergence concepts. Convergence refers to a process, but not an endpoint. Therefore, Cultural Convergence is the tendency for cultures to become more alike as they increasingly share technology and organizational structures in a modern world united by improved transportation and communication systems.

ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS ISSUES IN BANGLADESH Bangladesh is party to almost all the core conventions, such as the, ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), ICESCR (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), ICERD (International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination), and CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women). Domestic Application of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in Bangladesh: Articles 12,13,17-24 states that individual liberty exists in the form of the freedoms of movement, thought, conscience and religion, speech, association, assembly, family rights, the right to a nationality, and the right to privacy. Although these rights are there more or less and implemented in Bangladesh however it is not up to the extend to that of the Western countries. The freedom of speech is not allowed up to the extent of the Western countries. Now in a democratic nation it is quite natural that people will criticize the government however if a speech is given which hurts the religious sentiment of a person then the international human rights law will be violated. Domestic Application of International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Act in Bangladesh: Article 9 of this covenant states that social security must be provided in the form of social insurance. However, in Bangladesh the implementation of this article is bare minimum. The reason behind this is that insurance is expensive and in a poor country such as Bangladesh this would be near impossible to implement for every person.

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Article 10 of the covenant recognizes the need for family life and the right to marriage. However, contract of marriage must be made on free consent and not forced upon. However, sad but true lots of marriages are forced upon on the young teens especially girls in the village areas. Article 11, 12 and 13 subsequently tells about standard of living, health and education. Standard of living, health and education must be ensured by the government so that the citizens with even a bare minimum income can still get a decent standard of living, education and healthcare. However, these basic necessities are not fulfilled by the government up to the standard the covenant in implying.

Right of Information as a Human Rights Issue in Bangladesh: The right to information is a human right and on October 21, 2008, the Caretaker Government of Bangladesh issued in the Bangladesh Gazette the Right to Information Ordinance (No. 50 of 2008), based on the Indian Right to Information Act, 2005. Basically the ordinance is about forming a new commission for information in Bangladesh. This right is almost like an international norm as it is implemented in many countries of the world. This right is new in Bangladesh and it is yet to be seen how much it will be a success. This law is like this for example a person wants to buy a land and went into an agreement however after a few days the land the sold land was confiscated by the government. Therefore it is the right of that person to know why his land was confiscated. Even under some circumstances information is not released about some matter in the newspaper, that information if not classified can be inquired in the commission for information. It is particularly important because right to know is a basic right for any ordinary citizen (with exception of state secrets). It is part of international human rights and now it is initiated in Bangladesh as a concept yet to be proved in its effectiveness. Extrajudicial killings and Custodial Tortures Before the discussion of human rights in Bangladesh lets start with a story that I read in a book of a famous writer of Bangladesh, Humayun Ahmed. It starts like this that the protagonist of the story known as Himu was caught by RAB (Rapid Action
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Battalion) and sent to interrogation cell, there he met a top terrorist known as Murgi Salam. He talked to that terrorist and heard from him that he was going to be killed by RAB under the label of crossfire. And it happened also as the day after he was caught there was a big headline in the news that Murgi Salam died during a crossfire as he was trying to escape during an attempted raid to capture his accomplices. Although this is a story however it is an ironical example of extrajudicial summary executions, which has been going on in Bangladesh since the formation of RAB. In Bangladesh it is a known fact that the judicial system is loose and there are lots of ways in which the criminals can get out even though they committed heinous crimes. The reason behind it lies at the very foundation, which is the flaw during the investigation done by the police. Even at times the police gets corrupted during the investigation and loose the evidence of proving the criminal activities, so in the court the criminal is set free due to lack of evidence. So in order to stop the crime the government instead of improving the rule of law rather takes unlawful initiatives of forming a force to kill the terrorists without any trial. Even at times it is seen that some are not terrorist but even then fall under the extrajudicial killing. Unfortunate as it is but true to the every last bit. Now this is a clear violation of the International Human Rights Laws. European Parliament sent strong allegations on these extrajudicial killing as a gross violation of the human rights issue. However, Bangladesh Government defended it by saying that encounter killing reduced fifty percent crime rate however, extrajudicial killing is a similar type of crime according to Human Rights watchdog Amnesty International. Custodial torture is also another major issue that is hurting Bangladesh in terms of complying with the international human rights standards. Although some might say that it is for the criminals to disclose the information under torture. However, there are ways in which psychological torture can be used instead of physical torture to retrieve information from the prisoner. Compliance to human rights is absolutely necessary in this case.

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The Death Penalty There are several crimes in Bangladesh which carry a mandatory death penalty and several more where the death penalty is the maximum sentence. Lack of transparency, corruption and torture plague the criminal justice system and affect the decisions given by the lower judiciary. As a result, there have been cases where the order of the death sentence is not justified or has been arbitrarily The name Bangladesh Rifles (BDR) was changed to Border Guard, Bangladesh (BGB) in December 2010. Freedom of Media In the Human Rights Council, during its bid for re-election on May 2009, the Bangladesh Government stated that It has one of the most independent print and electronic media in the world.18 During the UPR session the Government also stated that Bangladesh was committed to ensuring freedom of the media and protection of journalists. However, in practice, the government has shown intolerance towards the dissenting media and the filing of several cases against its acting Editor including one under the Anti-Terrorism Act, 2009; attempting to shut down a photo exhibition on crossfire; closing down Facebook and censoring YouTube; and the indiscriminate use of the law of defamation .Since 04 February 2009 to 03 February 2011, 7 journalists were killed, 199 were injured, 88 assaulted, 124 journalists were threatened and 3 were abducted. Womens Rights Despite special criminal laws to ensure justice for acts of violence against women, and The Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act which was introduced on October, 2010, violence against women is widespread. From 04 February 2009 to 03 February 2011, 1018 women were victims of rape, 701 were victims of dowry violence and 174 were the victims of acid violence. In most of the cases, the perpetrators could not be brought to justice, due to various reasons, including threats to the victims family; bribing of police officers; lack of evidence and political patronage for the perpetrators. Apart from the regularly reported acts of violence against women, such as rape, dowry-related violence and acid attacks, another
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disturbing crime is gaining momentum in Bangladesh stalking and verbal/physical harassment of girls and young women. Stalking can lead to depression and humiliation that is sometimes so overwhelming that there have been cases where the victim has committed suicide. Society and the administration also try to cast aspersions on the character of the victim, instead of condemning or catching the stalker. There have also been some instances where the perpetrators have injured or killed those who protested mainly parents and family members of the victim. Most of the victims of stalking are school and college-going young women, who are constantly verbally harassed and followed on their way to and from the educational institution and/or outside their homes. The Judiciary of Bangladesh Lack/deprivation of justice is a form of human rights abuse and it is common knowledge in Bangladesh that justice is only for the rich and those who can afford legal representation. What is singularly worrisome for democracy and human rights in Bangladesh is the politicisization of the Judiciary. The Judiciary has been formally separated from the Executive, but has still failed to convince the citizens of its independence and is vulnerable to extrajudicial manipulation. The National Human Rights Commission Despite the Bangladesh governments acceptance of the recommendation from the delegates of European countries and its comment that it had initiated actions in effort to develop the work of its national institution for human rights, as an effective human rights watchdog and to give power to the NHRC to effectively protect human rights in accordance with the Paris Principles, the Government did not approve of the proposed human resource of 62 persons in accordance with NHRC, to assist it in carrying out its activities effectively. It approved of only 28 persons. The Chairman of the NHRC, Professor Mizanur Rahman said: We were informed that the ministries concerned finalized the appointment of 28 staff a few days ago, but we dont know when we will get them in action. NHRC was formed in November 2008 under the National Human Rights Commission Ordinance, promulgated by the army backed caretaker government on December 23,
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2007. The Ordinance was enacted by the Parliament on 14 July 2009.Former Chairman of the NHRC, Justice Amirul Kabir Chowdhury sent a draft Regulation of the NHRC to the Law Ministry on August 2009, however almost one and a half year have passed and the draft is still pending - this will impede the independent activities of NHRC.

AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS Amnesty International calls upon the Government of Bangladesh to ensure full protection for human rights defenders by taking the following steps. With regard to human rights violations including arbitrary arrest, arbitrary detention and torture by law enforcement officials: Make a public commitment to ensuring protection for human rights defenders. Inform all law enforcement personnel, at all levels, of their obligations to respect and protect human rights, and make it clear that they will be held accountable for human rights violations perpetrated by them; Set up an independent and impartial commission of inquiry to examine the cases mentioned in this report with a view to: ensuring that the victims receive justice and redress; identifying failings in the criminal justice system which have led to human rights violations; and making recommendations for changes in legislation, procedures, discipline and training to ensure that law enforcement officials abide strictly by the law and international standards governing their behavior; Ensure that the magistrates rigorously uphold safeguards against unlawful detention when ordering a prisoner's remand into police custody; and to that effect, ensure that the prisoners are physically produced before the magistrates and ensure that magistrates do not ignore signs or allegations of torture when police request a prisoner's remand into custody; Ensure prompt and thorough investigations by an independent and competent authority into all reports of: arbitrary arrest, arbitrary detention and any allegation of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment;

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Ensure that those suspected of perpetrating human rights violations are brought to justice through procedures that confirm with International Fair Trial Standards; Provide restitution to victims of human rights violations, including adequate compensation. With regard to the death threats, assaults and assassination of human rights defenders by non-state actors Ensure that all reports of death threats, assaults and assassination of human rights defenders are promptly and thoroughly investigated by the appropriate authorities and that suspected perpetrators are brought to justice; Ensure that those subjected to threats and attacks, their families, and witnesses to such abuses, receive full protection in their efforts to seek justice through the criminal justice system; Ensure that law enforcement personnel receive any necessary support to enable them to disclose evidence against perpetrators of abuses to the court without fear of reprisal; Ensure that any officials within the criminal justice system who are suspected of connivance with the perpetrators through bribery or negligence are brought to justice and fairly tried; Provide restitution to victims of human rights abuses by non-state actors, including adequate compensation. With regard to the strengthening of safeguards for the protection of human rights Establish the long awaited National Human Rights Commission; Establish the Office of the Ombudsman; Implement the Supreme Court directive to separate the judiciary from the executive; With regard to abuses committed by members of the ruling alliance Ensure that all allegations of human rights abuses by members of the ruling party, or its allied parties, are investigated promptly by an independent and competent

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authority, and those found responsible are brought to justice regardless of their position in these parties or their links to the government. Recommendations to all political parties Lend support to any government initiative to promote and protect human rights; Ensure that no support is given by your party to protect any of your members against whom there exist credible reports of involvement in human rights violations. Recommendations to the international community Raise Amnesty International's concern about the situation of human rights defenders in your bilateral or multilateral meetings with the Government of Bangladesh; Urge the government to bring perpetrators of violations against human rights defenders to justice. Recommendations to the Bangladeshi communities abroad Raise concerns among the Bangladeshi communities abroad about the situation of human rights defenders in Bangladesh; Urge the Government of Bangladesh to provide protection to human rights defenders and bring to justice perpetrators of human rights violations against human rights defenders.

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ANNEXURE - 1

Declaration of Human Rights

PREAMBLE Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations, Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge, Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims this UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.

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Article 1.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2.

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. Article 3.

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 4.

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. Article 5.

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Article 6.

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Article 7.

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination. Article 8.

Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law. Article 9.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile. Article 10.

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Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him. Article 11.

(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence. (2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed. Article 12.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks. Article 13.

(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country. Article 14.

(1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. (2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from nonpolitical crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 15.

(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality. Article 16.

(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. (2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.

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(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State. Article 17.

(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. Article 18.

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. Article 19.

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Article 20.

(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. (2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association. Article 21.

(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. (2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. Article 22.

Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. Article 23.

(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. (2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.

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(3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection. (4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests. Article 24.

Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay. Article 25.

(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. Article 26.

(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Article 27.

(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. (2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author. Article 28.

Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized. Article 29.

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(1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible. (2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. Article 30.

Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ Glendon, Mary Ann (July 2004). The Rule of Law in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Nickel, James (2009). Human Rights The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Court on Human Rights Human Rights Watch Asia. Retrieved 2010-11-03.

Transparency International Bangladesh www.ti-bangladesh.org/ An-Naim, Abdullahi Ahmed (1992) "Toward a Cross-Cultural Approach to Defining International Standards of Human Rights," in Human Rights in Cross-Cultural Perspectives, An-Naim Abdullahi, ed., University of Pennsylvania Press , Philadelphia Violation of Human Rights in Bangladesh For Last 34 Years: Thu, 2010-02-04 05:21 By Rabindranath Trivedi (Ronotri)

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