Technology, Pedagogy and Education, Vol. 14, No.

3, 2005

Changes in Educational Beliefs and Classroom Practices of Teachers and Students [1] in Rich Technology-based Classrooms
TAMAR LEVIN Tel Aviv University, Israel RIVKA WADMANY Teachers College of Technology, Tel Aviv, Israel

ABSTRACT This study was conducted in the framework of a project that sought to change the school learning and teaching environment and adapt it to current reality through the proactive use of technology in the search for knowledge. It is an exploratory, longitudinal, case study of a single school, in one city in central Israel, which examines changes in educational beliefs, classroom practices, and knowledge restructuring processes of six teachers of grades 4-6, who for three years experienced an approach to teaching and learning focusing on information-rich tasks in an information-rich environment. The main findings show different patterns and rates of change in teacher educational beliefs, knowledge restructuring processes and classroom practices. They also demonstrate that students of teachers whose educational beliefs and classroom practices radically changed and which reflected a constructivist approach to learning regarded learning as a process of engaging with complex, context-related tasks requiring multiple viewpoints, whereas students whose teachers had a traditional positivist approach saw technologyassisted learning as learning with technical tools. The study indicates a reciprocal rather than unidirectional relationship between teacher classroom practice and changes in teacher educational beliefs and knowledge restructuring processes.

Introduction The study explores teachers educational beliefs, knowledge restructuring processes and classroom practices. It does this in the context of a technology-based classroom environment, which integrates technologybased, information-rich tasks in the school curriculum. Believing that perceptions, knowledge and actual classroom practices are multivariate and
281

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

interrelated, and relying on the important role that students play in restructuring technology-based classroom learning processes, the study examines whether, how and why the use of information-rich tasks can alter both teachers and students educational views on teaching, learning and the use of technology. The three-year study focuses not only on explicit statements obtained from teachers and students, but also observes their actual practices in the classroom. For several decades, information and communication technologies (ICT) have had a tremendous impact on all aspects of our society and culture, causing people to pay attention to different things, have contact with different people, and depend on one another differently (Sproull & Kiesler, 1991). ICT also allows people to reinvent how they create, find, exchange and think about information (Pierson, 2001). Computers offer access to great storehouses of information, and enable processing and communication over great distances, almost instantaneously. Since schools must respond to the innovative demands brought by technology, it is not surprising that in the past two decades, the integration of learning and communication technologies into schools and schooling has been well supported by educators and has accelerated significantly. Underlying this support is the belief that successful incorporation of computer technology empowers both teachers and students to produce enhanced learning outcomes (Department of Education, 1998; Leach & Moon, 2000). Information technology has also been hailed as the catalyst for restructuring and re-culturing the classroom and the emergence of an environment able to promote constructivist-based learning, encourage the development of higher-order inquiry skills, and produce mindful, selfregulated teachers and students (Dexter et al, 1999; Loveless & Ellis, 2001). Nevertheless, the technological changes sweeping society have left the educational system largely unchanged (Newhouse, 1998; Mann, 2000). According to research, ICT is not widely integrated into the educational system. Where it has been integrated, there is still no clear evidence that ICT has affected teaching approaches or enhanced desired learning modes (Alexander, 1999). Moreover, teachers only superficially accept technology into their work, even when technology is available in schools for students to use (Olson, 2000; Cuban et al, 2001; Leach & Moon, 2002). Teachers tend to copy their own experiences of teaching from when they were in school, i.e. to use linear, authoritative, teacher-centered methods, which disregard computers, and resist the many and varied efforts to shift the dominant paradigm from teacher-centered teaching toward a more student-centered classroom (Cuban, 1993; Semple, 2000). Thus, without skilled pedagogical application by teachers, educational technology in and of itself cannot make school practice innovative, and will not produce educational change (Cox et al, 2004).

282

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

However, it is not adequate just to train teachers to use computers. We must transform the very process of teacher development itself (McCormick & Scrimshaw, 2001) and confront teachers beliefs regarding learning and teaching since it is these experiences and beliefs that will determine how and why teachers will adopt new methods of teaching (Golombek, 1998). The main issue is therefore how do teachers who use technology in their classrooms incorporate the technology into new pedagogical patterns based on new or modified educational beliefs? In particular, it is important to understand how teachers change their conception of learning from a view which sees learning as a process of the transmission of facts from one person to another, to a view of learning as an active and knowledge-constructivist process. Although this kind of change is possible and depends on our capacity to build new bridges through constructivist learning experiences (Jacobsen, 2002), not much attention is paid to teachers belief structures and knowledge restructuring processes in studies into the adoption of new technologies. The present study seeks to fill this gap. Moreover, while many studies have examined the teachers role in implementing information technology in the classrooms, not many have explored student perceptions of learning in technology-based classrooms (Deaney et al, 2003) and the students role in the success or failure of ICT. Fewer studies still (Parr, 1999) have examined the educational views of both teacher and students regarding classroom learning in the context of computer-supported learning. The present study therefore focuses on exploring the changes in teacher perceptions and practices, and how these changes relate to student attitudes toward learning in a technology-based, information-rich environment. Based on the assumption that the power to change does not lie in with the technology itself, but with the restructured collective vision of teacher and students in the classroom as they experience new modes of learning in a rich, technology-based environment, the study aims are twofold: 1. to explore the relationship between teacher knowledge restructuring processes, educational beliefs and classroom practices while applying a teaching and learning approach characterized by information-rich tasks in a technology-based environment; 2. to examine the relationship between change in teachers educational beliefs, knowledge and behavior and their students perceptions and attitudes towards learning and engaging in information-rich tasks within a technology-based environment.

283

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

Theoretical Background The Role of Teacher Beliefs in Educational Change The information technology revolution in schools never took place as expected, despite the fact that the number of computers in schools has dramatically increased over the past 20 years (Fifoot, 2000; Mann, 2000; Cuban, 2001). Teachers educational beliefs are considered a major cause of this disappointment, since these beliefs have a strong impact on teaching and learning (Lovat & Smith, 1995; Handal et al, 2001). Indeed, for almost two decades, research has documented the influence of teacher beliefs on teacher instructional practice (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Fang, 1996), demonstrating that personal belief systems have a powerful effect on what teachers learn from educational reform schemes and professional development programs, as well as on the teachers curricular decision making and teaching practices. The studies demonstrate that teachers tend to adopt new classroom practices based on whether the assumptions underlying the new practices are consistent with their personal epistemological beliefs (Yocum, 1996). Therefore, since teachers knowledge and beliefs about teaching and learning form an intuitive screen through which they interpret professional development and teaching reforms (Buchanan et al, 1998), these beliefs can either further or impede change (Prawat, 1990). If teacher beliefs do not match the goals and assumptions of educational innovation, resistance is likely (Burkhardt et al, 1990). In contrast, if teachers beliefs are compatible with educational reform, it is highly likely that the new ideas will be accepted and adopted in the classroom. Specifically in the context of technology use in the classroom, Gobbo & Girardi (2001) and Maor & Taylor (1995) found that teachers use of new technology varies according to their epistemological orientation. In addition, of the various facets of teacher beliefs, beliefs regarding the nature of technology and its role in teaching and learning can form a major barrier to incorporating technology into the classroom (Ertmer & Hruskocy, 1999). Indeed, Ertmer et al (1999) found that teacher perceptions of the role of technology are closely linked to how technology is used. For example: it is argued that a view of technology as something unstable and always changing (Slough & Chamblee, 2000) presents a major barrier to its use in the classroom. Therefore, in this study, when exploring teachers educational beliefs, we also examine their views on the role of information technology and their use of it in the classroom.

284

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

Teacher Educational Beliefs and the Use of Information Technology Research into the relationships between teachers educational beliefs and the use of technology in the classroom can be divided into two groups. In the first group of studies, researchers examine teachers use of educational technology in the classroom and link this to the characteristics or profile of the teachers educational beliefs. These studies focus on how teachers beliefs shape their implementation of school reform initiatives and show that the way teachers use technology is consistent with their personal views on curriculum and instructional practices (Cuban, 1986; Cohen, 1987). Thus, the teachers who hold a traditional teaching philosophy and believe their role is to transmit an extremely rigid curriculum through highly controlled pedagogy are the teachers who avoid computers. In contrast, teachers who believe in constructivist learning principles tend to use computers more frequently (Becker & Ravitz, 2001). In Fulton & Torney-Purtas (2000) study, the teachers all stated that they used technology to support their teaching in ways that they thought appropriate, yet none felt that using technology had changed their educational beliefs. The second set of studies explores how the use of educational technology affects teachers educational beliefs. Here, the results show that when implementing technology-based educational reforms, some teachers find that technology encourages greater student centeredness, greater openness to toward multiple perspectives on problems, and greater willingness to experiment in their teaching (Knapp & Glenn, 1996). One of the findings of the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow project similarly notes that technology has shifted classrooms toward student-centered teaching rather than curriculum-centered teaching, collaborative tasks rather than individual tasks, and active rather than passive learning (Sandholtz et al, 1997). The classroom shift away from an emphasis on textbooks and teachers to the integration of technology and teachers in the role of facilitators is not merely one of adopting new tools, but in fact a transformation in pedagogy and epistemology (Bruenjes, 2002). Burton (2003) also shows that even professional development experiences involving technology will facilitate a change in teacher beliefs regarding teaching and learning towards a more student-centered focus, reflecting the teachers belief that her or his role has changed from a more traditional role to that of facilitator and partner in inquiry. Despite the large quantity of research that studied the relationships between teachers beliefs and their instructional practices, relatively few studies have examined these effects in the context of a longitudinal research in which a technology-enhanced learning environment is being implemented. Furthermore, although it is generally agreed that teachers educational beliefs tend to shape the nature of their instructional practices (Pajares,
285

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

1992; Richardson, 1996), there are studies suggesting that the challenges of classroom teaching often constrain the teachers ability to offer instruction congruent with their beliefs (Davis et al, 1993). It seems therefore that there is still much to learn about the relationships between teaching beliefs and their actual instructional practices in the classroom. In particular, it is worth exploring whether the relationship between teachers beliefs and practices is a one-way relationship or a dynamic two-way relationship in which beliefs are also in turn influenced by practical experience (Thompson, 1992). The present study addresses these issues within the context of a technologyenhanced learning environment and the framework of a longitudinal study. Student Perceptions of Learning in a Technology-based Environment Parrs study (1999) showed that student perceptions of learning contexts that incorporate learning technologies influence technology integration and shape how learning technologies are used. More specifically, student views were found to affect the amount of technology used, how the technology was used, and teacher and student expectations regarding learning. Cope & Ward (2002) support these results, but suggest that student perceptions are in fact influenced by teacher perceptions and by the use of the learning technologies by the teachers. An earlier study by Cotterall (1995) demonstrated that student beliefs affect their use of educational technology. Other evidence suggests that computer-supported learning environments can even help to change student attitudes and pedagogical beliefs (Gregoire et al, 1996; Chan & Elliott, 2000; Elen & Clarebout, 2001). These results imply that success in integrating technology into teaching requires an understanding of the complex interactions that take place in the classroom between teachers, students and technology (Honey et al, 2000; McCormick & Scrimshaw, 2001). Indeed, studies have shown that the meaning students assign to classroom processes is a crucial factor in determining student satisfaction and learning (Cothran & Ennis, 1997, 1998). However, they also show that student perceptions can differ from those of their teachers. Cullingford (1991) and Farrell et al (1988) demonstrate discrepancies in teacherstudent perceptions of the same teachinglearning experiences. Other studies show that student approaches to learning are congruent or at least related to their teachers approaches to teaching (Trigwell et al, 1999). While few studies explore the educational views of the elementary school student or relate them to teachers views, of the existing studies, fewer still have addressed these issues in technology-based classrooms. To further understand the role of the student in incorporating educational technology in the classroom, and particularly the students views on

286

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

educational technology, this study tried to examine the relationship between student and teacher perceptions with respect to learning information-rich tasks in a technology-supported environment. Method This study was conducted in one school in a city in central Israel and was initiated by university researchers in collaboration with the local municipality education department and the Ministry of Education. This article documents the three-year longitudinal study (1997-2000), conducted as a case study, and based mainly on the principles of qualitative methodology (Lincoln & Guba, 2000). Since the aim was to study processes occurring in teacher and student beliefs, as well as processes relating to classroom practice when teachers and students are exposed to a technologybased learning environment, we chose to combine an exploratory case study with a collective case study (Yin, 1992). This allowed us to relate to each of the teachers as a separate case study, and at the same time, to relate to them all, holistically, as a group. Six teachers and 164 of their students in grades 4 to 6 participated in the study. Questionnaires and Data Analysis Various different research tools were used to gain a rich and comprehensive description of the processes experienced by each of the teachers. The research tools were developed specifically for the study and were openended. The tools comprised the following: personal, partially structured, interviews with teachers; open questionnaires for teachers and students; and classroom observations. The questionnaires and interviews were mainly used to study explicit educational beliefs and knowledge, while the classroom observations and weekly meetings with teaching staff were used to study teachers practices in the teaching and learning situations and provide indirect or implicit measures of the teachers beliefs. The student questionnaire contained 13 open-ended questions, and addressed student perceptions and attitudes regarding their learning experiences in the technology-based environment, their experiences in their regular learning environment, and the changes following their experiences. Two, five-point Likert-scale questions were also included to examine student attitudes and satisfaction with the new learning environment. The questionnaires for exploring the teachers beliefs were open-ended and contained eight questions relating to the meaning of the following six concepts: teaching, learning, student and teacher role, curriculum, and technology. These questionnaires were administered in each year of the project. The teachers were also asked to write two metaphors on the

287

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

concepts of teaching and learning. Additionally, the interviews following the research observations of the teachers in their classrooms or in their inservice training sessions probed their opinions regarding the changes in their professional environment and themselves, and their perceptions of the concepts of teaching and learning. The study employs the phenomenographic (Marton, 1986) approach to data analysis, whereby expressions used by subjects are grouped according to similarities, differences and complementaries. Teacher and student responses to the open questions were constantly analyzed for commonalities, cumulatively across the life of the study. Thus, the data were constantly reorganized and reinterpreted according to the categories emerging from the raw data provided by the study. These categories were compared and refined to reveal important sources of similarity and differences, until finally, several qualitative dimensions were obtained, reflecting different levels or modes of change in the teachers and students. In some cases, we used paradigms of learning, or Soters (1995) restructuring model and the expanded model of Levin & Nevo (1998), as a frame of reference for interpreting and classifying data. Thus, in some cases, the category interpretation was also theory based. There was 90% agreement between the three evaluators concerning the interpretation of the data and the categories obtained and after discussing the minor differences, consensus was established. Categories of Change The data analysis of the teachers educational beliefs pointed to changes in their perceptions of the following six concepts: the meaning of learning, the meaning of teaching, the role of the student in the learning situation, the role of the teacher, curriculum planning and implementation strategies, and the role of technology in classroom learning. In order to determine the changes in teacher beliefs, we analyzed each teachers definition of the concepts at the beginning, middle and end of the study, interpreting their conceptions in light of existing learning and teaching theories. The direction of change is indicated by the transition from beliefs reflecting behaviorist-positivist views to more contemporary views reflecting constructivist principles (social and individual). The numbers in parentheses indicate the weight assigned to a category after quantification of results. This enabled comparison of the changes in the various dimensions and teachers. Three levels of beliefs change emerged: (a) partial or no change (1), (b) significant change (2), and (c) radical change (3). Three qualitative levels of knowledge restructuring processes were also formed on the basis of Soters (1995) and Levin & Nevos (1998) classification: (a) Superficial (1), (b) Significant (2), and (c) Radical (3). Each

288

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

level is characterized by four variables: 1. degree of reflection, 2. tolerance for ambiguous situations, 3. tolerance for dissonance, and 4. modes of interaction with others. Dissonance was defined as the gap between new and existing educational views, goals and practices; and interactions with others, including the school principal or other authorities, fellow teachers, and students. Here too the numbers in parentheses show the degree of change. Classroom practices were evaluated according to the following dimensions, which reflect qualities of the lessons: 1. lesson structure and lesson planning flexibility, 2. type and range of learning activities, and 3. nature and diversity of teacher behaviors (practices). Three patterns of change in instructional approach were found: a. partial (minor) change (1). In this pattern of change, only minor changes were found in teacher-centered classroom practices. These mostly concerned the use of learning activities involving greater student involvement, though this was mostly technical greater use of databases and more printing of data; b. significant change (2): still characterized by an authoritative climate, with the teacher having the key role of preplanning the lessons. Here, however, the teacher encourages students to play an active part in the learning discourse, arranges more frequent groupwork and classroom discussion, and accepts more varied and creative solutions from students; c. remarkable change (3): this is characterized by great flexibility in classroom practices, curriculum planning and implementation. Students are involved in curriculum planning and we can define the class as student centered. Learning is interactive and authentic. The categories derived from the student responses relating to their view of learning in a technology-rich environment were: (a) learning as a social process, (b) learning as an explorative-thoughtful process, and (c) learning as a lifelong process. The categories relating to perceptions of the role of technology in classroom learning were: (a) technology as a technical instrument, (b) technology as an instrument that supports learning, and (c) technology as an intellectual partner. Research Design Before the action research started, the school was prepared to support the needs of a technology-based teaching and learning environment, and the instruments needed for the implementation phase were developed and tested. The preparation phase lasted about six months during which 1. technological equipment including computers, multimedia, and a variety of software were placed in classrooms, to constitute the communication network named Akavish (Hebrew: spider);

289

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

2. professional development strategies, contents and workshops were tentatively planned, and also a plan for mentoring the teachers classroom practices; 3. learning activities to be used with both students and teachers, demonstrations, and research tools were developed and tested on samples of teachers; 4. advisory teams or mentors, both educational technology experts and subject specialists, were trained to assist teachers with their classroom work. The advisory teams included school personnel as well as experts from the university and from Svivot (a software development company). A selected group of students was also trained to function as computer assistants in their own classrooms. In the school year that followed, teachers started to implement some new ideas concerning student learning, following a brief workshop before the school year began. They were also given ongoing assistance on request, and attended weekly, in-school workshops as a group. The workshops addressed two different kinds of activities: (1) those initiated by the teachers based on their experiences with their own students in the classroom, and (2) activities planned by the project leaders, dealing with the basic concepts and structure of information-rich tasks, different uses of information technology, introduction to general software capabilities, and examples of problem-based learning situations simulating learning by the teachers as a learning group. That is, the workshops contained activities, planned prior to the study, but also incorporated activities exploring teachers queries, interests, dilemmas and specific needs relating to classroom experiences pertinent to the study. The studys approach to teacher professional development is aligned with Putnam & Borkos (1997) situative perspective approach to professional development, emphasizing four essential features of effective teacher learning: 1. teachers are treated as active learners who construct their own understanding 2. teachers are treated as professionals; 3. teacher learning is in classroom practice; 4. teachers are treated as they were expected to treat their students, emphasizing social-constructivist principles of learning. More specifically, the teachers were involved in the following learning experiences: 1. Designing learning activities definable as information-rich tasks. 2. Implementing inquiry-based learning processes using information technology.
290

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

3. Learning new concepts, procedures, and skills for operating computers and for presenting information-rich, interdisciplinary tasks. 4. Experiencing learning in cooperative teams to encourage cooperative learning in the classroom; analysis of these learning processes. 5. Planning and evaluating interdisciplinary learning activities for students inside and outside the school. 6. Discussing and reflecting on classroom experiences while focusing on difficulties and problems, solutions and accomplishments. After presenting the project aims and details to the school staff and explaining the anticipated impact on the school, the school principal selected six teachers for the project: initially four were chosen from the fourth and fifth grades, and two more teachers were added in the second year. Thus, six teachers and 164 of their students participated in the study: four of the teachers were studied for three years, and two teachers for two years. Teachers attended the weekly workshops for two consecutive years and received personal tutoring whenever they required. Teachers involved in the study for three years received personal tutoring upon request in the third year and also met on their own to discuss issues mostly regarding their classroom experiences with their colleagues, yet no group-based professional development workshops conducted by professionals outside the school were available. While the students chosen as technology assistants did not attend the teachers workshops, they received their own training in workshops outside the school, led by a computer expert who was responsible for the technological implementation of the study. These workshops prepared the students for their classroom role, which was to operate the computers and be responsible for technology maintenance; to assist both teachers and students with technical problems; and to assist students in their learning projects. During each year of the project, a number of observations were made of each of the teachers classes. The total observations of the six teachers were 73 (Zipi 13; Zipora 12; Gila 9; Anat 10; Pnina 14; Hadasa 15), for the whole study. A further 43 observations were also carried out during the workshops to observe the teachers learning processes. The open questionnaires were administered to the teachers at the beginning of each year, and the personal interviews were conducted at the end of each year. The students open questionnaires were used in the final year of the study (after three years of participation for 54 students, two years for 49 students, and one year for 61 students).

291

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

Results The findings indicate that during the three-year period of teaching and learning in a technology-based environment, changes occurred in the educational beliefs and educational practices of teachers undergoing different kinds of knowledge restructuring processes. Educational Beliefs The changes in the teachers educational beliefs are evident from the changes in their views regarding basic educational concepts. These changes may be divided into three main groups, each involving a different kind of a conceptual change. 1. Teachers who experienced a superficial change or no change at all held mainly positivist and behaviourist-based pedagogical views. In metaphorical terms, they see learning as a sucking process, a tool or a sponge; teaching is a funnel through which the teacher pours substance and knowledge into the students mind; technology is a mechanical aid for either assisting with calculations or printing texts. These teachers plan their lessons around problems relating to a single, clear, easily found, unequivocal answer. They believe it is their job to explain and show students how to do their schoolwork. Pnina is an example of such a teacher. While at the beginning of her experience with the new learning environment, she subscribed to a teachercentered approach to teaching, after one year she began expressing beliefs indicating an appreciation of the unique needs of each student. She also changed her attitude toward technology from viewing it as a tool supporting traditional teaching, to a communicative tool and learning partner. However, Pninas views regarding the meaning of teaching, learning, and curriculum, indicated no significant change, and by the end of the project, she still saw teaching as synonymous with knowledge delivery, and learning as the absorption of knowledge, though not necessarily linearly. She also saw the curriculum as an organizational structure of contents to be used by teachers, and thought that teachers could influence minor issues regarding its implementation. 2. Significant change teachers experienced a profound transformation, moving from a positivist ideology to a relativistic one, with respect to all the concepts examined. The change in Ziporas view illustrates this category. Zipora changed her view of learning from knowledge accumulation to seeing it as knowledge change as a result of students needs and active engagement in real-life situations and cooperative groups. She also changed her view of teaching
292

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

from knowledge telling to viewing teaching as a support system, guiding student thinking and facilitating their self-efficacy. Zipora also changed her view of the value of interdisciplinary learning tasks. She developed a deeper appreciation of her students, viewing them as partners in planning instruction. At the end of the study Zipora sees technology as a partner for empowering student and teacher capabilities. However, her view of the curriculum is extremely traditional-positivist: she believes that only academic experts should devise the curriculum and that the teacher lacks the authority to make any curricular decision, thus reflecting a view of curriculum as a system of control. 3. Radical change teachers experienced a most significant change in moving from positivistic to constructivist educational ideologies. These teachers conceive learning as an infinite process of renewal undertaken collaboratively with students through understanding and experimentation. They consider technology a partner in the teaching and learning process. They also believe in the powerful capabilities of their students to exploit open-ended, creative learning opportunities, and diversified modes of learning in an attempt to discover and construct concepts and theories, by and for themselves, and to offer teachers curricular suggestions, and help in planning classroom activities. Hadasa is an example of this kind of teacher. When Hadasa entered the project, she had an authoritative view of teaching, which she saw as knowledge transmission. By the end of the project, she had arrived at a constructivist view of teaching as a collaborative process of restructuring knowledge for both teachers and students, and a view of learning as an active, meaning making, and an authentic process concerning real-life issues. At the start of the project, Hadasa seemed aware of the importance of her students knowledge and curiosity. However, over the years, she became a great believer in her students self-regulatory capabilities, their sense of responsibility and ability to be partners in instructional planning. She also changed her view of technology and began to see it not as a functional tool, but as a partner in the processes of learning and teaching. Knowledge Restructuring Teachers displayed three patterns of knowledge restructuring. The first pattern entailed a superficial process and comprised a low level of reflective behavior, low tolerance for ambiguous situations and high tolerance for dissonance. Meaningful interaction mainly occurred with formal authorities, e.g. principal or researcher. The second pattern of knowledge restructuring points to a significant, though not radical, process, and is characterized by a relatively high level of reflective behavior accompanied by low tolerance for

293

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

ambiguous situations and low tolerance for dissonance, or by high tolerance for ambiguous situations and high tolerance for dissonance. The teacher valued interactions with other teachers (peers) and students. The third, most desirable, pattern of knowledge restructuring was a radical process with a high level of reflective behavior, high tolerance for ambiguous situations and low tolerance for dissonance. Teachers developed their knowledge and practices through interaction with students and colleagues. The following illustrates the pattern of variables in a superficial knowledge restructuring process (Zipi): o Low level of reflection: I am aware of the change process and think about it during the workshops. o Low tolerance for ambiguous situations: It is hard to have to learn new material and teach it at the same time. o High tolerance for dissonance: The new approach offers no fixed, clearly defined curriculum. I expected a clear curriculum. ... Needing to plan it myself is hard. o Interaction with others, both authorities and colleagues: The school Inspector comes to explain the rationale for a new teaching approach. Hadasa is an example of a radical change teacher: o High level of reflection: I cant stop thinking about the new teaching processes ... . This thinking improves our understanding of what happens in the classroom. o High tolerance towards ambiguous situations: I am open to change because I believe in change. o Low tolerance for dissonance: I am scared of new things, but I believe this is the direction teaching must take. I keep confronting my fears and go along with the change. o Interactions with others, mainly colleagues and students: It is important for me to meet my colleagues ... they visit my class because I need feedback. The students are my partners ... I learn from my students. Classroom Practice Three patterns of change in teacher classroom practice were found: 1. Partial or no change: significant emphasis on centralized, rigid management of each lesson; the teacher inflexibly follows a preplanned route and goals; emphasis on specific contents rather than skills or mental processes; uses low-level questions to elicit a specific response; the computer is seen as a technical tool. 2. Significant change: the teacher has a central role in the classroom (preplanned lessons, well-defined, unified learning activities), but also encourages students to take an active role in the classroom discourse,
294

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

mainly in class discussions; allows students greater freedom to choose their mode of learning and classroom engagement. The teacher was totally dependent on the computer-expert students to guide their peers in using the computers. However, they also encouraged the students to use the computer software as a supplementary learning tool. 3. Remarkable change: high level of flexibility in classroom practice, curriculum planning and curriculum implementation; teacher acts as a learning facilitator rather than an instructor; learning is mainly collaborative, and learning activities are authentic, creative, and varied; the learning environment extends beyond the classroom walls; students become involved in curriculum planning and have enough freedom to develop self-regulated learning capabilities, which are strongly encouraged by the teacher; both teacher and students use the computer in a variety of ways as a communicative, research and learning partner.
Teachers name Zipi Zipora Gila Anat Penina Hadasa Mean SD Educational beliefs and index of change Partial Significant Significant Partial Partial Very significant 1 2 2 1 1 3 1.7 0.87 Knowledge restructuring and index of change Superficial 1 Radical 3 Radical Significant Significant Radical 3 2 2 3 2.3 0.74 Classroom practices and index of change Partial Remarkable Remarkable Significant Remarkable Remarkable 1 3 3 2 3 3 2.5 0.76

Table I. Pattern of change for each teacher and index of change by dimensions.

Table I summarizes the patterns of change for each teacher from the beginning of the study to the end, showing the changes generated by the three years experience in a technology-rich environment and intensive professional development experiences for the teachers. The results demonstrate that almost all the teachers showed different patterns of change. Based on the numbers indicating the degree of change of each category, where (1) indicates little or no change, (2) partial change and (3) a radical change, the results show that it is harder to change teachers beliefs than their classroom practices or knowledge restructuring processes. From the results, two patterns of change showed a high level of consistency for all the categories. The two patterns were optimal change (Hadasa) and minimal change (Zipi). The results also demonstrate a gap

295

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

between the teachers conceptual change and the changes in their classroom practice. Penina is a particularly good example of a teacher whose beliefs hardly changed and whose level of knowledge restructuring was superficial, but who demonstrated significant changes in her classroom practices. She introduced complex learning activities inside and outside school, demonstrated openness to a more flexible and not always planned curriculum, and a willingness to involve colleagues in her instructional processes. Similarly, with the pattern of change in Anats case: her classroom practice appeared to change more significantly than her educational views. Teachers and Students A positive relationship was found in the change patterns for teachers and students attitudes and perceptions. The students of teachers whose educational beliefs and classroom practices saw radical change were found to engage actively in the learning process and viewed learning as reflecting authentic or life-based experiences. They described meaningful learning as a process of dealing with and debating complex, context-related issues, where the phenomena should be examined from multiple perspectives and as a process where it is necessary to cope with higher mental process problems. They also expressed great appreciation for the role of technology in learning. Students from the classes of Hadasa, Zipora and Gila (whose changes were defined radical, significant and remarkable), expressed the following views of the role of information technology in their classroom: We invent and create all the time; We are dealing with real, life-based problems. On the other hand, the students in Zipis class, whose changes were characterized as partial and superficial, saw change in their class experiences as technical in nature; simply as the acquisition of new tools and skills: Information-rich tasks deal with tables and diagrams, thats important for us to know. Interestingly, we also found mismatches between the teachers pattern of change, particularly their view of technology, and their students view of instructional technology. One such example was Zipora, who saw technology as an intellectual partner capable of empowering student capabilities. In contrast, some 70% of her students referred to technology as a technical instrument and only 25% saw it as an instrument that supported learning. An opposite pattern was found in Gilas class, where Gila, unlike her students, saw technology as a guide to learning, but not as a learning and teaching partner. About 37% of Gilas students thought technology was a technical instrument, about 42% saw it as a learning partner, and only about 21% saw it as a learning guide.

296

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

Discussion and Implications Unlike many studies that examined the outcomes of educational change, this study explores the processes of both changing teachers learning and teaching ideologies and their educational practice. The study addressed the quality and uniqueness of the changes in each teacher, using a longitudinal analysis of an innovative approach to learning and teaching that focused on information-rich tasks in a technology-rich environment. The study shows that three years in a technology-rich learning environment produces relatively substantive change in teachers educational beliefs, knowledge and classroom practice. The most likely explanation involves a variation on the Trojan Horse theory (Becker, 1998); namely, that it is not just the technology, but the overall learning environment, with its emphasis on non-structured tasks, rich sets of technology-based information resources, and the exposure of teachers to new visions, that in fact change the teachers practice, knowledge and belief structure. The study supports Tillemas (1995) and Fullans (1991) views that teachers beliefs can be changed, even though educational beliefs are often considered permanent and difficult to alter despite the teachers schooling and experience (Pajares, 1992). It also confirms that belief systems can be dynamic, changing and restructurable when individuals become open and interested in evaluating their beliefs against a new set of experiences (Thompson, 1992). The present study also concurs with findings by Soter (1995) and Levin & Nevo (1998), demonstrating that changes occur in teacher knowledge restructuring processes following exposure to constructivist teaching approaches. These change processes, however, require a lengthy amount of time which is measured in years three to five years according to Dwyer et al (1991) and requires meaningful professional support. The processes of change are highly personal (vary from teacher to teacher), dynamic, and do not necessarily develop in a linear mode. Furthermore, although a belief system is built on interconnections between specific beliefs, there are indications in this study that some beliefs are easier to change than others. It seems that in a technology-rich environment where students are constantly challenged by open-ended rich information tasks and resources, and where they assume the role of tutors to their peers and teachers in operating and communicating with computers, it is easier for teachers to change their views of students and the students role in the learning process, and to perceive students as capable, selfregulated learners whose voice in the teaching process should be heard and whose mastery of the computer appreciated. In contrast, it is harder to encourage teachers to see learning as knowledge transformation instead of knowledge accumulation, and to see the curriculum as a dynamic, flexible, creative process where information and knowledge are contextualized and
297

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

prompted by unique qualities and needs, rather than an authoritative, discipline-based, well-defined knowledge structure which they must deliver. These results concur with Rokeach (1968), who argued that beliefs differ in intensity and power and vary along a centralperipheral dimension. The more central this dimension is, the greater is its resistance to change. The present study is significant and relevant for several reasons. First, it offers an important contribution to the exploration of teachers change when integrating information-rich tasks into a school curriculum in the context of a rich, technology-based environment. Its theoretical importance lies in the findings indicating that real change can occur in classroom practices even when the teacher cannot yet consciously conceptualize newly established educational beliefs. This supports Guskey (2002) and Fullan (1993), who suggest that a change in beliefs will follow, although it does not precede, a change in teacher practice. These findings may support the theory that changing educational beliefs is a gradual process and that during transition, multiple conceptions can coexist (Gunstone, 1994). Thus, when in transition, teachers face genuine complexities arising from their new technology-based environment. In order to cope, they take decisions and actions that affect their practical knowledge and then only later become salient stimuli in changing educational beliefs. This supports Beckers (1998) Trojan Horse theory, which implies that computers encourage and may require changes in practice that subsequently do in fact change the pedagogical beliefs of teachers. It also supports Argyris & Schns theories of action (1974), whereby human beings learn from their actions, and use what they learn to plan and carry out future actions which all ultimately affect their beliefs (Kane et al, 2002). The findings suggesting that a change in practice might form a precursor to a change in beliefs, contributes significantly to the theory of teacher thinking and teacher change and how these relate to teacher practice, since it points to a reciprocal rather than unidirectional link between teacher classroom practices, change in teachers educational beliefs and between teachers knowledge restructuring processes. Therefore, the present study does not support the claim that significant changes in teaching must be preceded by changes in teachers beliefs. Instead, this article shows that changes in teaching can take place without concomitant change in expressed teacher beliefs. Teachers knowledge and beliefs indeed influence and underpin their classroom practices, but at the same time, classroom experience also influences the way their educational beliefs and knowledge are shaped. Second, the study demonstrates that educational change involving the use of information technology is a multidimensional, individual process unique to each teacher. It underscores the fact that teachers respond

298

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

differently to a similar set of educationally innovative ideas relating to information technology in a technology-rich classroom. These results fit in with findings in other studies demonstrating the diversified experiences of teachers and the difficulty which exists in meaningfully changing beliefs in teaching, learning processes and classroom skills, even when teachers firmly believed that change was necessary and positively sought to change their professional work (Clandinin & Connelly, 1996). The present results also demonstrate that the constructivist approach to learning, according to which learning is a complex, interactive, changing, active and situated process that allows learners to individually construct their knowledge in a unique and meaningful way while confronting challenges and dilemmas, fears and excitement, is not only applicable to students but to teachers as well (Levin, 1999). The studys third contribution is that it amplifies the students voice in classroom research in general and in the information technology classroom, in particular. It backs the findings of Cope & Ward (2002), showing that teachers beliefs and their actual classroom practices influence their students views regarding the meaning of learning and the use of technology in the classroom. These results support and expand on the findings of Tynjala (1997) and Roschelle et al (2000) and suggest that changes in the learning environment, as evidenced by the teachers practices, beliefs and knowledge, actually influence student beliefs concerning their conceptions of learning as well as their attitudes towards learning in a technology-based environment. The study also points to a mixed relationship between the changes in teacher educational views and those of the students: in some cases both teacher and student changes are consistent or congruent, e.g. when a teacher demonstrates a constructivist approach to learning, the students tend to express a similar view of learning. For example: findings by Hennessy et al (2005) show that in the context of technology-based learning, the students and their teachers were united in their desire to protect core elements of conventional classroom practices and were worried that certain ways of using technology could curtail their thinking processes. In other cases, however, there is a mismatch between the teacher and student views. For example, a teacher might exhibit a constructivist ideology, while her students express mixed views. Thus, the study shows that the congruent relationship between views held by teachers and their students does not apply to all dimensions of the change process. While congruency may exist between students and teachers with regard to their views on teaching and learning, there may not be agreement on the use of technology in the classroom. This study supports the findings of Fulton & Torney-Purta (2000), who suggest that the use of technology in the classroom offers a natural

299

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

framework for increasing student responsibility, and affects not only student roles, but also teachers mindsets and trust in student knowledge and capabilities. This was evidenced by the present study findings, which showed that out of all the dimensions of teachers beliefs explored, what changed most for all six teachers was their view of students, students roles and the students classroom behaviors, even for teachers whose relatively traditional conceptions of teaching and learning remained intact. Fourth, the study sheds some light on different student views regarding the role of information technology. Particularly, it shows that students not only see educational technology as a learning tool, i.e. it helps them to learn, or as a finite, authoritative informational base which helps with a given task, but also as a medium through which they must negotiate meaning through interaction, interpretation, and collaboration. These results support the theories, which consider technology a medium for learning. These range from learning from technology (Maddux et al, 1997), through learning about technology (Jonassen, 1995) to the view of learning with technology (Boethel & Dimock, 1999). Finally, the study, although limited to exploring six teachers and their students for three years, shows that the use of information technology can indeed change how teachers and students function, live and feel in their classrooms. It allows us to see that not just computer technology, but a complex web of interrelated factors and expectations, a didactic and pedagogical task structure, and an organizational and educational mindset, are needed to support the successful implementation and impact of computer technology in the classroom. The study thus shows that Cuban (2001) is only partially right, and supports Salomons (1992) view that an effective technology-based learning environment is a new environment in which computer-afforded activities are fully integrated into other activities, affecting them and affected by them in turn. The implications of the study in terms of teacher professional growth and learning in the context of school change are that for professional guidance to be effective in restructuring teachers knowledge and educational perspectives, it must explore the thoughts, feelings and actual practice of both teachers and students in a variety of ways and using different means, at different times, during the implementation. This data will provide teachers, educators and researchers with a snapshot of teacher and student insights and knowledge. This will help to explain their actions or expectations and can assist in developing effective interventions. In particular, the study demonstrates that we cannot and should not rely simply on an examination of teachers explicit statements regarding their beliefs, knowledge or practices. In a period of transition, as teachers face new educational ideologies and aims, they may not in fact be aware of their own newly formed beliefs. Alternatively, they may nurture multiple

300

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

conceptions, due to feelings of insecurity about relinquishing long-held beliefs even if these beliefs are irrelevant in an era when information technology assumes its place as a well-respected member of the educational community. Furthermore, while most professional development programs aimed at technology integration in schools are instructionist, this study demonstrates that an effective approach to teachers professional growth should be based on teachers learning in the context of their regular classroom practice. It also demonstrates that although it is important to focus on the individual teachers professional development as suggested by the traditional cognitive approach to teachers learning, it is also equally important to focus on the interactions between the different participants in the new educational experience, which includes interaction with educational experts, expert students, learning resources (materials) and representational systems (Greeno, 1997), thus reflecting the situative perspectives as well. Indeed the study supports Putnam & Borkos (2000) views on teacher professional development in general, and particularly professional development in the context of technology integration. The study shows the application of the three conceptual themes defined as central to situative perspectives, namely: o that cognition is situated in particular physical and social contexts; o that it is social in nature; o that knowing is distributed across the individual, others, and tools. The study thus supports the sociocentric view (Soltis, 1981) of knowledge and learning and argues that our understanding of knowledge, and how we think and express our ideas, are the products of our interactions with groups of people over time. Through the project, the teachers and students in our study came to form a discourse community that differed from the familiar community they were used to, and their experiences, while mainly in the classroom, also took place outside the classroom and the school. Thus, we can view the learning and change processes that the teachers and their students experienced as much a matter of enculturation into a communitys ways of thinking and dispositions as the result of their explicit practice with rich technology tasks in a rich technology-based classroom. Correspondence Tamar Levin, School of Education, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel (tami1@post.tau.ac.il).

301

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

Note
[1] A short version of this article, presented at the Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education 2004 conference in Atlanta, received a Best Paper Award.

References
Alexander, S. (1999) An Evaluation of Innovative Projects Involving Communication and Information Technology in Higher Education, Higher Education Research and Development, 18, pp. 173-184. Argyris, C. & Schn, D. (1974) Theory in Practice: increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Becker, H.J. (1998) The Influence of Computer and Internet Use on Teachers Pedagogical Practices and Perceptions, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, April. Becker, H.J. & Ravitz, J.L. (2001) Computer Use by Teachers: are Cubans predictions correct? paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, Seattle. Boethel, M. & Dimock, V. (1999) Constructing Knowledge with Technology: a review of the literature. Austin: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. Bruenjes, L.S. (2002) A Multi-case Study Investigating the Disposition of Faculty Use of Technology as a Teaching and Learning Tool in the Higher Education Classroom, doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Lowell. Buchanan, T., Burts, D.C., Bidner, J., White, V.F. & Charlesworth, R. (1998) Predictors of the Developmental Appropriateness of the Beliefs and Practices of First, Second, and Third Grade Teachers, Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13(3), pp. 459-483. Burkhardt, H., Fraser, R. & Ridgeway, J. (1990) The Dynamics of Curriculum Change, in I. Wirszup & R. Streit (Eds) Development in School Mathematics Education Around the World, vol. 2, pp. 3-29. Reston: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Burton, D.B. (2003) Technology Professional Development: a case study, Academic Exchange Quarterly, 7(2), pp. 2378-2381. Chan, K.W. & Elliott, R.G. (2000) Exploratory Study of Epistemological Beliefs of Hong Kong Teacher Education Students: resolving conceptual and empirical issues, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 28, pp. 225-234. Clandinin, D.J. & Connelly, F.M. (1996) Teachers Professional Knowledge Landscapes: teacher stories stories of teachers, school stories stories of schools, Educational Researcher, 25(3), pp. 24-30. Clark, C.M. & Peterson, P.L. (1986) Teachers Thought Processes, in M.C. Wittrock (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3rd edn, pp. 255-296. New York: Macmillan. Cohen, M. (1987) Improving School Effectiveness: lessons from research, in V. Koehier (Ed.) Handbook Research on Teaching. New York: Longman.

302

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

Cope, C. & Ward, P. (2002) Integrating Technology into Classrooms: the importance of teachers perceptions, Educational Technology & Society, 5(1), pp. 436-452. Cothran, D.J. & Ennis, C.D. (1997) Students and Teachers Perceptions of Conflict and Power, Teaching and Teacher Education, 13, pp. 541-553. Cothran, D.J. & Ennis, C.D. (1998) Curricula of Mutual Worth: comparisons of students and teachers curricular goals, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17, pp. 307-327. Cotterall, S. (1995) Readiness for Autonomy: investigating learner beliefs, System, 23, pp. 195-205. Cox, M., Abbott, C., Webb, M., Blakeley, B., Beauchamp, T. & Rhodes, V. (2004) A Review of the Research Literature Relating to ICT and Attainment. London: Department for Education and Skills. Cuban, L. (1986) Teachers and Machines: the classroom use of technology since 1920. New York: Teachers College Press. Cuban, L. (1993) How Teachers Taught: constancy and change in American classrooms 1880-1990. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Cuban, L. (2001) Oversold and Underused: computers in the classroom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Cuban, L., Kirkpatrick, H. & Peck, C. (2001) High Access and Low Use of Technology in High School Classrooms: explaining an apparent paradox, American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), pp. 813-834. Cullingford, C. (1991) The Inner World of the School: childrens ideas about schools. London: Cassell. Davis, M.M., Konopak, B.C. & Readence, J.E. (1993) An Investigation of Two Chapter 1 Teachers Beliefs about Reading and Instructional Practices, Reading Research and Instruction, 33, pp. 105-133. Deaney, R., Ruthven, K. & Hennessy, S. (2003) Pupil Perspectives on the Contribution of Information and Communication Technology to Teaching and Learning in the Secondary School, Research Papers in Education, 18, pp. 141-165. Department of Education (1998) Learning Technologies: teacher capabilities guide. Melbourne: Community Information Service. Dexter, L., Anderson, R.E. & Becker, H.J. (1999) Teachers Views of Computers as Catalysts for Changes in their Teaching Practice, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 31, pp. 221-252. Dwyer, D.C., Ringstaff, C. & Sandholtz, J.H. (1991) Changes in Teachers Beliefs and Practices in Technology-rich Classrooms, Educational Technology, 48(8), pp. 45-52. Elen, J. & Clarebout, G. (2001) An Invasion in the Classroom: influence of an illstructured innovation on instructional and epistemological beliefs, Learning Environments Research, 4, pp. 87-105. Ertmer, P.A. & Hruskocy, C. (1999) Impacts of University/Elementary School Partnership Designed to Support Technology Integration, Educational Technology Research and Development, 47, pp. 81-96.

303

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

Ertmer, P.A., Addison, P., Lane, M., Ross, E. & Woods, D. (1999) Examining Teachers Beliefs about the Role of Technology in the Elementary Classroom, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32, pp. 54-72. Fang, Z. (1996) A Review of Research on Teacher Beliefs and Practices, Educational Research, 38, pp. 47-65. Farrell, E., Peguero, G., Lindsey, R. & White, R. (1988) Giving Voice to High School Students: pressure and boredom, ya know what Im sayin? American Educational Research Journal, 25, pp. 489-502. Fifoot, B. (2000) The New Task of the Computer-able Teacher, Journal of the QLD Society for Information Technology in Education, 75, pp. 18-19. Fullan, M.G. (1991) The New Meaning of Educational Change, 2nd edn. New York: Teachers College Press. Fullan, M.G. (1993) Change Forces: probing the depths of educational reform. Bristol: Falmer Press. Fulton, K. & Torney-Purta, J. (2000) How Teachers Beliefs about Teaching and Learning are Reflected in their Use of Technology: case studies from urban middle schools, paper presented at the International Conference on Learning with Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia. Gobbo, C. & Girardi, M. (2001) Teachers Beliefs and the Integration of Information and Communications Technology in Italian Schools, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 10(1&2), pp. 63-85. Golombek, P.R. (1998) A Study of Language Teachers Personal Practical Knowledge, TESOL Quarterly, 32(3), pp. 447-464. Greeno, J.G. (1997) On Claims that Answer the Wrong Questions, Educational Researcher, 26, pp. 5-17. Gregoire, R., Bracewell, R. & Laferriere, T. (1996) The Contribution of New Technologies to Learning and Teaching in Elementary and Secondary Schools documentary review. Laval University and McGill University. Gunstone, R.F. (1994) The Importance of Specific Science Content in the Enhancement of Metacognition, in P.J. Fensham, R.F. Gunstone, R.T. White (Eds) The Content of Science: a constructivist approach to its teaching and learning. London: Falmer Press. Guskey, T.R. (2002) Professional Development and Teacher Change, Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 8(3/4), pp. 381-391. Handal, B., Bobis, J. & Grimison, L. (2001) Teachers Mathematical Beliefs and Practices in Teaching and Learning Thematically, in J. Bobis, B. Perry & M. Mitchelmore (Eds) Numeracy and Beyond. Proceedings of the Twentyfourth Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia Inc, pp. 265-272. Sydney: MERGA. Hennessy, S., Ruthven, K. & Brindley, S. (2005) Teacher Perspectives on Integrating ICT into Subject Teaching: commitment, constraints, caution and change, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37, pp. 155-192. Honey, M., Culp, K.M. & Carrigg, F. (2000) Perspectives on Technology and Education Research: lessons from the past and present, Educational Computing Research, 23, pp. 5-14.

304

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

Jacobsen, D.M. (2002) Building Different Bridges Two: a case study of transformative professional development for student learning with technology, paper presented at AERA 2002: Validity and Value in Educational Research, the 83rd Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, 1-5 April. Jonassen, D. (1995) Supporting Communities of Learners with Technology: a vision for integrating technology with learning in schools, Educational Technology, 35(4), pp. 60-63. Kane, R., Sandretto, S. & Heath, C. (2002) Telling Half the Story: a critical review of research on the teaching beliefs and practices of university academics, Review of Educational Research, 72, pp. 177-228. Knapp, L.R. & Glenn, A.D. (1996) Restructuring Schools with Technology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Leach, J. & Moon, J. (2000) Pedagogy, Information and Communications, The Curriculum Journal, 11, pp. 385-404. Leach, J. & Moon, B. (2002) Globalisation, Digital Societies and School Reform: realising the potential of new technologies to enhance the knowledge, understanding and dignity of teachers, 2nd European Conference on Information Technologies in Education and Citizenship: a critical insight, Barcelona. Levin, T. (1999) The Non Linear Curriculum, in S. Sharan, H. Shachar & T. Levin, The Innovative School, Organization and Instruction. Westport: Greenwood. Levin, T. & Nevo, Y. (1998) Knowledge Restructuring and Teacher Change in the Context of Transdisciplinary Curriculum, in the International Yearbook on Teacher Education, Proceedings of the 44th World Assembly of the International Council of Education for Teaching (ICET), Arlington, VA. Lincoln, Y.S. & Guba, E.G. (2000) Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions and Emerging Confluences, in N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2nd edn, pp. 163-188. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Lovat, T.J. & Smith, D. (1995) Curriculum: action on reflection revisited. Sydney: Social Science Press. Loveless, A. & Ellis, V. (Eds) (2001) ICT, Pedagogy and the Curriculum: subject to change. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Maddux, C.D., LaMont Johnson, L. & Willis, J.W. (1997) Educational Computing: learning with tomorrows technologies, 2nd edn. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon. Mann, B. (2000) Internet Provision of Enrichment Opportunities to School and Home, Journal of the Australian Council for Educational Computing, 15, pp. 17-21. Maor, D. & Taylor, P.C. (1995) Teacher Epistemology and Scientific Inquiry in Computerized Classroom Environments, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32, pp. 839-854. Marton, F. (1986) Phenomenography a research approach to investigating different understandings of reality, Journal of Thought, 21(3), pp. 28-49.

305

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

McCormick, R. & Scrimshaw, P. (2001) Information and Communications Technology, Knowledge and Pedagogy, Education, Communication and Information, 1, pp. 37-57. Newhouse, P. (1998) The Impact of Portable Computers on Classroom Learning Environments, The Australian Journal of Educational Computing, 13, pp. 5-11. Olson, J. (2000) Trojan Horse or Teachers Pet? Computers and the Culture of the School, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 32, pp. 1-8. Pajares, M. (1992) Teachers Beliefs and Educational Research: cleaning up a messy construct, Review of Educational Research, 62, pp. 307-332. Parr, J. (1999) Extending Educational Computing: a case of extensive teacher development and support, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 31, pp. 280-291. Pierson, M. (2001) Technology Practice as a Function of Pedagogical Expertise, Journal of Research on Computing on Education, 33, pp. 413-430. Prawat, R. (1990) Changing Schools by Changing Teachers Beliefs about Teaching and Learning. Elementary Subjects Center Series, No. 19. Lansing: Michigan State University, Center for the Learning and Teaching of Elementary Subjects Institute for Research on Teaching. Putnam, R.T. & Borko, H. (1997) Teacher Learning: implications of new views of cognition, in B.J. Biddle, T.L. Good & I.F. Goodson (Eds) The International Handbook of Teachers and Teaching, vol. II, pp. 1223-1296. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Putnam, R.T. & Borko, H. (2000) What Do Views about Knowledge and Thinking have to Say about Research on Teacher Learning?, Educational Researcher, 29, pp. 4-15. Richardson, V. (1996) The Role of Attitudes and Beliefs in Learning to Teach, in J. Sikula (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Teacher Education, pp. 102-119. New York: Macmillan. Rokeach, M. (1968) Beliefs, Attitudes and Values: a theory of organization and change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Roschelle, J.M., Pea, R.D., Hoadley, C.M., Gordin, D.N. & Means, B.M. (2000) Changing How and What Children Learn in School with Computer-based Technologies, The Future of Children, 10(2), pp. 76-101. Salomon, G. (1992) Effects with and of Computers and the Study of Computer-based Learning Environments, in E. De Corte, M. Linn, H. Mandl & L. Verschaffel (Eds) Computer-based Learning Environments and Problem-solving, pp. 247-262. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Sandholtz, J.H., Ringstaff, C. & Dwyer, D.C. (1997) Teaching with Technology: creating student-centered classrooms. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Semple, A. (2000) Learning Theories and their Influence of the Development and Use of Educational Technologies, Australian Science Teachers Journal, 46(3), pp. 21-28. Slough, S.W. & Chamblee, G.E. (2000) Implementing Technology in Secondary Science and Mathematics Classrooms: a perspective on change, in Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education 306

BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN RICH TECHNOLOGY-BASED CLASSROOMS

International Conference, San Diego, 1-3 March, pp. 1021-1026. San Diego: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Soltis, J.F. (1981) Education and the Concept of Knowledge, in J.F. Soltis (Ed.) Philosophy and Education, pp. 95-113. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education. Soter, A.O. (1995) Teacher Learning over Time: accommodations, reconceptualizations and radical transformations, in R. Hoz & M. Silberstein (Eds) Partnerships of Schools and Institutions of Higher Education in Teacher Development, pp. 303-322. Beer Sheva: Ben Gurion University of the Negev Press. Sproull, L. & Kiesler, S. (1991) Connections: new ways of working in the networked organization. Cambridge: MIT Press. Thompson, A. (1992) Teachers Beliefs and Conceptions: a synthesis of the research, in D. Grouws (Ed.) Handbook of Research in Mathematics Teaching and Learning, pp. 127-146. New York: Macmillan. Tillema, H.H. (1995) Changing the Professional Knowledge and Beliefs of Teachers: a training study, Learning and Instruction, 5, pp. 291-318. Trigwell, K., Prosser, M. & Waterhouse, F. (1999) Relations Between Teachers Approaches to Teaching and Students Approaches to Learning, Higher Education, 37, pp. 57-70. Tynjala, P. (1997) Developing Education Students Conceptions of the Learning Process in Different Learning Environments, Learning and Instruction, 7, pp. 277-292. Yin, R.K. (1992) The Case Study Method as a Tool for Doing Evaluation, Current Sociology, 40, pp. 119-137. Yocum, K. (1996) Teacher-centered Staff Development for Integrating Technology into Classrooms, Technology Horizons in Education, 24(4), pp. 88-91.

307

Tamar Levin & Rivka Wadmany

308