Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
200405021
Abstract
In this report I will be introducing Relativistic Quantum Mechanics in order to lead to a discussion
on the Klein paradox and the Aharonov-Bohm effect. Along the way will be a reminder of the
Schrödinger equation, before moving onto the beginnings of relativistic quantum mechanics with
the Klein-Gordon equation then onto the Dirac equation. Gauge theory plays a crucial part in the
prediction of the Aharonov-Bohm effect, hence this will be introduced.
“I think I can safely say that nobody understands Quantum Mechanics.” – R P Feynman
Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 1
Contents .................................................................................................................................................. 2
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Review of Non-Relativistic Quantum Mechanics .................................................................................... 3
The Schrödinger Equation ................................................................................................................... 3
Observables and Operators (3) ............................................................................................................. 4
Relativistic Quantum Mechanics ............................................................................................................. 7
The Klein-Gordon Equation ................................................................................................................. 7
Derivation ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Problems with the Klein-Gordon Equation ..................................................................................... 8
Recovering the Schrödinger Equation from the Klein-Gordon Equation ...................................... 10
Dirac Equation ................................................................................................................................... 11
Energy-Momentum Relationship .................................................................................................. 12
Probability Density ........................................................................................................................ 13
Lorentz Covariance ........................................................................................................................ 14
Klein Paradox................................................................................................................................. 14
E-M Theory and Potentials .................................................................................................................... 19
Gauge Theory .................................................................................................................................... 19
Minimal Coupling .............................................................................................................................. 21
Gauge Transform of the Dirac Equation ........................................................................................... 23
Aharonov-Bohm (A-B) Effect ................................................................................................................. 24
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 29
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... 29
References............................................................................................................................................. 30
justified as a suitable equation by taking a simple plane wave and using Planck’s law and the de
Broglie’s hypothesis. (3)
A exp i k x t (1.1)
Where A is the complex normalisation constant, k is the wave vector, x is the position vector, ω is
the angular frequency and t is time.
For the moment it is assumed that we are working in one dimension. Taking the 2nd derivative of
(1.1) with respect to x we get
2
k 2 (1.2)
x 2
p2 2 k 2
E (1.3)
2m 2m
2 2
E (1.4)
2m x 2
i
t
i
(1.5)
dt
E (1.6)
E i (1.7)
t
Since E must be the same in each case (1.4) and (1.7) can be set equal to each other to get
2 2
i (1.8)
t 2m x 2
The Schrödinger equation can easily be changed to three dimensions and also changed for a
particle in a potential to form the time dependant Schrödinger equation below.
2 2
i V x, t (1.9)
t 2m
2 2 2
Where
2
x 2 y 2 z 2
Aˆ * ( x, t ) Aˆ x, t dx
(1.10)
Aˆ 2 * ( x, t ) Aˆ 2 x, t dx
(1.11)
Taking a generalised wave equation relating the position wave function, , and the momentum
1 ipx
x, t p, t exp dp (1.12)
2
1 ipx
p, t x, t exp dp (1.13)
2
In both equations (1.12) and (1.13), p is the momentum and the rest of the symbols have the
same definitions as in the Schrödinger equation.
p p, t
2
p dp (1.14)
Where ( p, t ) *
2
1 ipx
p x, t p p, t exp dp
2
1 ipx
i p, t exp dp
x 2
i x, t (1.15)
x
By taking a similar approach with the expectation value of the mean square of the momentum
1 ipx
p 2 x, t p p, t exp
2
dp
2
1 ipx
i
x 2 p p, t exp
dp
ipx
1
i i
x x 2 p, t exp
dp
2
2 x, t (1.17)
x 2
2
p 2 * x, t 2 2 x, t dx (1.18)
x
So from(1.10), (1.11) and (1.16), (1.18) we can see that the momentum observable , p, is
represented by the momentum operator
p̂ i (1.19)
x
Which becomes
p̂ i (1.20)
In 3 dimensions.
There is also an operator associated with the energy. The energy observable is given by
p2
E V x . To change this into an operator we have to put in the momentum operator
2m
(1.19) and the position operator x xˆ giving
Ĥ is known as the Hamiltonian operator and the eigenvalues of it are the energy of the system
such that Hˆ x, t E x, t .(4)
The first attempt at a relativistic quantum theory was in 1926(5) by Klein and Gordon with the
Klein-Gordon Equation but there were problems with their equation some of which will be
discussed below. This was then followed in 1928 by the Dirac Equation which correctly describes
elementary spin ½ particles, such as the electron. (6)(7)
Derivation (8)(9)
In 1926 Klein and Gordon attempted a relativistic version of the Schrödinger equation by first
finding a Lorenz invariant version of the Hamiltonian(1.21). They used
H 2 p 2 c 2 m2 c 4 (2.1)
H 2 2 2 c 2 m 2 c 4 (2.2)
When we return to the free particle Schrödinger equation with our new Hamiltonian we see that
2
2
2 c 2 2 m 2 c 4 0
t 2
2 2
2
2
m 2 c 2 0
c 2 t 2 x 2
2 2 m2c 2
2 0
x0 x
2 2
2 m2c 2
2 0 (2.4)
1 2
Which is the Klein-Gordon Equation, where 2 2 .
c 2 t 2
The second problem with the Klein-Gordon equation is that of a positive definite probability
density, ρ. In order to find the probability density we have to find the conservation equation for
the Klein-Gordon equation. For this we need the complex conjugate of equation (2.4)
2 m2c 2 *
2 0 (2.6)
1 2 * 2 * m2c 2 *
0 (2.7)
c 2 t 2 x 2 2
If we now take the complex conjugate wave function multiplied by (2.4) and subtract the wave
function times (2.7) and set it equal to 0.
i * * i *
2
* 0 (2.9)
t 2mc t t 2m
After some manipulation(8). If we then compare (2.9) with the standard continuity equation
j 0 (2.10)
t
Where is the probability density and j is the probability density current, we would like to
interpret
i * *
(2.11)
2mc 2 t t
as the probability density. However a probability density has to be a positive definite expression
which this is not.
To find out what (2.11) is, we use a plane wave of the form
expi k x t (2.12)
And
2
i 2
t t 2
2
ik k 2 (2.13)
x x 2
i i k x t
i e
i k x t
e
i k x t
i e
i k x t
e (2.14)
2
2mc
i
i * i *
2
2mc
* (2.15)
mc 2
Using equations (2.4) and (2.13) to find the allowed frequencies of (2.12) we find that
1 2 m2c 2
2
0
c 2 t 2 2
2 m2c 2
2 k 2 2 0
c
2 4
mc
2 c2k 2 2 (2.16)
mc 2
(2.17)
* (2.18)
expi k x t (2.19)
i (2.20)
t
1
mc 2 k 2 2 2
1 (2.21)
m2c 2
Now using a Taylor expansion to the first two terms to approximate (2.21)
mc 2
1 2 2
k
1 2 2 2
1! m c
mc 2 1 k 2
(2.22)
2 m
mc 2 1 k 2
i
t 2 m
1 2k 2
i mc 2
t 2 m
2 2
i mc 2 (2.23)
t 2m x 2
Dirac Equation
Much of the following is adapted from Bjorken and Drell. (8)
In 1928 Dirac took the search for a relativistically covariant version of the Schrödinger equation
down a different route to Klein and Gordon. He noticed that the Schrödinger equation is linear in
the time derivative and decided that the Hamiltonian should be linear in the space derivatives
too. He suggested an equation of the form
i ic 1 1 2 2 3 3 mc 2 H (3.1)
t x x x
For this to be a suitable form the constants and must be square matrices and must be a
column matrix, this will led to a set of coupled first order equations
In order for it to be a candidate it must satisfy the same energy momentum relationship as the
Klein-Gordon Equation, give a continuity equation with a positive definite probability density and
be Lorentz Covariant.
Energy-Momentum Relationship
In order for (3.1) to be a suitable equation it must first give the correct energy momentum
relationship (2.3) as in the Klein-Gordon equation. This can be done by taking the derivative of
(3.1) with respect to time and multiplying by i which gives
2
2 i i
t 2
t t
3 j i i j 2 3
2 c 2 imc3 i i 2 m 2c 4 (3.3)
i , j 1 2 x xi j
i , j 1 xi
In order for (3.3) to be equal to (2.3) the following must be true about the coefficient matrices
i j j i 2 ij
i i 0 (3.4)
i2 2 1
Where ij 1 for i j and 0 for i j . The other restriction on the matrices is that they must
be hermitian so that the Hamiltonian of equation (3.1)is also hermitian. From the third equation
in (3.4) we know that the eigenvalues of the matrices are 1 and from the anti-commutation
properties the sum of the diagonal elements, the trace, must be zero. From this we know that
the matrices must also be even dimensional matrices because if trace is zero and the diagonal
elements are the eigenvalues then there must be an equal number of positive and negative
eigenvalues which can only occur if the matrix is evenly dimensional.
The first suitable matrix is a 4x4 matrix, this is because a 2x2 matrix can only contain the 3 Pauli
matrices because they are anti-commutating, and the identity matrix which can commute with
the Pauli matrices which is not allowed by (3.4). The usual choice of the first matrix combination
is
0 1
1 x
1 0
0 i
2 y (3.6)
i 0
1 0
3 z
0 1
1 is the 2x2 identity matrix and 0 is the 2x2 zero matrix. By using equations(3.4), (3.5)and (3.6)
we can recover the correct energy-momentum relationship,(2.3) from (3.3).
Probability Density
The second criterion which (3.1) must satisfy is to give a positive definite probability density. To
do this we need the hermitian conjugates of the wave function and of(3.1). The hermitian
conjugate is the complex conjugate of the transpose of the matrix denoted by † . The hermitian
† † † †
i ic 1† 1 2† 2 3† 3 † mc 2 † (3.7)
t x x x
† 3
3
†
i † i ic † k k mc 2 † ic k k mc 2 †
t t k 1 x k 1 x
i † ic k † k
3
t k 1 x
i † ic k † k 0
3
(3.8)
t k 1 x
Comparing this with equation (2.10) we can make the identification that
† (3.9)
i 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 mc 0
c t x x x
i 1 1 2 2 3 3 mc 0 (3.10)
c t x x x
1
We know that 0 and if we set 0 and i i where i 1, 2,3 we get to
c t x
i 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 mc 0
x x x x
i mc 0 (3.11)
x
0 i 1 0
i 0 (3.12)
i 0 0 1
Equation (3.11) is Lorentz covariant and this is proved in detail in Bjorken and Drell chapter 2. (8)
Klein Paradox
Let’s have a look at what happens to an electron incident on a potential barrier in the z direction.
For and electron in region 1 with an energy E and a momentum p=pz we have
2
E
p m c
2 2 2
(3.13)
c
E V0
2
p m c
2 2 2
(3.14)
c
As we are only working in one dimension we can reduce the Dirac equation (3.1) to
i ic 3 mc
2
t z
c pˆ mc 2 E (3.15)
For region 1 with α=α3 and p=pz and for region 2 we get
c pˆ mc E V
2
0 (3.16)
If we now look at the possible solutions for the incident, reflected and transmitted waves. The
incident wave in region 1, travelling left to right has a solution of (8)
1
0
inc aeik1z ck1 (3.17)
2
E mc
0
1 0
0 1
ref be ik1z ck1 be 1 0
ik z
(3.18)
2
E mc ck1
0 E mc 2
giving
1 0
0 1
trans deik2 z ck2 d eik2 z 0 (3.19)
2
E V0 mc ck2
0 E V0 mc 2
In order for the solutions above to be correct the wave must be continuous across the boundary
so that means that
By choosing a coordinate system where z=0 exactly at the boundary and using equations (3.17),
(3.18), (3.19) and (3.20)we can calculate a, b, b’, d and d’ for the wave functions. Using the
matrices we get 4 simultaneous equations.
k2 E mc 2
Now using the fact that at the boundary eikz e0 1and letting r
k1 E V0 mc 2
From the 2nd and 4th equations in (3.22) we can see that the wave function is only continuous if
b d 0 . This also tells us that there is no spin flip at the boundary.
d
a 1 r
2
d
b 1 r
2
b 1 r
(3.23)
a 1 r
d 2
a 1 r
These will be useful in a moment once we have calculated the particle currents. The particle
current is given by j ( z ) c † ( z )3 ( z ) . This has to be calculated for the incident, reflected
1
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 ik1z
ck1 0 0
jinc ca †e ik1z 1 0 0 ae ck1
E mc 2 1 0 0 0 2
0 1 0 0
E mc
0
ck1
E mc 2
ck1
ca † a 1 0 0 0
E mc 2 1
0
ck1 ck1
ca † a
E mc E mc 2
2
c 2 k1
2a † a (3.24)
E mc 2
c 2 k1
jref 2b†b (3.25)
E mc 2
and
c 2 k1
jtrans 2d † d (3.26)
E V0 mc 2
Now if we compute the ratio of the reflected and transmitted currents to the incident current and
using the equations in (3.23) we get
jtrans 4r
(3.27)
1 r
2
jinc
And
1 r
2
jref
(3.28)
1 r
2
jinc
k2 E mc 2
Remembering that r . Looking at the limits of equations (3.27)and (3.28) as
k1 E V0 mc 2
V0 E mc 2 , (i.e. r 0 ).
Looking at (3.27) if r 0 then the whole equation is negative which is implying that the
transmitted current is travelling in the opposite direction to the incident current. This is rather
counter intuitive as you would expect the transmitted current to be travelling the same direction.
Leaving (3.27) for a moment to look at(3.28). When r 0 the equation is negative, this implies
that the reflected current is travelling in the opposite direction to the incident wave as expected
jref
but 1 which implies that the reflected current is greater than the incident current which is
jinc
counter intuitive. Together the above analysis point to a current being produced in region 2
travelling from right to left. But where is this current coming from? We have assumed up until
this point that region 2 is empty, clearly this cannot be the case as electrons are leaving it
producing the current. So in order to make sense of this we have to reassess this assumption. If
we change the assumption to be that all electron states with energy E mc 2 must all be
occupied with electrons, then in region 2 when a potential is applied the electron energy is raised.
Gauge Theory
Gauge theories are a general class of quantum field theories which are used to describe
elementary particles and their interactions. Electromagnetic (EM) theory closely relates the
behaviour of the forces to the symmetry principle. The principle of symmetry in the real world is
basically an operation in which the object looks the same before and after. This can be applied to
the laws of physics too, if we can perform some mathematical operation on an equation and
leave it looking as it did before the equation is said to be invariant under a transformation. A very
important fact that we need to know is the difference between a global and local invariance. A
global invariance is one in which a transformation occurs simultaneously throughout space and
time and a local invariance is one in which different transforms are carried out at different space-
time points. Unfortunately many globally invariant theories, such as EM, are not locally invariant
but by a clever choice of fields acting on a particle a local invariance can be restored to the
system. To demonstrate this I will use Maxwell’s equations.
E (4.1)
B
E (4.2)
t
B 0 (4.3)
E
B j (4.4)
t
E
Maxwell modified (4.4) to include the term otherwise, from the continuity equation, (2.10),
t
the charge density would have to be constant in time. The extra term also allows the charge
density to be locally conserved. As we already know the continuity equation tells us that charge
must be locally conserved which also means that it is globally conserved. Why must it be locally
conserved? In order to globally conserve it but not locally we would have to be able to transmit
signals instantaneously across any distance which is not possible because it would violate special
relativity.
B A (4.5)
And
A
E V (4.6)
t
Using (4.5) and (4.6) we can see that (4.2)and (4.3)are satisfied straight away.
A major point to note about A and V is that they are not unique for a certain value of B or E which
means that they can be transformed while leaving E and B unchanged. So what are the
transformations which allow this to be the case?
A A A (4.7)
B A
A
A
A (4.8)
transform as well as A. Let us now look at inserting (4.7)into (4.6)to find the transformation of V.
A
E V
t
V A
t
A
V
t t
A
V (4.9)
t t
If we now compare (4.9) to (4.6) we see that in order for it to be invariant V V which
t
implies that V V .
t
A
E V
t t t
A
V (4.10)
t
This can all be re-written in a compact form using the 4-vector potential, A V , A (12). This
transforms as
A A (4.11)
x
Where ,
x t .
Minimal Coupling
So now, how is the Dirac equation connected to electromagnetism?
i i m (4.12)
t
eiq (4.13)
Where q is charge and χ and ψ are functions of r and t. If we now take the gradient of (4.13)
eiq
eiq iq (4.14)
We see that we have now gained the term e iq . The method of resolving this problem
iq
is to introduce the field A into the gradient in such a way as to be able to cancel out this term. So
if we introduce the field using
iqA (4.15)
Now we get
Then if we make it so that A A the theory is now invariant under the gauge
transformation.
iq
e
t t
iq
iq e eiq
t t
eiq iq (4.17)
t t
We have gained the term eiq iq , if we now introduce the scalar potential V such that so
t
iq
iqV iqV e
t t
eiq iqV eiq
t
eiq iq V
t
(4.19)
t
In the same was as for the gradient we can make it that V V . So taking what we know
t
from (4.15)and (4.18)and putting it into the Dirac equation, (4.12)we can get it in the gauge
invariant form
i iqV i iqA m
t
i qV i qA m
t
i i qA m qV (4.20)
t
i i eA m eV (4.21)
t
This equation expresses the minimal coupling of the Dirac equation to an electromagnetic field
when the Dirac particle is taken to be a point charge, in this case an electron.(8)
Taking
i i qA m qV (4.22)
t
V V (4.24)
t
And
eiq (4.25)
Let’s now see if we can get back to equation (4.20). Putting (4.23), (4.24)and (4.25)into (4.22)we
get
i
t
eiq i q A m q V eiq
t
iq
i t q V t e i q A m e
iq
(4.26)
iq
e q i q A q m e
iq
q i qV q (4.27)
t t t
iq
i qV e i q A m e
iq
(4.28)
t
Upon dividing through by the phase factor and taking out common factors we get
i t qV i qA m
i t i qA m qV (4.29)
Which we can see is identical to the original equation (4.20) hence the Dirac Equation coupled to
the electromagnetic field in this way is gauge invariant.
If we start with the same gauge transforms as in (4.23), (4.24)and (4.25) but with a slight notation
change to introduce the phase factor and replacing V with φ, to avoid confusion with V for the
potential in the electrical A-B effect, we get
A A ( r , t ) (4.30)
(4.31)
t
and
1
If we now take the first case where A( r ) ( r ) ( r ) then from (4.5)we have
q
B A
1
q
0 (4.33)
b
( r ) q A( r ) dr (4.34)
a
Which is a line integral between points a and b, so by putting (4.34)into (4.32) we get that(14)
b
exp iq A( r ) dr
(4.35)
a
If we now look at a charged particle which travels from a to b along a path then back to a along
another path as in Figure 2.
The phase change along each path will be (4.34) so the total phase change will be
q
path1
A( r ) dr q
path 2
A( r ) dr
A( r ) dr
q
loop
(4.36)
q A dr
loop
q
enclosed
A dS
surface
q
enclosed
B dS q (4.37)
surface
Where is the magnetic flux within the closed loop. So now we know from (4.37)that the phase
change, , around the loop is the charge times the magnetic flux, q . Obviously if there is no
magnetic flux inside the loop there will be no phase change as expected but if a charged particle
is moving in a region where A≠0 there will be a phase change even if B=0. Aharonov and Bohm
suggest an experiment based on the Youngs slits experiment in order to test this interesting
phenomenon, it is shown in Figure 3. The electron beam is split by a set of Youngs slits positioned
at A, these beams then pass either side of a tight wound solenoid and the brought back together
at F where an interference pattern will be observed. If the B field is changed this will have an
This effect was first shown in experiment by Chambers(15) in 1960 using a set up similar the one in
Figure 3.
(2)
Figure 3 - Schematic experiment to demonstrate interference with a time-independent vector potential
More recently in 1986 Tonomura et. al.(16) used a toroidal magnet coated with super-conducting
material, to confine the magnetic field by the Meissner effect, and electron holography to see the
effect. Figure 4 shows one of their sets of results, you will see in (a) and (c) that the interference
lines are in different places inside and outside of the toroid which proves that there is a relative
phase shift between electrons passing through the toroid and those passing around it.
Meanwhile in (b) there appears to be no shift, this is because the phase has shifted my 2n thus
making it appear to have not moved. The white dashed lines indicate where we would expect the
interference lines to be if the toroid had no effect.
(16)
Figure 4 - evidence of the A-B effect.
The second type of A-B effect is the Electric A-B effect. Starting from the same equations as for
the magnetic A-B effect and following the same process but this time with
b
(t ) q dt (4.38)
a
exp iq dt (4.39)
loop
Aharonov and Bohm suggested an experiment as in Figure 5 where A, B, C, D, E are devices for
splitting and redirecting beams, W1 and W2 are wave packets, M1 and M2 are cylindrical metal
beams and F is the interference region. The idea behind this is to have wave packets travelling
along the system and have M1 and M2 change in potential only when the wave packets are well
inside them, this protects the wave packets from the electric field because they are acting as a
Faraday Cage. This means that the wave packet is never exposed to the potential but there will
still be a change the scalar potential around the loop which will cause the interference in (4.38).
(2)
Figure 5 - Schematic of an experiment to demonstrate interference with a time-dependent scalar potential.
This experiment was difficult to realise so an alternative was sought and eventually in 1998
Oudenaarden et. al.(17) showed the electric A-B effect in an experiment designed to show both the
electric and magnetic A-B effect using metal rings with tunnelling junctions in them so that a well
defined voltage can be applied to either side of the ring.
The A-B effect was originally worked out for the non-relativistic case so how would it change
when taken to the relativistic case? Well it doesn’t, so long as you use the fully relativistic form
for the vector and scalar potentials. In both the non-relativistic and relativistic cases all we get is
a phase change which does not affect the physics of the wave function in any way as we have
seen from the gauge transforms earlier in the report.
Acknowledgements
First of all I must thank Prof. Barnett for all his help and patience throughout this project, even on
the 3rd attempt at explaining something to me. I would also like to thank Dr Jeffers for his help
whilst Prof. Barnett was unavailable; you saved me becoming overly stressed. I would also like to
thank Laura and Nick for helping proof read my report and finding the mistakes I just couldn’t see.
Lastly I would like to thank all my friends for keeping me sane when things just didn’t seem to be
going right.
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