JOURNAL OF TURKISH

STUDIES

TURKLUK BILGiSi ARATIRMALARI VOLUME 36 (December 2011) Edited by C e m a l KAFADAR Goniil A- TEKIN

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Guest Editors C e m a l KAFADAR - N e v r a NECIPOGLU

P u b l i s h e d a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t of N e a r E a s t e r n L a n g u a g e s a n d C i v i l i z a t i o n s Harvard University 2011

T H E TREBIZOND ALEXANDER ROMANCE (VENICE HELLENIC I N S T I T U T E C O D E X GR. 5) : T H E O T T O M A N F A T E OF A F O U R T E E N T H - C E N T U R Y ILLUSTRATED BYZANTINE M A N U S C R I P T

D i m i t r i s KASTRITSIS'

T h r o u g h o u t t h e Middle Ages, from Late Antiquity to t h e Renaissance a n d from w e s t e r n Europe to Iran a n d Central Asia, t h e s t o r y of Alexande r t h e Great w a s k n o w n a n d a p p r e c i a t e d . T h e exploits of t h e y o u n g M a c e d o n i a n king, w h o in t h e c o u r s e of a few y e a r s c o n q u e r e d a n e m p i r e s t r e t c h i n g from Greece to Egypt, Persia, India a n d i n d e ed t h e b o r d e r s of t h e k n o w n world , n e v e r ceased to e n t e r t a i n a n d inspire a w e in t h o s e w h o r e a d o r h e a r d a b o u t t h e m . Alexander' s successes a n d u n t i m e l y d e a t h w e r e given m u l t i p l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , political, religious a n d eschatological, as p e o p l e t r i e d t o r e l a t e t h e m t o e v e n t s of t h e i r o w n time. In late Medieval Anatolia, w i t h its c o m p l e x politics involving Byzantines, A r m e n i a n s , Turks, Mongols, a n d o t h e r s , Alexander's diplomatic dealings w i t h foreign rulers, real o r imagined, h a d p a r t i c u l a r r e s o n a n c e . In t h a t c o n t e x t , several illustrated m a n u s c r i p t s w e r e p r o d u c e d , including t h e o n e t h a t forms t h e subject of t h e p r e s e n t article, t h e m o s t richly illustrated s u ch m a n u s c r i p t from t h e Byzantine world. 1 This book, w h i c h is t o d a y in Venice, was m a d e for a n e m p e r o r of Byzantine T r e b i z o n d in t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h o was m o s t p r o b a b ly Alexios III (1349-1390). 2 But in 1461 it University of St. Andrews Venice Hellenic Institute Codex Gr,.5.1 would like to thank the Institute and its librarian Despina Vlassi for granting me permission to reproduce eight pages of the manuscript here. These illustrations were scanned from the facsimile published by Nicolette S. Trahoulias, The Greek Alexander Romance (Athens, 1997)on this publication and its author, see below, note 2. In Venice there are also several other illustrated Alexander romances in different languages. Particularly noteworthy are an illustrated, iskendername of Ahmed! made for Mehmed the Conqueror, the so-called Venice iskendername (Marciana Cod. Or XC=57), and an Armenian Alexander manuscript made around the same time asj the Greek one, which shows certain similarities to it: See Christina Maranci, "Word and Image in the Armenian Alexander Romance,'! Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies 13 (2003-4): 19-28. The illustrations of the Venice iskendername have been analyzed by Aysjn Yoltar, "The Role ofTllustrated Manuscripts in Ottoman Luxury Book Production: 1413-1520" (PhD dissertation. Institute of Fine Arts, NYU, 2002), 99-145; see also Serpil Bagci, "Minyaturlu Ahmedi iskendernameleri: ikonografik Bir Deneme" (PhD dissertation, Hacettepe University, 1989). 2 Nicolette S. Trahoulia, "The Venice Alexander Romance, Hellenic Institute Codex Gr. 5: A Study of Alexander the Great as an Imperial Paradigm in Byzantine Art and Literature" (PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1997). Since the late Angeliki Laiou had an important part in the supervision of Trahoulia's doctoral dissertation, the topic is especially suitable for a volume dedicated to her memory. The main supervisor of the dissertation was Ioli Kalavrezou. In the same year Trahoulia completed her dissertation, she published a high-quality facsimile of the entire manuscript, with a brief introduction: Trahoulias, The Greek Alexander Romance. It is that facsimile that has been consulted for the composition of the present article. For a more detailed article containing Trahoulia's interpretation of the images, see Nicolette S. Trahoulia, "The Venice Alexander Romance: Pictorial Narrative and the Art of Telling Stories," in History as Literature in Byzantium, ed. Ruth Macrides (Farnham, Surrey, England, 2010), 145-65. Another student of Kalavrezou who has been interested specifically in the Ottoman reception of the manuscript is Merih Danah Uzshe gave a paper on the subject at The College Art Association conference in 2009, entitled "Interpreting at the Margins: The Byzantine
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e n d e d u p in O t t o m a n h a n d s , w h e n t h e city was c o n q u e r e d by Sultan M e h m e d II ' t h e Conqueror.' Probably s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r , its n u m e r o u s illustrations received extensive c a p t i o n s in O t t o m a n Turkish, w h i c h t r a n s f o r m e d t h e boo k at least for T u r k i s h - l a n g u a g e r e a d e r s i n t o a kind of p r e m o d e r n g r a p h i c novel. T h e p r e s e n t article aims t o provide s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y i n s i g h ts i n t o t h i s process, its r e s u l t, a n d w h a t it c a n tell u s a b o u t p e r c e p t i o n s of Alexander in t h e early O t t o m a n Empire. Hellenic Institute Codex Gr. 5 is a famous m a n u s c r i p t , familiar t o m o s t Byzantinists a n d scholars of t h e Alexande r R o m a n c e as t h e best surviving e x a m p l e of t h a t traditio n from t h e Byzantine world, n o t only in t e r m s of its t e x t , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s a very extensive v e r s i o n of t h e R o m a n c e, b u t especially on a c c o u n t of its n u m e r o u s illustrations. T h e s e a d d u p to n o less t h a n 250, a t r u l y g r e a t n u m b e r , w h i c h b e c o m e s even g r e a t e r if w e c o n s i d e r t h a t m o s t of t h e illustrations t a k e u p a n e n t i r e folio p a g e a n d a r e divided i n t o t w o p a r t s . T h e m a n u s c r i p t a n d its illustrations has b e e n studied extensively in t e r m s of t h e i r artistic qualities, historical c o n t e x t , a n d r e l a t i o n t o Byzantin e imperial i c o n o g r a p h y . However, t h e s a m e is n o t t r u e of t h e O t t o m a n captions, o n w h i c h t h e r e is as y e t n o p u b l i s h e d scholarly l i t e r a t u r e . This is p e r h a p s n o t surprising, since studying t h e m p r o p e r l y r e q u i r e s good k n o w l e d ge of Old Anatolian T u r k i s h a n d it p a l e o g r a p h y in addition t o Greek, as well as a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t a n d c u l t u re in w h i c h t h e caption s w e r e p r o d u c e d . My goal h e r e is a m o d e s t one: t o m a k e a first step t o w a r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e caption s as a c o h e r e n t n a r r a t i v e p r o d u c e d to a c c o m p a n y t h e Greek images, focusing on s o m e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g examples, w h i c h will be closely t r a n s l a t e d a n d c o m m e n t e d u p o n . I h o p e t h a t this will m a k e possible a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e c e p t i o n of t h e Greek m a n u s c r i p t in a n O t t o m a n c o n t e x t, a n d of t h e similarities a n d d i v e r g e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e Greek a n d T u r k i s h captions. Before t u r n i n g to t h e m a n u s c r i p t a n d its illustrations, h o w e v e r , s o m e w o r d s a r e in o r d e r a b o u t t h e Alexande r r o m a n c e as a g e n r e . This will help t o situate t h e images and t h e i r caption s in t h e p r o p e r historical a n d c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t . The Alexander Romance i n Byzantium and t h e Islamic World T h r o u g h o u t t h e Middle Ages, in b o t h East a n d West, C h r i s t e n d o m a n d t h e Daru'lIsldm, m o s t k n o w l e d g e a n d legends a b o ut Alexande r w e r e u l t i m a t e l y t r a c e a b le to t h e socalled "Greek Alexander Romance," a n a n o n y m o u s Hellenistic a n d Late Antique literary w o r k also k n o w n as pseudo-Kallisthenis. 3 This t e x t survives in several Greek versions, s o m e of w h i c h w e r e t r a n s l a t e d into o t h e r languages, m a k i n g t h e t e x t available to n o n Greek speakers. T h e Alexander of Islamicate civilization is also b a s e d o n this t e x t , which

Alexander Romance and its Ottoman Commentator." While only the abstract of her paper was published as part of the conference proceedings, she expects that in the future this might form part of her doctoral dissertation, or possibly an article. 3 For an English translation of the Greek Alexander Romance, see Richard Stoneman, The Creek Alexander Romance (London, 1991).The numerous editions of the text can be found in Stoneman's book (pages 31-32). The most important of these for the text of Codex Gr. 5 is Ursula Lauenstein, Hartmut Engelman, and F. Parthe, Der griechische Mexanderroman. Rezension y, 3 vols. (Meisenheim, 1962-69). TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Pahlavi, a p p a r e n t l y w i t h several recensions . An early o n e of these, led to Syriac a n d Arabic versions, w h i c h a r e e v e n reflected in t h e Q u r a n a n d Hadlth. By t h e later Middle Ages, t h e m o s t d e v e l o p e d v e r s i o n of t h e Alexande r story in t h e Islamic w o r l d was t h e fifth boo k of t h e " p e n t a l o g y " {Khamsa) of t h e Persian p o e t NizamT (1191 or later). This was largely b a s e d o n t h e Shahnama of FirdawsT (ca. 1010) t h e Persian Book of Kings." Both w o r k s w e r e e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t a n d influential, surviving in m a n y m a n u s c r i p t s from all over t h e Islamic world, often w i t h rich illustrations. T h e y w e r e copied a n d imitated , so t h a t Alexander's kingship, court, a n d exploits b e c a m e a m o d e l for late Medieval ruler s from Istanbul to Delhi a n d b e y o n d, at t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e y w e r e acting as s u c h for Byzantine, A r m e n i a n , a n d o t h e r Christian rulers. In t h e f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y T u r k i s h - s p e a k i n g 'Lands of Rum' (i.e. Anatolia a n d t h e Balkans), a p a r t from t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d w o r k s in Persian, t h e r e w a s also a famous w o r k of p o e t r y in old A n a t o l i a n T u r k i s h d e a l i n g w i t h Alexander, w r i t t e n a t t h e t u r n of t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y . This was t h e iskendername of Ahmedl, w h i c h c o n t a i n e d s o m e w h a t modified versions of t h e stories a b o u t Alexander in t h e S h a h n a m a , b u t is in fact a n encyclopedic work, best k n o w n t o d a y for c o n t a i n i n g t h e oldest surviving a c c o u n t of O t t o m a n history. 5 In his d a t e d b u t still indispensible History of Ottoman Poetry, E. J. R. Gibb described A h m e d f s iskendername in t h e following t e r m s : Here the story of Alexander is so to speak but .the frame-work within which the author sought to enclose an epitome of all.the science, whether sacred or secular, of his time.,. Ahmedfs poem is not, like many Turkish romances, a translation from the Persian. It has little beyond the name and the general subject in common with Nizami's celebrated poems. The story as given by Ahmedi follows generally on the lines of the history of Alexander as this is detailed in the Shah-Name of Firdausi, But the Turkish poet frequently modifies, sometimes quite alters, the incidents of the romance, and very often changes their order. The numerous digressions, scientific and didactic, are entirely his own. 6

Ahmedi's iskendername was p o p u l a r a n d survives in m a n y m a n u s c r i p t s , so it is r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e t h a t m a n y e d u c a t e d O t t o m a n s of t h e late fifteenth c e n t u r y w o u l d h a v e r e a d it. We m i g h t also e x p e c t t h e m t o be familiar w i t h t h e w o r k s of FirdawsT a n d NizamT. It is i m p o r t a n t , t h e n , to k n o w h o w Alexander is p r e s e n t e d in t h e s e works, in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e a u t h o r of t h e caption s on t h e T r e b i z o nd m a n u s c r i p t m a y h a v e b e e n influenced by a n y existing ideas h e m i g h t h a v e h a d a b o u t Alexander a n d his a d v e n t u r e s . In t h e b r o a d e s t possible t e r m s , h o w is Alexander d e p i c t ed .in t h e w o r k s of FirdawsT, NizamT, a n d AhmedT, a n d h o w does t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of his exploits in t h e s e w o r k s differ from t h a t of t h e Greek Alexande r r o m a n c e ? Before w e c a n t u r n t o t h e T r e b i z o n d m a n u s c r i p t - . a n d its captions, w e m u s t also be a w a r e of t h e story c o n t a i n e d in t h e
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A. Abel. "Iskahdar-nama," Encyclopaedia of Islam2, vol. 4 (Leiden, 1978). AhmedT,.iskender-name: inceleme, Tipkibasim, ed. Ismail Unver (Ankara, 1983). This work contains a lengthy introduction and a facsimile of the important manuscript Istanbul Qniversitesi Kiitixphanesi TY 921. For a partial edition in Latin script, see Yasar Akdogan, ed., iskendername'denSecmeler (Ankara, 1988). For a recent English translation of the section on Ottoman history, see Kemal Silay, History of the Kings of,the Ottoman Lineage.and their Holy Raids Against the Infidels: Tace 'd-Din Ibrahim bin Hxzir Ahmedi. Sources of Oriental Languages and literatures 65 (Cambridge, MA, 2004). 6 E. J. W. Gibb, A History of Ottoman Poetry, vol. 1 (London, 1900), 266, 268-69. TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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m a n u s c r i p t ' s Greek t e x t a n d n u m e r o u s illustrations. While a c o m p l e t e description a n d analysis is b e y o n d t h e scope of t h e p r e s e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n , it is a t least possible to provide a r o u g h idea, w h i c h will assist in discussing a few of t h e m a n u s c r i p t ' s folios a n d captions. To b e g i n w i t h, t h e n , it is i m p o r t a n t t o k n o w t h a t in t h e Greek Alexander r o m a n c e , Alexander is t h e s o n of t h e last Egyptian P h a r a o h , Nektanabo , a s o r c e r e r w h o disguises himself as t h e god A m m o n in o r d e r t o i m p r e g n a t e Alexander's m o t h e r Olympias. This p a r e n t a g e m e a n s t h a t w h e n Alexander g r o w s u p a n d c o n q u e r s Egypt, h e does so as t h e c o u n t r y ' s legitimate r u l e r . A similar c o n c e r n w i t h legitimization is p r e s e n t in t h e Shdhnama version, w h e r e Alexander (Iskandar) is n o l o n g e r t h e d e s t r o y e r of Iran a n d its t e m p l e s , b u t t h e s o n of t h e Irania n king Darab. As such, h e b e a r s on his b r o w t h e m a r k s of t h e I r a n i a n d y n a s t y of t h e Kayanids; t h e k i n g . h e defeats, Dara (i.e. Darius), is his halfb r o t h e r , a n d t h e t r a n s f e r of p o w e r is d e s i r e d b y t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e Heavens. Even before t h e S h a h n a m a , in t h e Islamic t r a d i t i o n Alexander h a d b e c o m e associated w i t h a universal mission m a d e manifest t h r o u g h his conquests. 7 This idea is clearly derived from t h e Greek Alexande r r o m a n c e , w h o s e stories a b o u t Alexander' s c a m p a i g n s against real a n d l e g e n d a r y n a t i o n s w e r e circulating widely at t h e t i m e of t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d . A good e x a m p l e is t h e Qur'anic s t o r y of t h e walling in of Gog a n d Magog, apocalyptic peoples w h o s e origins a r e Biblical, b u t w h o a r e conflated w i t h a s t o r y in t h e Greek Alexander R o m a n c e in w h i c h its h e r o walls in a b a r b a r i c army. 8 I will r e t u r n to this later, w h e n discussing t h e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n s of t h e T r e b i z o n d m a n u s c r i p t , in w h i c h of c o u r s e t h e s t o r y features. But before t u r n i n g t o t h e m a n u s c r i p t , it is crucial to point o u t t h a t in Islamic t r a d i t i o n c r e a t e d by FirdawsT, Nizam!, a n d o t h e r a u t h o r s from t h e Greek Alexander r o m a n c e , Alexander gradually a s s u m e s a religious a n d mystical c h a r a c t e r . With Aristotle as his t e a c h e r a n d g r a n d vizier, Alexander learns to scor n worldly things. He e m b a r k s on a vain s e a r c h for t h e W a t e r of Life, b u t is r e s c u e d by t h e P r o p h e t Khidr. Especially in NizamT, h e is t r e a t e d as a religious a n d m o r a l figure, a p r o p h e t of m o n o t h e i s m a n d a n Irania n knight , w h o s p r e a d s t h e r u l e of j u s t i c e a n d t r e a t s even his e n e m i e s well. He delivers Egypt from t h e t h r e a t of t h e Zandj ( t h e peoples of Black Africa), a n d establishes d e e p b o n d s of friendship w i t h his f o r m e r e n e m i e s , King Ka'yd (the Indian King Porus of t h e Greek r o m a n c e ) a n d t h e King of China ( t h e Khakan). 9 Now t h a t s o m e v e r y basic i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n p r o v i d e d o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e Greek Alexande r r o m a n c e in t h e Islamic world , it is t i m e to t u r n t o t h e Trebizond m a n u s c r i p t itself, a n d t o its O t t o m a n captions. How w e r e t h e s e m a d e , a n d w h a t d o t h e y reveal? First of all, it shoul d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e c a p t i o n s in question_are n o t t h e only ones p r e s e n t o n t h e m a n u s c r i p t ' s illustrations. A p a r t from t h e O t t o m a n w r i t i n g in black, w h i c h is clearly visible in t h e m a r g i n s a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n on t h e images themselves, t h e r e a r e also smaller r e d captions in Greek, w h i c h a r e easy to distinguish from t h e larger Greek tex t of t h e r o m a n c e , w h e r e this is p r e s e n t . Unlike t h e O t t o m a n captions, Abel," Iskandar- nama." On Gog and Magog, see E. van Donzel and Claudia Ott, "Yadjudj, wa-Madiudj," Encyclopaedia of Islam2, vol. 11 (Leiden, 2002). 9 Abel, "Iskandar-narria."
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w h i c h as w e wuTsee aim.directly to describe t h e images, t h e Greek ones r e p e a t passages from t h e r o m a n c e , w h i c h h a v e b e e n selected specifically in o r d e r to m a t c h t h e m . In fact, it c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t in som e cases, t h e Greek captions played a role in t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n ones. But before t u r n i n g to s u ch questions , it is a g o o d idea t o look at t h e c a p t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s . I will begin, t h e n , w i t h a g e n e r a l description, before t u r n i n g to some specific examples. As w e h a v e seen, t h e surviving folios of t h e T r e b i z o n d m a n u s c r i p t c o n t a i n n o fewer t h a n 250 images. After t h e m a n u s c r i p t c a m e i n t o O t t o m a n possession, all of t h e s e a p p e a r to h a v e received T u r k i s h captions, if t h e r e a r e a handful of images w i t h n o T u r k i s h captions, t h a t is b e c a u s e w h e n t h e m a n u s c r i p t e n d e d u p in Venice, its pages w e r e clipped a n d r e p a i r e d . As a result, even on pages w h e r e t h e m a r g i n a l w r i t i n g in T u r k i s h is clearly visible, it is often t h e case t h a t all or p a r t of it is d a m a g e d b e y o n d recognition . However, this is h a p p i ly n o t t h e case for m o s t of t h e writing , w h i c h c a n be r e a d in its entirety. 1 0 In fact, given t h e fact t h a t b o t h linguistically a n d b e c a u s e it is w r i t t e n in Arabic script, O t t o m a n T u r k i s h is d e n s e r t h a n Hellenistic Greek, if t r a n s c r i b e d into a s e p a r a t e codex, t h e Turkish caption s of t h e T r e b i z o n d Alexander r o m a n c e w o u l d a m o u n t t o a small literary w o r k in t h e i r o w n right. And it is p e r h a p s n o t too m u c h of a n e x a g g e r a t i o n t o say t h a t for a n O t t o m a n audience, t h a t is w h a t t h e Byzantine m a n u s c r i p t b e c a m e : a richly illustrated " g r a p h i c n o v e l , " t o b e p e r u s e d a n d e v e n r e a d c o v er t o cover, p r o b a b l y in a n elite social o r e d u c a t i o n al setting, s u ch as t h e O t t o m a n c o u r t . W h i c h bring s us to t h e q u e s t i o n of w h o was responsible for t h e c a p t i o n s in t h e first place, a n d h o w t h e y w e r e m a d e o n e t h a t c a n only be a n s w e r e d in a speculative m a n n e r for t h e t i m e being. T h e captions a r e all in t h e s a m e h a n d , b u t as w e will see, t h e m e c h a n i s m of t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n is far from clear. For t h e sake of s i m p l i c i t y , t h e n , I will refer t o t h e p e r s o n w h o p e n n e d t h e m as " t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i s h captions," e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e was almost certainl y m o r e t h a n o n e p e r s o n involved in t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n . T u r n i n g to t h e q u e s t i o n of w h o was u l t i m a t e l y responsible for t h e T u r k i s h t e x t t h a t a p p e a r s o n t h e m a n u s c r i p t today, it is t h o u g h t t h a t t h e m a n u s c r i p t n o w in Venice was still in T r e b i z o n d u n t i l 1461, w h e n t h e city was c o n q u e r e d by t h e O t t o m a n Sultan M e h m e d II ' t h e C o n q u e r o r ' (1451-1481). Given t h a t sultan's w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d i n t e r e s t in t h e story of Alexander a n d o t h e r a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e , includin g t h e H o m e r i c epics, t h e r e is e v e r y r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h a t w h e n T r e b i z o n d fell i n t o O t t o m a n h a n d s , s u c h a luxurious imperial m a n u s c r i p t of t h e Alexander r o m a n c e w o u l d h a v e e n d e d u p in t h e C o n q u e r o r ' s court. 1 1 It is h a r d t o i m a g i n e t h a t it could h a v e b e c o m e t h e possession of a n y o n e else for longeven if s o m e o n e in t h e O t t o m a n a r m y h a d t a k e n it as spoils of w a r , M e h m e d w o u l d quickly h a v e found o u t a b o u t its e x i s t e n c e a n d p u r c h a s e d o r confiscated it. But h a v i n g
10

Some examples of pages where the Turkish is completely missing are 41v, 127r, 128v; 139(r and v) is an example of a damaged folio where only a little of the caption survives, which is almost entirely illegible. 11 On Mehmed's patronage of learning and the arts, see Julian Raby, "Mehmed the Conqueror's Greek Scriptorium," Dumbarton Oaks Papers 37 (1983): 15-34; Julian Raby, "A Sultan of Paradox: Mehmed the Conqueror as a Patron of the Arts," Oxford Art Journal 5.1 (1982): 3-8; Julian Raby, "East and West in Mehmed the Conqueror's Library," Bulletin du bibliophile 3 (1987): 296-318; Julian Raby, "El Gran Turco. Mehmed the Conqueror as a Patron of the Arts of Christendom" (PhD dissertation, Oxford University, 1980). TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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a c c e p t e d this r e a s o n a b l e scenario, it is still difficult to d e t e r m i n e w h e n a n d w h y t h e captions w e r e a d d e d . M e h m e d is t h o u g h t to h a v e s p o k e n a n d u n d e r s t o o d Greek to a c e r t a i n degree , e v e n if his w r i t i n g skills w e r e less developed, so it m i g h t h a v e b e e n possible for s o m e o n e proficient in Greek t o r e a d it t o h i m o u t loud. 12 But s u c h a scenario a s s u m e s t h a t t h e sulta n was only i n t e r e s t e d in t h e m a n u s c r i p t for his p e r s o n a l use. Instead, h i s t o r i a n s of t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y h a v e suggested t h a t by t h e n , large illustrated m a n u s c r i p t s of t h e Shdhnama g e n r e w e r e used in t h e T o p k a p i palace school t o e d u c a t e pages. 13 Of course, by t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , m a n y suc h m a n u s c r i p t s w e r e historical w o r k s describing e v e n t s in r e c e n t O t t o m a n historyBut t h e e m p i r e ' s political c u l t u r e a n d ideology was equally i m p o r t a n t , a n d t h a t was a subject b e st studied t h r o u g h literary w o r k s like t h e Shahnama, w h i c h described t h e exploits a n d a t t i t u d e s of the' kings of old. Given M e h m e d ' s view of himself as a n e w Alexande r a n d successor t o t h e Byzantine imperial legacy, a n d t h e fact t h a t t h e palace school for pages a n d indee d t h e Topkapi palace itself w e r e his own creations, it is r e a s o n a b le to a s s u m e t h a t t h e T u r k i s h caption s w e r e a d d e d d u r i n g his reign. Once this h a d b e e n d o n e , it would h a v e b e e n possible for M e h m e d himself o r o t h e r peopl e in his c o u r t to look at t h e m a n u s c r i p t a n d u n d e r s t a n d w h a t was b e i n g r e p r e s e n t e d , w h i c h w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y p r o v o k e discussions a b o u t its stories a n d t h e i r m o r a l significance. Of course, until f u r t h e r evidence, is u n e a r t h e d , t h i s a m o u n t s t o little m o r e t h a n speculation; b u t it is as plausible a t h e o r y as any. We will p r o b a b l y n e v e r k n o w for s u r e h o w t h e T r e b i z o n d m a n u s c r i p t e n d e d u p in O t t o m a n h a n d s , a n d e v e n t u a l l y in Venice. So far, n o i n f o r m a t i o n h a s t u r n e d u p in t h e r e l e v a n t libraries a n d archives t h a t c a n a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n, b u t it is certainly possible t h a t it maya detailed s e a r c h of r e s e a r c h facilities in T u r k e y w o u l d be especially useful. Until t h a t t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is m u c h t o be g a i n ed by s t u d y i n g t h e t h e c a p t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s . The T u r k i s h Captions of Codex Gr. 5: Some Examples Let us begin, t h e n , at t h e b e g i n n i n g . T h e first c a p t i o n is o n t h e first p a g e (Fig. 1, folio l r ) , w h i c h depicts t h e m a n u s c r i p t ' s patronas we h a v e seen, he was a n u n n a m e d E m p e r o r of Trebizond, m o s t p r o b a b ly Alexios III. This m a n is d e p i c t e d in a m a n n e r typical of Byzantine Emperors, a n d called in t h e Greek c a p t i o n "Faithful E m p e r o r (basileus) a n d A u t o c r a t (autokrator) of all t h e East a n d Pe[rateia]..." Today t h e r e s t of t h e p a g e is missing, so it is impossible to k n o w for s u r e w h o t h e e m p e r o r is; h o w e v e r , t h e title is a s h o r t form of t h a t used by t h e E m p e r o r s of T r e b i z o n d , a n d historical evidence p o i n t s t o Alexios III as t h e m o s t likely patron. 1 4 T h e O t t o m a n caption, h o w e v e r , shows a c o m p l e t e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Greek c a p t i o n , if it was e v e n c o n s u l t e d at all. As w i t h t h e Greek o n e , p a r t s of it a r e d a m a g e d , b u t w h a t r e m a i n s c a n be t r a n s l a t e d as follows:

Raby, "Mehmed the Conqueror's Greek Scriptorium," 23-24. Emine Fetvaci, "Viziers to Eunuchs: Transitions in Ottoman Manuscript Patronage, 1566-1617" (PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 2005), 32-48. 14 Trahoulia, "The Venice Alexander Romance," 53-64.
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THE TREBIZOND ALEXANDER ROMANCE Beginning of the book. This picture is a depiction of the grandfather of the two-horned {Zul-karneyn) Alexander, who is called in the Greek (Rum) language Fu[ke? me?]ranos. And the cross he is holding in his hand [indicates that] according to his custom (or law, or rite) he is steadfast in his custom...[the elders?]...15

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It is easy t o see t h a t this is n o t a t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e Greek t e x t visible t o d a y o n w h a t is left of t h e d a m a g e d page. T h e a u t h o r of t h e O t t o m a n caption was u n a b l e or unwilling to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e p e r s o n b e i n g d e p i c t e d w a s a n e m p e r o r in t h e Byzantine t r a d i t i o n, a n d chose instead to see h i m as t h e g r a n d f a t h e r of Alexander t h e Great. But w h a t a r e we, t o m a k e of t h e n a m e given to t h i s m a n ? We a r e told t h a t " h e is called in t h e Greek (Rum) l a n g u a g e Fo[ke?]ranos"but w h e r e does this n a m e c o m e from, if n o t from t h e Greek text? In fact, this is t h e only p a g e of t h e m a n u s c r i p t w h o s e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n has b e e n subjected t o s o m e careful analysis, by n o less a n a m e t h a n V. L. Menage. M e n a g e 's r e a d i n g is p r o v i d e d in a n i m p o r t a n t article by Liafn Gallagher, w h o studie d t h e p a g e in detail a n d was t h e first t o a t t r i b u t e t h e m a n u s c r i p t t o a n E m p e r o r of Trebizond. 1 6 However, this article m a k e s little effort t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s o u r c e of t h e s t r a n g e n a m e Fu[me]ranos o r Fu[ke]ranos, a p a r t from suggesting t h a t it m i g h t be d e r i v e d from t h e Greek w o r d s autokrator a n d kosmokrator. W h a t is p e r h a p s m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g is t h a t Gallagher is able to establish t h a t t h e p o r t r a i t was originally p a r t of a pair, w h i c h w o u l d h a v e included a p o r t r a i t of Alexander facing t h a t of t h e E m p e r o r w h o c o m m i s s i o n ed t h e book; as he p o i n ts out, t h a t w o u l d explain w h y t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i sh c a p t i o n s t h o u g h t t h e E m p e r o r was Alexander's g r a n d f a t h e r , since genealogical p o r t r a i t s w e r e c o m m o n in O t t o m a n (and i n d e ed t i m u r i d ) histories. 1 7 But is t h e r e a n o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e s t r a n g e n a m e of Alexander' s " g r a n d f a t h e r " ? As w e will see from o t h e r captions, it is clear t h a t t h e O t t o m a n scribe i n t e n d e d to m a k e t h e Greek m a n u s c r i p t a n d its images accessible.to t h e O t t o m a n r e a d e r . We c a n imagine a situation w h e r e people m i g h t h a v e p o i n t e d t o peopl e in t h e images, asking " W h o 's t h a t ? " Even if t h e y could n o t r e a d t h e Greek text, t h e y w o u l d h a v e b e e n a w a r e t h a t it c o n t a i n e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y n e e d e d a b o u t t h e actions b e i n g depicted, as well as t h e n a m e s of t h e principal actors. If necessary, s o m e o n e could b e b r o u g h t in t o r e a d w o r d s in t h e Greek captions, in o r d e r t o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y information. In t h e case of Fu...ranos t h e n , it is i n t e r e s t i n g to look across t h e p a g e from t h e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n in t h e left m a r g i n , w h e r e t h e r e is a Greek c a p t i o n w h i c h has b e e n t r a n s l a t e d by T r a h o u l i a as follows: 1,0 brave emperor Alexander, most excellent of all crowned men and ruler of all the world, having contemplated your great toils and [works], and your kingship which is victorious over all, I had the desire...

ibtida-i kitab. Bu surettskender zu'l-karneyn hazretlerinii<n> dedesi suretidu<r> ki Ram dilince FU<ke? me?>ranos d d<imi$ler?> ve elinde dutdu<gi> hac dyinince dyinin<de> sabit kud<em?>a.... 16 Liam Gallagher, "The Alexander Romance in the Hellenic Institute at Venice. Some Notes on. the Initial Miniature," Thesaurismata 16 (1979): 170-205. Menage's transcription and translation are on page 184. 17 Gallagher, "The Alexander Romance," 185. TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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In Greek, t h e t h i r d line of this c a p t i o n r e a d s stefeforon driste ('most excellent of all c r o w n e d men'), w h i c h if s p o k e n quickly b e a r s a c e r t a i n r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e m y s t e r i o u s w o r d Fu...ranos, t h e n a m e of Alexander' s g r a n d f a t h e r "in t h e Greek language." T h e r e s e m b l a n c e is s t r o n g e s t if we imagin e t h e Greek b e i n g r e a d o u t loud a t h i g h speed, w i t h t h e syllable fo s t a n d i n g o u t b e c a u s e of its accent, while o t h e r syllables a n d c o n s o n a n t s could easily r u n t o g e t h e r . While on its o w n this m a y n o t s e e m like a v e r y s t r o n g a r g u m e n t , w e will see t h a t in t h e case of o t h e r captions, it is clear t h a t s u ch a proces s was indee d at work. At times (but a p p a r e n t l y n o t always!) s o m e o n e w h o could r e a d Greek was b r o u g h t in t o r e a d o u t loud t h e Greek captions, e i t h e r e n t i r e l y o r in p a r t , a n d t h e a u t h o r of t h e O t t o m a n ones u s e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n (selectively, a n d n o t always correctly) to c o m p o s e his o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e proces s s e e m s t o h a v e involved a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of p o i n t i n g a n d asking " W h o is t h i s ? " a n d " W h a t does t h a t say?" Such a view of a p r o c e s s involving at least t w o people c o m m u n i c a t i n g orally is b o r n e ou t also by t h e n e x t eleven pages of t h e m a n u s c r i p t (3r-15r). T h e s e tell t h e s t o r y of t h e Egyptian P h a r a o h N e k t a n a b o ' s arrival at t h e M a c e d o n i a n c o u r t in t h e guise of a magician, a n d his i m p r e g n a t i o n of Q u e e n Olympias w i t h Alexande r while King Philip is a w a y o n c a m p a i g n , a feat N e k t a n a b o achieves by disguising himself as t h e God A m m o n . As w e will see, t h e O t t o m a n scribe i n t e r p r e t s t h e c o m p l i c a t e d images m o r e o r less correctly, while a d d i n g also his o w n c o m m e n t s . But w h a t is i m m e d i a t e l y striking is t h e spelling of t h e Egyptia n P h a r a o h ' s n a m e in t h e Arabic script, w h i c h could only h a v e c o m e from t h e Greek t e x t o r captions . On folio 3"r, this a p p e a r s b o t h in t h e m a r g i n s a n d o n t h e imag e itself, w h e r e t h e following c a p t i o n is clearly legible: "The n a m e of t h i s old m a n is Naktanavoshe is a powerful sorcerer!" 1 8 W h a t is clear is t h a t t h e n a m e of t h e s o r c e r e r c a m e from t h e Greek text, as it does n o t exist in t h e Islamic traditionbu t in fact, t h e specific form Naktanavos could only h a v e c o m e from oral c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n s o m e o n e w h o k n e w t h e Greek from of t h e story, or w h o w a s r e a d i n g t h e Greek c a p t i o n o r t e x t . For in t h e Greek caption directly above t h e T u r k i sh o n e j u s t m e n t i o n e d , a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e Greek text, t h e form used is Nektenabo o r Nektenavo (since in late m e d i e v a l Greek beta w a s p r o n o u n c e d /vita/, as it is today). Like o t h e r s u ch non-Greek n a m e s from t h e Semetic w o r l d (e.g. P h a r a o h , w h i c h is spelled farap), this is n o t m e a n t to b e declined, a n d m u s t n o t receiv e t h e m a s c u l i n e n o m i n a t i v e case e n d i n g -os. However, it is easy t o i m a g i n e a s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h a Greek-speaker m i g h t r e a d t h e c o r r e c t form, b u t c h a n g e it w h e n s p e a k i n g t o t h e m o r e colloquial Naktanavos. H e a r i n g t h e n a m e p r o n o u n c e d t h a t way, t h e O t t o m a n scribe w o u l d t h e n t r a n s c r i b e it as s u ch i n t o t h e Arabic script. I will r e t u r n t o t h e oral aspect of t h e t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n of n a m e s from Greek to T u r k i s h at t h e e n d of t h e article, w h e n I discuss t h e images d e p i c t i n g Alexander's subjugation of t h e Scyths a n d his c o n q u e s t of Asia Minor. First, t h o u g h , it is w o r t h looking at s o m e o t h e r folios a n d t h e i r captions in t h e o r d e r t h a t t h e y a p p e a r , since t h e y raise a n u m b e r of i n t e r e s t i n g points. Take, for e x a m p l e , folio 4v (Fig. 2), w h i c h is o n e of Ba koca adi Naktanavos'dur, gayet sahhdrdur. TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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several depicting t h e s o r c e r y of Nektenabo. It c o n t a i n s t w o v e r y similar images, e a c h of w h i c h shows t h e P h a r a o h on a t h r o n e receiving several people. In t h e . t o p image, he has a m a n b e h i n d h i m ( p r e s u m a b l y a n advisor) a n d in t h e b o t t o m one, t w o s u ch m e n . Each image has a Greek caption, w h i c h T r a h o u l i a h a s t r a n s l a t e d as follows: Top: Here the spies report to Nektenabo on the barbarians' advance. Bottom: Here his army commander came and urged him to march against the enemy. By c o m p a r i s o n to t h e s e s h o r t Greek captions, t h e O t t o m a n ones a r e m u c h m o r e extensive. T h e r e is a large c a p t i o n in t h e left m a r g i n , a n d a s h o r t e r o n e in t h e b o t t o m one; while it is also possible to m a k e o u t a few l e t t e r s o v e r N e k t e n a b o ' s h e a d on t h e t o p image, all t h a t r e m a i n s of a s h o r t c a p t i o n t h a t is n o w d e s t r o y e d. T h e surviving O t t o m a n captions c a n be t r a n s l a t e d as follows: Left: He trusted in his magic and was heedless of the enemy. When an army came upon them from the direction of Anatolia, the subjects (re'ayd) became agitated. A group of subjects assembled and complained [to him]; saying "Why are you not attending to this? Is it not a pity? What if under your gaze an enemy army were to trample us and lay us low?" In response, he trusted in his magic and put their minds at ease, sending each of the subjects back to his place with a peaceful mind. He said to them: "For the sake of your peace of mind, go now and be at ease. For one lion is enough [to deal with] any number of water buffalo, and one wolf with any number of sheep." \ Bottom: These are the subjects {re'ayd) he sent away after setting their minds at ease.

W h a t is striking h e r e is h o w t h e O t t o m a n caption s a r e informed by t h e c o n t e n t of t h e Greek ones, b u t go m u c h f u r t h e r in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e m in a c c o r d a n c e to O t t o m a n cultural n o r m s a n d literary c o n v e n t i o n s . To a n O t t o m a n looking at t h e s e images, it w o u l d h a v e b e e n obvious t h a t t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d a r u l e r receiving subjects (re'ayd), as he is s e a t e d o n a t h r o n e in w h a t a p p e a r s to be a palace, w i t h advisors o r pages s t a n d i n g b e h i n d h i m . However, h e w o u l d h a v e h a d n o w a y of k n o w i n g t h a t t h e y h a d c o m e to h i m r e g a r d i n g a t h r e a t from a n e n e m y a r m y , i n f o r m a t i on t h a t could only h a v e b e e n g l e a n e d from t h e Greek captions. Once it was clear t h a t this was t h e case, t h e O t t o m a n scribe h a d relative freedom t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s i t u a t i o n u s i n g l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s familiar t o h i m from O t t o m a n a n d Islamicate culture : a n e n e m y a r m y is first a n d foremost a t h r e a t t o t h e p r o d u c t i v e classes, w h o s e livelihood is in d a n g e r of b e i n g t r a m p l e d underfoot; b u t e v e n if t h e e n e m y is large, it can be d r i v e n away like a flock of p a r t r i d g e s fleeing a n eagle (or in this case, like w a t e r buffalo fleeing a lion, or s h e e p a wolf). In o t h e r words, w e see t h a t on this occasion, and 1 on m a n y o t h e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e m a n u s c r i p t , t h e p e r s o n o r people responsible f o r t h e O t t o m a n captions t o o k g r e a t liberties in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e image, o n c e

19 [Left] Sihrine i'timad idiip diismandan gafil olup Anatoli canibinden iizerine 'asker geldixgine re'ayd muztarib olup bir boluk re'ayd cem' olup "Nigiin mukayyed olmazsm? Hayfdegiil midur? Saye-i gozde du$man 'askeri bizi paymdl idiip hur u hakir eyleye" diyii sikdyet eyledikde, "ttmmdn-i kalb iciin varan siz huzur-i gozde olun, her ne kadar su sign gok olursa bir arslan yeter, ve bir siiri koyuna bir kurd yeter" diyii, teselli-yi hdtir idiip re'dydyi gonixl hoslugi ile yirli yirhrine gbnderiip gendii sihrine mukayyed olmisdur. [Bottom] Teselli-yi hdtir idiip gonderdiigi re'ayd bunlardur.

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some basic i n f o r m a t i on h a d b e e n p r o v i d e d by s o m e o n e w h o could r e a d t h e Greek. However, t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n was a p p a r e n t l y n o t always t r a n s m i t t e d w i t h a t t e n t i o n t o detail, or if it was, this detail was i n t e n t i o n a l l y ignoredfor example , in this case, t h e spies a n d military c o m m a n d e r m e n t i o n e d in t h e Greek c a p t i o n s a r e o m i t t e d from t h e O t t o m a n ones, w h e r e all t h e p e o p l e a d d r e s s i n g t h e r u l e r b e c o m e simply " t h e re 'dyd" It is w o r t h dwelling briefly on t h e captions dealing w i t h t h e story of Nektenabo, b e c a u s e t h e y reveal s o m e t h i n g also a b o u t t h e a t t i t u d e s of t h e p e r s o n o r people w h o m a d e t h e m t o w a r d religion a n d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l . In fact, m a n y of t h e O t t o m a n captions b o t h h e r e a n d later in t h e m a n u s c r i p t reveal a m a r k e d l y Islamic worldview , according to w h i c h Alexande r is a p r o p o n e n t of m o n o t h e i s m , a n d t h e occult practices of t h e likes of N e k t e n a b o a r e u n d e r s t o o d , b u t viewed w i t h t h e suspicion of t h e faithful. Take, for example, t h e following caption a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e images describing N e k t e n a b o 's d e a t h (Fig. 3, folio 15r): This image shows how when The Exalted Alexander was twelve years old, his mother gave him to the sorcerer Naktanavos to learn magic. And the sorcerer took The Exalted Alexander to a mountain to teach him magic. He took a round tray (tepsi) from- his bosom,* and showed him a moon and seven stars. And The Exalted Alexander said to him: "Are you such a highly favored servant of Godmay He be praised and glorified!that you may display the moon and seven stars in a tray? You are not a righteous man!" He gave the sorcerer a kick and the sorcerer fell down from the mountain. And the sorcerer said to Alexander: "Why did you slaughter me in this way? I am your father!" And Alexander said "How can you be my father? My father is Philip." And Naktanavos explained in detail what had happened, and gave up his soul to hell. And The Exalted Alexander wound his belt around him and lifted him onto his back, and left him at his mother's house. 20 Once again, w h a t is fascinating a b o u t this t e x t is t h a t it is based loosely u p o n t h e Greek caption, b u t takes considerabl e liberties w h e n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e imag e t h a t goes w i t h it. A p a r t from t h e m a r k e d l y m o n o t h e i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of N e k t e n a b o ' s sorcery, w h i c h m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d i n h e r e n t in t h e original story a n d image, b u t is far m o r e explicit in t h e T u r k i s h caption, w h a t is also striking is t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e t r a y (tepsi) in w h i c h t h e s o r c e r e r supposedly s h o w e d Alexander t h e secrets of t h e h e a v e n s . T h e Greek caption is far m o r e simple: Top: Here Nektenabo showed Alexander the stars of the heavens; he [Nektenabo] was pushed into a pit by him [Alexander] Bottom: and died. And then he was carried by him to his mother Olympias. But is t h e - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in t h e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n p u r e l y original? Here it is crucial t o look n o t only a t t h e Greek captions, b u t also at t h e t e x t of t h e Alexander R o m a n ce itself,
20

Hazret-i iskender on ikiyasindd iken, anasi Naktanavos sahire sihr ogrenmek icun viriip, sahir dahi iskender hdz bir daga Uetiip sihr ogretmek icun, sahhar koynmdan bir tebsi cikarup tebsi icinden bir ay ve yedi yilda gostermisdixr, H iskender dahi "Sen hakk siibhanahu ve te'dla hazretleriniih [an]cak bu mertebe makbul kuli misin ki ayi [vejyediyildizi tebsi gosterirsin?- Sen fh?]dyir ddem degulsin" diyii, sahhdra bir tebme [ujrub sahhar dahi dagdan asaga diismisdiir. Sahhar is "Nicun beni bbyle krydin? Ben babanim," Hazret-i iskender dahi "Sen beniim nice babamsm? Bentim babam Filibos'du Naktanavos dahi ma vaka'a 'i-hali bir bir takrir idiip can ber-cehennem. iledukde, Hazret-i iskender kusagin cevirixp a yiikieyiip anasi evinde birakdugi suretidiir. TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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w h i c h does b e a r a c e r t a i n r e s e m b l e n c e t o t h e O t t o m a n text. In t h e t r a n s l a t i o n by Richard S t o n e m a n , this r e a d s as follows: Nectanebo wounded his neck severely in the fall, and cried out, 'Dear me, child Alexander, what possessed you to do that'? 'Blame yourself, mathematician,' Alexander replied. 'Why, child?' 'Because, although you do not understand earthly matters, you investigate those of heaven.' Then Nectanebo said, 'Child, I am fearfully wounded. But no mortal can overcome destiny.' 'What do you mean?' asked Alexander. 'I myself,' replied Nectanebo, 'have read my own fate, that I was doomed to be destroyed by my own child. And I have not escaped my fate, but have been killed by you.' -* 'Am I then your son?' asked Alexander. Then Nectanebo told him the whole story... 21 From t h e s t r o n g similarity t h a t c a n be observed^in t h e basic story b e t w e e n t h e t w o t e x t s p r e s e n t e d above, it is possible to say t h a t in this case, t h e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n was influenced n o t by t h e Greek c a p t i o n o n t h e page, b u t by t h e original Romance . As I h a v e already suggested, in all probability this w o u l d h a v e b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d by a Greek speaker, w h o would e i t h e r h a v e r e a d t h e t e x t on t h e r e l e v a n t pages of t h e m a n u s c r i p t , or p e r h a p s h a v e k n o w n t h e story well e n o u g h j u s t to s u m m a r i z e it for t h e O t t o m a n scribe. Despite t h e similarity in t h e basic n a r r a t i v e , h o w e v e r , it is still t h e case t h a t t h e T u r k i s h t e x t c o n t a i n s e n t i r e l y original e l e m e n t s as well, w h i c h h a v e already b e e n m e n t i o n e d : t h e religious m o t i v a t i o n for Alexander's action, w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s a significant d e p a r t u r e from t h e Greek text, a n d t h e tray. In fact, this derives from a previous image.(folio 6v), in w h i c h N e k t a n e b o a p p e a r s before Alexander's m o t h e r Olympias holdin g u p before h e r a s q u a r e object o n w h i c h a s t a r a n d a m o o n a r e clearly visiblethere is also room,for o t h e r stars, w h i c h a r e n o w destroyed . T h u s w e see t h a t w h o e v e r m a d e t h e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n s was going t h r o u g h t h e m a n u s c r i p t ' s images in t h e c o r r e c t o r d e r , a n d m a k i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b a s e d o n w h a t h a d c o m e before, i n c l u d i ng his o w n p r e v i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . His i n t e r e s t in t h e precise n a t u r e of this a n d o t h e r occult objects a n d practices (such as t h e l e c a n o m a n c y p e r f o r m e d by N e k t a n e b o o n folio 3r) is in line w i t h w h a t is k n o w n a b o u t O t t o m a n c u l t u r e in t h e fifteenth century. 2 2 In fact, as w e will see, this is b u t o n e e x a m p l e in w h i c h t h e caption s i n t e r p r e t . t h e Byzantine images of t h e m a n u s c r i p t a c c o r d i n g t o w h a t m i g h t be called a n O t t o m a n view of,the w o r l d a t t h e t i m e of M e h m e d t h e C o n q u e r o r . This is all t h e m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g as t h e m a n u s c r i p t ' s illustrations a r e t h e m s e l v e s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . As Trahoulia h a s s h o w n , t h e y
21

Stoneman, The Greek Alexander Romance, 46 (1:14). See C. H. Fleischer, "Ancient Wisdom arid New Sciences: Prophecies at the Ottoman Court in the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries," in Falnama: The Book of Omens, ed. M. Farhad and S. Bagci (Washington, D.C., 2009), 23243.
22

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a r e at pains to p r e s e n t t h e n a r r a t i v e of t h e Greek r o m a n c e (which is used in its m o s t e x t e n s i v e version, t h e y recension, itself c o n t a i n i n g multiple layers) in suc h a w a y as to d r a w parallels b e t w e e n Alexander a n d its p a t r o n , a n E m p e r o r of Byzantine T r e b i z o n d in t h e f o u r t e e n t h century. 2 3 While t h e O t t o m a n i n t e r p r e t i v e a s p e c t is s t r o n g e v e n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e m a n u s c r i p t , w h e r e as we h a v e seen t h e r e is also extensiv e reliance o n t h e Greek t e x t , it b e c o m e s e v e n s t r o n g e r in t h e r e s t of t h e m a n u s c r i p t . After t h e early c h a p t e r s w e h a v e j u s t looked at, t h e r e a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n less reliance on t h e Greek informant, a l t h o u g h his role is still clearly discernible in m a n y cases. This suggests t h a t t h i s p e r s o n (or people) w a s o n l y s u m m o n e d w h e n n e e d e d , in o r d e r t o r e a d c a p t i o n s o u t loud a n d explai n o t h e r w i s e i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e action s d e p i c t e d in t h e images. As we h a v e seen, t h e r e is a v e r y large n u m b e r of t h e s e , a n d in a n article s u c h as t h e p r e s e n t o n e it is impossible t o d o m u c h m o r e t h a n s c r a t c h t h e surface. Be t h a t as it m a y , in t h e pages t h a t r e m a i n I will t r a n s l a t e a n d discuss a few m o r e captions, if only t o give a t a s t e of t h e r i c h n e s s of t h e s e t e x t s for O t t o m a n c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y . I will focus m o s t l y o n t h e pages w h i c h deal w i t h Alexander's p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e c h a r i o t races, his first diplomatic e x c h a n g e w i t h Dareios, his e n t h r o n e m e n t , a n d his c o n q u e s t of Rome a n d Anatolia. As we will see, s o m e of t h e s e m u s t h a v e b e e n especially r e l e v a n t in light of O t t o m a n i m p e r i a l e x p a n s i o n at t h e t i m e of M e h m e d t h e C o n q u e r o r . Let us t u r n , t h e n , t o t h e i m a g e s p r e s e n t i n g A l e x a n d e r 's e a r l y exploits, e n t h r o n e m e n t , a n d c o n q u e s t s . In t h e original m a n u s c r i p t , t h e image d e p i c t i n g t h e d e a t h of N e k t a n e b o is followed by o n e r e l a t e d t o t h e famous s t o r y of Alexander's t a m i n g of t h e wild h o r s e Boukephalos. As t h e Greek c a p t i o n r e m i n d s us, this is t h e fulfillment of a p r o p h e c y given by t h e Oracle of Delphi t o Philip, a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e m a n w h o can t a m e t h e h o r s e will s u c c e e d h i m . T h e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n m o r e o r less parallels t h e original story, b u t w i t h a n i m p o r t a n t twist: t h e r e is n o Oracle of Delphi. Instead, w e a r e told t h a t a h o r s e is given t o Philip, a n d t h a t n o o n e is able to ride it. T h e king g a t h e r s his wise m e n a n d asks t h e m w h a t is t o b e done ; t h e y a n s w e r t h a t w h o e v e r c a n ride t h e h o r s e will rule t h e world. Of course, Alexander p r o m p t l y does so, t a k i ng t h e h o r s e o ut of its stable w i t h o u t a h a l t e r a n d r i d i n g it w i t h o u t a saddle. S o m e of t h e images a r e e x p l a i n e d in detail as t h e y a p p e a r ("This image s h o w s t h e h o r s e licking T h e Exalted Alexander' s h a n d " ; " a n d w h e n it sees Alexander, it b e n d s its k n e e s to lick his h a n d " ) , while t h e o n e s h o w i n g Philip a d d r e s s i n g idols in Delphi is simply ignored. 2 4 It is w o r t h noting , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e t h e m e of a r u l e r s u m m o n i n g viziers a n d o t h e r wise m e n a n d asking t h e i r c o u n s e l is a c o m m o n o n e in f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y O t t o m a n chronicles . By p r e s e n t i n g t h e story in this way, t h e O t t o m a n caption implicitly p r e s e n t s Alexander in t h e guise of a n Islamicate ruler. T h e s a m e is t r u e of t h e captions t h a t a c c o m p a n y t h e n e x t few images. In t h e m a n u s c r i p t , after t a m i n g Boukephalos, Alexander asks his father if h e c a n c o m p e t e in t h e
23

Trahoulia, "The Venice Alexander Romance," 72-96,133-61 and passim. For the emergence of Alexander as a positive paradigm in Byzantium from the tenth century on, see pages 21-50 of the same work. 24 Folio 16v: ...at dahx hazret-i tskenderun elindili He yaladugi suretidur...Ve art iskenderi gordixgi [sic] gibi diz c yalamaga.... TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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c h a r i o t races in Rome. He goes t h e r e o n a ship, wins, a n d is c r o w n e d as a w i n n e r of t h e Olympic games(!) T h e confusion h e r e is i n h e r e n t in t h e t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n , for in t h e y version of t h e Alexande r r o m a n c e c o n t a i n e d in t h e T r e b i z o n d m a n u s c r i p t , Alexande r c o m p e t e s in t h e c h a r i o t races in Rome, w h e r e a s in t h e o t h e r v e r s i o ns h e goes instead to Olympia, to c o m p e t e in a different c h a r i o t race, t h a t of t h e Olympic g a m e s . To f u r t h e r complicate m a t t e r s , t h e visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e c o m p e t i t i o n looks n o t h i n g like a c h a r i o t race, b u t r a t h e r m o r e like a medieval j o u s t or swordfight on horseback. 2 5 In light of this confusion, it is i n t e r e s t i n g t o see w h a t t h e O t t o m a n captions m a k e of t h e story. T h e a n s w e r is simple: j u s t a s t a n d a r d military c a m p a i g n . As w i t h t h e Oracle of Delphi, c h a r i o t race s ( w h e t h e r Olympic o r Roman) w e r e foreign t o O t t o m a n culture, so t h e obvious way to i n t e r p r e t s u ch images was as examples of militar y c o n f r o n t a t i o n . Indeed, t h e i m a g e s l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Let's look a t t h e m o n e b y o n e . On folio 20v, A l e x a n d e r asks his father for p e r m i s s i o n to visit Rome. According to t h e Greek captions, Philip a t first refuses, b u t t h e n a s s e n t s w h e n h e sees his son's e a g e r n e s s . In t h e O t t o m a n version, h o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o m e n t i o n of Rome. Instead, in t h e t o p c a p t i o n w e r e a d t h a t Alexander "falls o n his f a t h e r Philip's h a n d s a n d feet, a n d begs him , saying 'please give m e p e r m i s s i o n t o g o o n c a m p a i g n . ' " On t h e b o t t o m , w e a r e told t h a t Philip agrees, a n d t h a t Alexander is b e i n g s h o w n "bidding his m o t h e r farewell by asking h e r for forgiveness for a n y m i s d e e d s " (helalladugidur).26 Here, t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i s h captions has m i s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e b o t t o m image, for t h e r e is n o w o m a n p r e s e n t . T h e confusion c a n a p p a r e n t l y be a t t r i b u t e d to t h e fact t h a t in t h a t image Alexander is d r e s s e d as a n E m p e r o r , in p u r p l e w i t h a c r o w n , w h e r e a s o n t h e t o p h e is d r e s s e d m o r e simply, in r e d a n d b a r e - h e a d e d . To t h e O t t o m a n scribe, t h e y o u n g c r o w n e d Alexander at t h e b o t t o m m u s t h a v e looked like a w o m a n p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e of t h e richly d e c o r a t e d p u r p l e cloth. On t h e n e x t p a g e (Fig. 4, folio 21r), a c c o r d i n g to t h e Greek caption, Alexande r is s h o w n g o i n g t o R o m e b y ship, a n d "set(ting) f o r t h o n a w a l k w i t h his friends;" b u t t h e T u r k i s h c a p t i o n reads: "In this picture, h e gets o n a ship a n d goes o n c a m p a i g n : And his h o r s e s go by land." Here w e h a v e a n i n t e r e s t i n g case of m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e image itself. Like o t h e r s in t h e m a n u s c r i p t , this c o m p l e x p i c t u r e a t t e m p t s to r e p r e s e n t t e m p o r a l i t y by s h o w i n g a n u m b e r of sequentia l actions all a t once. 2 7 Specifically, t h e u p p e r half of t h e i m a g e o n t h e folio c a n itself b e divided i n t o t w o p a r t s : t h e t o p , w h i c h s h o w s Alexander a n d his r e t i n u e o n a s h i p a r r i v i ng at a walled city, w h o s e i n h a b i t a n t s look on; a n d t h e b o t t o m , w h e r e several small people leading h o r s e s follow t w o larger figures, t h o s e of Alexander a n d his friend. This s o r t of s y n t h e t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is so c o m m o n t h r o u g o u t t h e m a n u s c r i p t ' s images t h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i s h captions m u s t h a v e u n d e r s t o o d it at least in a basic way; b u t e v e n so, it w a s difficult for h i m t o figure o u t w h a t p a r t of t h e action t h e small figures a n d h o r s e s w e r e m e a n t t o r e p r e s e n t . In fact, all b e c o m e s clear if we look at t h e t e x t of t h e Romance: Folios 19r, 20v, 21r, 21v. As Trahoulias points out in her edition, 19r is misbound. Its proper place is after folio 21, and not 20, as she states. X 26 Folio 20v: [top] Hazret-i iskender babasi Filibos'un eline ayagma diisiip "Bona sefere gitmege icazet vir" diyti yalvardugi suretidur [bottom] iskender'ixn babasi icazet virup iskender hazreti anasi ile halallasdugi suretidiir. 27 Trahoulia, "The Venice Alexander Romance," 135-43. TUBA/JTS 36-2011
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Dimitris KASTRITSIS So Alexander went to the harbour and ordered a new ship to be built, and his horses and his chariot to be loaded on board. Then he embarked with his friend Hephaestion, sailed away and arrived at Pisa [in the Trebizond manuscript he arrives not in ancient Pisa near Olympia, but in Rome]. On arrival he was showered with gifts; he ordered his slaves to rub down t h e horses, while he went for a walk with Hephaestion. 28

In this case, t h e n , it is obvious t h a t t h e a n o n y m o u s O t t o m a n (or O t t o m a n s) b e h i n d t h e T u r k i s h captions did n o t b o t h e r t o find o u t from t h e Greek t e x t w h a t was being r e p r e s e n t e d , a n y m o r e t h a n h e c a r e d to h a v e t h e Greek c a p t i o n above t h e image read, w h i c h w o u l d h a v e told h i m t h a t t h e t o w n Alexande r w e n t to w a s in fact Rome. Instead, h e was c o n t e n t t o i n t e r p r e t t h e illustration simply as a c a m p a i g n against a n u n d e t e r m i n e d place, c a r r i e d o u t b o t h by land a n d by sea. Indeed, t h e r e is every r e a s o n to think t h a t s u c h a n imag e w o u l d h a v e b e e n familiar t o a n O t t o m a n living in t h e late fifteenth c e n t u r y , w h e n t h e E m p i r e was c a r r y i n g o u t c a m p a i g n s u s i n g ships, b u t did n o t y e t h a v e a formidable navy. T h e O t t o m a n s w o u l d h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d logistical difficulties in t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of t h e i r t r o o p s a n d horses, w h i c h w o u l d h a v e m a d e t h e image in t h e T r e b i z o n d m a n u s c r i p t look v e r y familiar. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ; t h e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n t h a t m u s t h a v e existed for t h e b o t t o m p a r t of t h e s a m e imag e is missing. It is t h e r e f o r e impossible to k n o w w h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e captions m a d e of Alexander' s e m b r a c e of Nicholas, son of t h e king of Akarnania, w h o w a n t e d to c o m p e t e w i t h A l e x a n d e r in t h e c h a r i o t r a c e in o r d e r t o kill h i m, b u t e n d e d u p b e i n g killed himself. T u r n i n g to t h e n e x t page, h o w e v e r , it is possible to r e a d t h e T u r k i s h c a p t i o n s on t h e d o u b l e image depictin g t h e c o m p e t i t i o n . As w e h a v e s e e n already, t h e c h a r i o t r a c e w h i c h is d e p i c t e d like a m o u n t e d swordfight is i n t e r p r e t e d as a military c o n f r o n t a t i o n . T h e t o p c a p t i o n reads: "This image shows h o w T h e Exalted Alexander d i s e m b a r k e d from t h e ship a n d c a m e to this place, a n d h o w t h e peopl e of t h e castle c a m e o u t t o m e e t h i m w i t h displays of j o y , " a n d t h e b o t t o m o n e : "This image shows The Exalted Alexander's first b a t t l e , in w h i c h to s h o w his b r a v e r y h e w e n t t o t h e front [of t h e army], a n d s t r u c k s o m e o n e ' s n e c k w i t h a sword, a n n i h i l a t i n g him. He t o o k t h e castle." To e l i m i n a t e a n y confusion, t h e m a n wielding t h e s w o rd in t h e b o t t o m image is identified by t h e w o r d s : "This is Alexander." 2 9 T h e n e x t t w o images (on folios 23rFig. 5 ^ a n d 23v) deal w i t h w h a t w e m i g h t call anachronistically t h e m a r i t a l difficulties of Alexander's p a r e n t s . W h e n t h e h e r o get s back w i t h his t r o p h y of victory, h e finds t h a t his f a t h e r h a s rejected his m o t h e r a n d is m a r r y i n g a n o t h e r w o m a n , Cleopatra, t h e sister of a c e r t a i n Lysias. Upset by t h e situation, Alexander m a k e s a c o m m e n t t o his father a b o u t his i n t e n t i o n t o m a r r y off his m o t h e r Olympias as well to a n o t h e r m a n , w h i c h p r o v o k e s a c o m m e n t by Lysias a b o u t Alexander's illegitimate birth; m a y h e m ensues , a n d Alexander e n d s u p killing Lysias w i t h

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Stoneman, The Greek Alexander Romance, 49(1:18). Folio 21v: (Top) Hazret-i iskender gemiden cikup buraya geldiikde, kale halki istikbale cikup sed eyledugi suretdu (Bottom) Hazret-i iskender'iifi mukaddem cengi bit olup [ki?] dilaverlik izhdn iciin gendiisi mukaddem yiiriyixp biriniin b hhc He urup heldk eyledugi suretidur. KaVeyifeth eylemi^diir, (Label on bottom image) iskender budur. TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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a cup, a n d injuring a n u m b e r of Philip's d i n n e r guest s w i t h a sword. 3 0 While t h e r e is n o space to dwell h e r e in detail on this scene, suffice it to say t h a t o n c e again, t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i s h c a p t i o n s has c o m p l e t e l y m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e s t o r y a n d misidentified t h e actors. Philip's n e w wife is p r e s e n t e d as Alexander's m o t h e r , a n d t h e p e o p l e lying d e a d at t h e b o t t o m r i g h t of t h e image as m a g n a t e s of Alexander w h o d a r e d to e a t in his presence. 3 1 In this way, t h e s c e n e is n o longe r o n e of conflict p r o v o k e d by a d i s p u t e d wedding, b u t r a t h e r of a courtly b a n q u e t , at w h i c h rules of h i e r a r c h y a n d e t i q u e t t e a r e enforced by t h e p o w e r of t h e s w o r d. It is t e m p t i n g to view this in t e r m s of t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of O t t o m a n c o u r t l y life a n d c e r e m o n i a l by M e h m e d II, w h o s e Topkapi Palace was c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e principle of imperial dignity a n d seclusion, e n s h r i n e d in his famous lawcode (kdnunname).32 To a n O t t o m a n courtl y a u d i e n ce of t h e mid- t o latefifteenth c e n t u r y , t h e image in t h e m a n u s c r i p t i n t e r p r e t e d in this w a y would serve to reinforce ideas of imperial dignity (which m a d e s u c h acts as e a t i n g in front of t h e s u l t a n at t h e palace impossible) by associating t h e m w i t h Alexander, t h e l e g e n d a r y p r o t o t y p e of t h a t O t t o m a n sultan . Echoes of t h e age of M e h m e d t h e C o n q u e r o r can also be h e a r d in t h e n e x t p a r t of t h e m a n u s c r i p t , w h e r e t h e story begins to shift to Alexander's military a n d diplomatic exploits involving foreign rulers, peoples, a n d places. As Trahouli a h a s p o i n t e d out, t h e s e w o u l d h a v e b e e n of g r e a t i n t e r e s t to t h e m a n u s c r i p t ' s a u d i e n c e in t h e E m p i r e of Trebizond w h e r e it was p r o d u c e d , since t h e y would h a v e r e m i n d e d t h e m of t h e i r o w n worldand t h e s a m e is u n d o u b t e d l y also t r u e for M e h m e d If s O t t o m a n Empire. 3 3 It h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e illustrations of t h e original m a n u s c r i p t (and t o s o m e e x t e n t also its text, w h i c h c o n t a i n s a late a n d s o m e w h a t Christianized version of t h e story) p r e s e n t Alexander as a Byzantine E m p e r o r of T r e b i z o n d a s s e r t i n g his p o w e r over b a r b a r i c peoples. But it is equally u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e O t t o m a n captions, w h o w a s almos t certainly living in t h e age of M e h m e d t h e C o n q u e r o r , w o u l d also h a v e seen a n d i n t e r p r e t e d t h e m t o fit t h e w o r l d of his o w n time. T h a t w o r l d w a s o n e in w h i c h M e h m e d was continuall y s u b d u i n g r u l e r s in b o t h t h e East (Karaman, Uzun Hasan) a n d t h e West (Byzantine a n d Latin Greece, t h e Balkans). M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is e v e r y r e a s o n t o believe t h a t w h e n he died in 1481, M e h m e d was p l a n n i n g a c a m p a i g n against Rome, w h i c h would explain t h e c o n q u e s t of O t r a n t o t h e y e a r before. In t h e late fifteenth c e n t u r y , Rome t h u s a p p e a r s t o h a v e held t h e place of t h e "Golden (or Red) Apple" (Kml Elma), a n e m o t i o n a l l y c h a r g e d a n d geographicall y m o v a b l e c o n c e p t , w h i c h signified t h e

Stoneman, The Creek Alexander Romance, 52-53 (1:20). Folio 23r: (Right) Hazret-i hkender anasx ve babasi He bulusup yemek yedixgi suretidixr. Ve iskenderixn babasi musdhabet iderken iskender'un anasma [bi]huzur olup arka urmusdur (Labels, from right to left) Suret-l tskender'dixr; tskender'ixn babasidur; iskender'un anasidur (Bottom) Bunlar dah\ iskender'un agtr ademleri olup, iskender'un karsusmdayemek yidiiklerinden otiiri tskender gazaba geliip yemekden kalkukda gendii eli He... urdugt suretidixr. 32 -.Giilru Necipogfu, Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge, MA, 1991), 15-22; Abdulkadir Ozcan, "FaTih'in Tekilat Kanunnamesi ve Nizam-i Alem i^in Karde$ Katli Meselesi," Tarih Dergisi 33 (1980-81): 7-56. 33 .Trahoulia, "The Venice Alexander Romance," 30-52, 70-71.
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goal of O t t o m a n c o n q u e s t a n d t h e v e r y h e a r t of u n c o n q u e r e d Christendom. 3 4 We will r e t u r n t o this c o n c e p t in a m o m e n t ; first, let's see h o w t h e m a n u s c r i p t p r e s e n t s t h e b e g i n n i n g of Alexander's c o n f r o n t a t i on w i t h Dareios, his early b a t t l e s w i t h t h e Scythians, a n d his e n t h r o n e m e n t as king after t h e d e a t h of Philip. In t h e original m a n u s c r i p t , folio 24v shows on t o p a b e a r d e d king, c r o w n e d a n d e n t h r o n e d , a d d r e s s i n g a g r o u p of soldiers a n d several m e n in t u r b a n s , t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t of w h o m is d r e s s e d in blue. This blue-clad m a n also a p p e a r s several t i m e s o n t h e b o t t o m , first c o n v e r s i n g w i t h a y o u n g a n d beardless c r o w n e d prince, t h e n receiving a n imag e of t h a t prince, a n d finally t a k i n g it away. As t r a n s l a t e d by Trahoulia, t h e Greek captions read: Top: Here Dareios' satraps have come to Philip asking for the annual tribute. Bottom: Alexander says to them: tell Dareios that Philip was alone when he paid tribute to you. T h a n k s to t h e s e captions, it is easy to identify t h e t o p king as Philip, a n d t h e b o t t o m o n e as A l e x a n d e r. M o r e o v e r, from t h e t e x t of t h e R o m a n c e itself, w e l e a r n t h a t after receiving Alexander' s n e g a t i v e reply, t h e a m b a s s a d o r s of Dareios "gave s o m e m o n e y to a c e r t a i n Greek friend of t h e i r s , a p a i n t e r , a n d g ot h i m to m a k e for t h e m a m i n i a t u r e image of A l e x a n d e r " w h i c h t h e y t h e n took b a c k t o Dareios, so t h a t h e would k n o w w h a t his n e w e n e m y looked like. T h e O t t o m a n captions, h o w e v e r , i n t e r p r e t t h e s c e ne differently. They misidentify t h e e n t h r o n e d r u l e r at t h e top, m i s i n t e r p r e t t h e role of t h e m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g , a n d r e v e r s e t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h ip b e t w e e n Dareios a n d Philip: [Left] This is the image of a king (padiah) named Dharyos. He was very arrogant, and having many servants (lit. "ruling over many slaves") he had not submitted to Alexander's father. And when Alexander had reached a certain age, he sent Dharyos a letter saying: "For so long now you have not submitted to my father. Now that I have also come into existence, submit to my father for my sake." But Dharyos refused to listen, and (became angry?) at his words,... saying "Well, then, do as you know best." And Alexander [Bottom] ordered a painter to draw his face and sent it to Dharyos, saying "Here, I have s e n t y o u my image. You will see what great peril the person with this face will bring upon your crown and throne" (lit. "how narrow he will make it look to you"). The picture he had painted is the little picture. 35

Cemal Kafadar, "The Ottomans and Europe," in Handbook of European History, 1400-1600: late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation, ed. Thomas A. Brady, Jr. et al (Leiden, 1994-95), 1:596; Ettore Rossi, "La leggenda turcobizantina del Porno Rosso," Studi bizantini e neoellenici 5 (1937): 542-53. The concept seems to have derived from the gilded orb of the equestrian statue of Justinian in the Augustaion in Constantinoplesee Julian Raby, "Mehmed the Conqueror and the Equestrian Statue of the Augustaion," Illinois Classical Studies 12.2 (1987): 305-13 + 3 ill, especially note 1. After Constantinople was taken, the concept of the Golden Apple was transferred to Rome, Buda, and Vienna, depending on the goal of Ottoman conquests. 35 [Left] Daryus dirler bir padisahufi suretidiir. Cayet mutekebbir olup ziyade kula malik olrnggm Sskender'un baba ita'at eylememisdtir. Ve hazret-i iskender bir kac yasa basup Daryus'a haber gondermisdur ki "Bunca zaman babama i eylemedun. Ciinki ben viicuda gel[diim] hatirum igiin babama ita'at eyle" didikde, Dar[yus] kulagma komayup sbzin miist d... "bildixginden kaima" didufkde], iskender dahi nakkas[a] [Bottom] gendii suretiniyazdurup Daryus'a gonderup dimis ki suretum iste sana gonderdum. Goresin bu suretli kimesne seniin basuha tac u tahtum nice dor gosterse gerekdur" diyi eyledugi suret kiiciik suretdiir. TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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W h a t is i n t e r e s t i n g h e r e is t h a t b o t h t h e n a m e of t h e foreign r u l e r a n d t h e basic p l o t o f t h e story a r e clearly d e r i v ed from t h e Greek original; t h e e n e m y r u l e r is r e n d e r e d w i t h a dhal, like Greek Dhareios, a n d n o t as t h e Dam of t h e Shahnama. However, t h e m e a n i n g of t h e images has b e e n c h a n g e d completely, in o r d e r to c o m p l y w i t h a n imag e of Alexander as a suitable historical m o d e l for t h e O t t o m a n Sultan. To t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i s h captions, it was u n d e s i r a b l e t o c o n t e m p l a t e a n Alexander w h o s e father h a d b e e n p a y i ng t r i b u t e to a n o t h e r r u l e r , e v e n if h e himself refused to do soperhaps b e c a u s e t h a t w o u l d b r i n g to m i n d M e h m e d ' s o w n father M u r a d II, w h o h a d still b e e n a T i m u r i d vassal. Instead, it was far preferable t o p r e s e n t A l e x a n d e r as a universal c o n q u e r o r , w h i c h is h o w M e h m e d would w a n t t o be t h o u g h t of. In t h a t light, it s e e m e d logical also to p r e s e n t t h e p o r t r a i t as o n e c o m m i s s i o n e d by Alexander himself, in o r d e r t o t h r e a t e n his e n e m y . I will n o t dwell h e r e o n Alexander' s b a t t l e s w i t h t h e Scythians, e x c e p t t o p o i n t o u t t h a t as w i t h Dareios's n a m e a n d m a n y o t h e r s in t h e e n t i r e m a n u s c r i p t , t h e form given suggests a n effort, to imitate Greek p r o n u n c i a t i o n : t h e l e t t e r used for t h e Greek theta (0) is t h e Arabic tha, e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s o u n d does n ot exist in Turkish, a n d is r e n d e r e d phonetically as / s / . It is also i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t this is applied in a h y p e r c o r r e c t m a n n e r : t h u s t h e initial S ofSkythai e n d s u p b e c o m i n g a tha as well, so t h a t t h e n a m e is r e n d e r e d t h r o u g h o u t as iskise (or khkithe). This is a g o o d e x a m p l e of a c o m m o n linguistic p h e n o m e n o n , w h e r e b y , for e x a m p l e , a s p e a k e r of a l a n g u a g e w i t h . n o / w / (such as G e r m a n or Turkish), w h e n s p e a k i ng English a n d m a k i n g a special effort t o p r o n o u n c e t h e s o u n d , e n d s u p saying " w e r y well." But w h y use suc h an o r t h o g r a p h y at all? Regardless of spelling, in T u r k i s h t h e w o r d w o u l d h a v e b e e n p r o n o u n c e d iskise, so w h y t a k e t h e t r o u b l e t o w r i t e it w i t h a n u n c o m m o n l e t t e r ? In fact, this is j u s t o n e of m a n y signs t h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e captions was a t t e m p t i n g t o r e n d e r t h e Greek in t h e original m a n u s c r i p t as c o r r e c t ly as possiblewhich also explains w h y w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n oflskender, h e t r a n s c r i b e s w o r d s in t h e Greek form, r a t h e r t h a n using t h a t familiar in t h e Islamic versions of t h e Alexander r o m a n c e (Dharyos instead of Dam, etc.) 36 Finally, t h e h y p e r c o r r e c t n e s s c o n s t i t u t e s s t r o n g evidence t h a t t h e scribe c a n n o t h a v e b e e n bilingualfor example, a Byzantine c o n v e r t w h o l e a r n e d b o t h Greek a n d T u r k i s h early-in life. A p a r t from t h e fact t h a t it would r e q u i r e a real conspiracy t h e o r y to justify t h e n u m e r o u s m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of scenes in t h e T u r k i s h captions, if t h e s e w e r e c o m p o s e d by s o m e o n e w h o could r e a d Greek, it is highly unlikely t h a t s o m e o n e like t h a t w o u l d

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This may also explain why he fails to identify the images at the end of the manuscript (Codex Gr. 5,179r, 179v, 180r), which show Alexander building a gate to contain the "unclean nations," with the familiar story from the Quran (18:83-98, 21:96) in which Dhu '1-Qarneyn (usually identified with Alexander) builds a wall of copper and iron against the Biblical Gog and Magog. See van Donzel and Ott, "Yadjudj wa Madjudj," Encyclopaedia of Islam2. In the Greek version, one of the "unclean nations" is that of the Velsyrians, led by Evrymithresalso rendered "hypercorrectly" in Turkish as Evremisros (Evremithroth?) (I73r-179r). The Ottoman captions fail to draw any connections here, speaking simply of Alexander destroying armies between two mountains (I79v) and imprisoning the kings he captured (l80r). It is possible that in this case the author of the captions wished to render the story as simply as possible, allowing the reader to draw his own conclusions. The previous pages make it clear that the army being imprisoned was that of Eurymithres; but there is no one by that name in the Islamicate version, which may partly explain the incoherence in the Ottoman captions. TUBA/JTS 36-2011

120 h a v e r e n d e r e d Skythai as ithkithe speech, b u t n o t his w r i t i n g .

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In fact, as w e will see in a m o m e n t , o n e of t h e images describing Alexander' s early c o n q u e s t s provide s f u r t h e r evidence of oral t r a n s m i s s i o n of Greek n a m e s a n d o t h e r w o r d s . But let u s follow t h e o r d e r of e v e n t s in t h e original m a n u s c r i p t . We h a v e s e e n t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e story of t h e Romance, Alexander' s first military exploits w e r e against t h e Scythians. This s t o r y begins w i t h t h e p a g e n o w b o u n d as 28r, w h i c h was originally placed earlier. On this page, Philip s u m m o n s Alexande r a n d s e n d s h i m against t h e Scythiansas I h a v e a l r e a d y said, I will n o t dwell on this story. However, it is w o r t h p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t in t h e imag e in q u e s t i o n, w e h a v e t h e first of a n u m b e r of instances in t h e m a n u s c r i p t w h e r e t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i sh captions a r b i t r a r i ly decided t h a t a wise m a n was Aristotle, a n d labelled h i m as s u c h by placing o v e r his h e a d t h e w o r d AristataUsdiir ('This is Aristotle'). In this case, t h e r e is n o indication in t h e original m a n u s c r i p t of w h o t h e t u r b a n e d m a n s p e a k i n g w i t h Philip isbut e l s e w h e r e, t h e Greek t e x t m a k e s it q u i t e clear t h a t t h e m a n in q u e s t i o n is n o t Aristotle. 3 7 Nevertheless , it s e e m s t h a t t o t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i s h captions, Aristotle was s u ch a n i m p o r t a n t figure, b o t h as a wise m a n a n d as t h e g r a n d vizier of Alexander, t h a t h e h a d to be r e p r e s e n t e d w h e n e v e r possible. In fact, t h e p h i l o s o p h e r is c o m p l e t e l y a b s e n t from t h e images of t h e Greek m a n u s c r i p t , since h e - d i d n o t a c c o m p a n y Alexander on his c a m p a i g n s to c o n q u e r the world. .', Let us m o v e on, t h e n , t o t h o s e c a m p a i g n s . After defeating t h e Scythians o n behal f of his father Philip, A l e x a n d e r succeeds him, for t h e old m a n dies. It is w o r t h t a k i n g a look at t h e O t t o m a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e images s h o w i n g Alexander' s e n t h r o n e m e n t (Fig. 6, folio 29r), for from a p u r e l y visual p o i n t of view, t h e s e p r e s e n t h i m as a n e m p e r o r in t h e Byzantine style, d r e s s e d in p u r p l e a n d h o l d i n g a n o r b a n d s c e p t e r . P e o p l e a r e p e r f o r m i n g t h e p r o s t r a t i o n (proskynesis), h o r n s a r e being b l o w n a n d d r u m s b e a t e n , a n d t h e Greek c a p t i o n s r e a d as follows: Top: After Philip's death, Alexander is proclaimed king of the Macedonians. Bottom: Alexander went before his father's statue and persuaded alL.with him. Needless t o say, in t h e O t t o m a n v e r s i o n this is r e i n t e r p r e t e d in a m o r e Islamicate fashion. T h e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n s read: Top: This image shows The Exalted Alexander being enthroned. Pipes and drums and _ kettledrums are being sounded, and the entire world is being made to submit to him. Bottom: This image shows The Exalted Alexander gathering around himself all of his subjects (re'aya), who swear the (Islamic) oath of allegiance (bfat)?* By u s i n g suc h language, t h e c a p t i o n s succeed in m o v i n g b e y o n d t h e m a n u s c r i p t ' s Byzantine i m a g e r y (which m a y in a n y case h a v e b e e n unfamiliar t o its n e w O t t o m a n
37

See, for example, folio 53r, where the Greek caption states that he is a dream interpreter; or 95r, where the sick Alexander is cured by a doctor named Philip, who is again identified as Aristatalis hekim. 38 [Top] Hazret-i iskender tahta gegxp kus u nefir ii nakra urulup diinydyi eline teslim eyledukleri tasvirdiir [Botto Hazret-i Iskender ciimle re'ayayi cem idUp b\at eyledukleri tasvirdiir TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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obedience of t h e w h o l e w o r l d . After p r e s e n t i n g Alexander' s e n t h r o n e m e n t , t h e m a n u s c r i p t ' s illustrations follow t h e t e xt in d e s c r i b i ng his extensiv e c o n q u e s t s , w h i c h in this v e r s i o n of t h e t e x t t a k e place b o t h in t h e East a n d in t h e West, as well as in t h e r e a l m of t h e mythological a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l . While t h e limitation s of a p r e l i m i n a r y article s u ch as t h e o n e a t h a n d m a k e it impossible to go i n t o this p a r t of t h e m a n u s c r i p t in a n y detail, it is w o r t h looking at least at t w o of these, w h i c h a r e a m o n g t h e m o s t fascinating in t e r m s of t h e i r O t t o m a n captions. T h e first (Fig. 7, folio 40r), at w h i c h I h a v e a l r e a d y h i n t e d above, deals w i t h Alexander's c o n q u e s t of Rome, a s t o r y t h a t exists only in this version of t h e m a n u s c r i p t . Trahoulia t r a n s l a t e s t h e Greek caption s as follows: Top: Here all the Romans came out to meet him with dances and drums, holding laurel branches in their hands. Bottom: Here all the kings of the West came out to meet him and appease him with gifts. T h e O t t o m a n c a p t i o n s a r e u n f o r t u n a t e l y d a m a g e d , b u t still m o s t l y legible: Top: This image shows Alexander going on campaign. The Frankish population (Fireng taifesi) and head priests (has kesisleri) of the Golden Apple (Kizil Elma, i.e. Romesee above) take laurel leaves in their hands and come out to greet him with honor. \ i Bottom: This image shows how while Alexander was on campaign, the lords {begler) and sons of lords {begzadeler) of the Golden Apple (Rome) came out to greet him, giving him gifts.39

In addition to t h e s e caption s in t h e m a r g i n s , t h e r e is also w r i t i n g o n t h e b o t t o m i m a g e itself, w h i c h identifies Alexander, t h e lords, a n d t h e sons of lords. 4 0 T h e r e is n o n e e d t o belabor t h e point, w h i c h is obvious: if Alexander is to be identified w i t h t h e O t t o m a n Sultan (in all likelihood, M e h m e d II), t h e n his c o n q u e s t of Rome is t o b e identified w i t h t h e O t t o m a n c o n q u e s t of t h e h e a r t of C h r i s t e n d o m (Kizil Elma) a n d t h e submission of its W e s t e r n Christian p o p u l a t i o n (Frenk taifesi). Intriguingly, t h e c a p t i o n on t h e p r e v i o u s image (folio 39v), w h i c h s h o w s Alexande r on his w a y t o R o m e b e i n g g r e e t e d by a m b a s s a d o r s w i t h foreign-looking h a t s a n d gifts, identifies t h o s e figures n o t as Franks, b u t as Byzantines {Rum taifesi). T h e idea is clear: after Byzantium , n o w it is t h e W e s t e r n Christians w h o m u s t accept O t t o m a n rule. T h e s e t w o pages alone a r e p r o b a b l y sufficient t o d a t e t h e T u r k i s h captions t o t h e r e i gn of M e h m e d t h e C o n q u e r o r , w h e n s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would h a v e m a d e t h e m o s t sense, a n d h a d t h e g r e a t e s t r e s o n a n c e . T h e final image to b e discussed h e r e is t h e o n e t h a t p r e s e n t s Alexander c o n q u e r i n g t h e a n c i e n t r e g i o n s of Asia Minor: Ionia, Karia, Lydia, Frygia, Lycia, a n d P a m p h y l ia (Fig. 8, folio 43r, t o p half). In t h e original image, t h e s e a r e r e p r e s e n t e d as six castles in t w o rows,

" [Top] Hazret-i iskender sefere gider[ike]n, Kmlelma'da olari(Fi]feng taifesi ve bos kesisleri ellerine defneyapragx alup ta'zvn ile istikbdl eylediikleri tasvirdur [Bottom] [Kmjlelma'da olan [?] begler ve begzdd[e]ler Hazret-i iskender sefere gideriken, [kar]su cikup piskes [$ekd]iikleri [tasjvfrdur 40 [Left] iskender [Right] Begler ve beg zddelerdur TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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w i t h a m a n holding a gift k n e e l i n g d o w n in front of t h e g a t e of each, a n d facing Alexander, w h o is s t a n d i n g on t h e left. T h e n a m e s of t h e castles are w r i t t e n in Greek in t h e t o p m a r g i n , from left t o rightand o n t o p of e a c h castle, w e m a y r e a d in T u r k i sh t h e s a m e n a m e s , in t h e s a m e o r d e r : Settlement (karye) of YunyeCastle of Kar(n?)iyeCastle of Lidye Settlement of FrigyeCastle of LikyeSettlement of Panfilye T h e r e is also a c a p t i o n in t h e r i g h t m a r g i n , w h i c h r e a d s: This image shows how when The Exalted Alexander, separating himself from the army, went around the villages (koyler), the village elders (koy ululan) greeted him with a pot of yoghurt each. 41 T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n given to this image fay t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i s h captions is fascinating from several p o i n ts of view. First of all, t h e o r d e r in w h i c h t h e labels a r e placed leaves n o d o u b t t h a t s o m e o n e w h o could r e a d Greek w a s p r e s e n t w h e n t h e y w e r e w r i t t e n . Most probably, this p e r s o n w o u l d h a v e r e a d t h e Greek n a m e s w h i l e p o i n t i n g at t h e castles, from left to right. Moreover , it is clear t h a t t h e Greek s p e a k e r was p r o n o u n c i n g t h e n a m e s ou t loud, for t h e i r T u r k i s h t r a n s c r i p t i o n p r e s e r v e s aspects of s p o k e n Greek: t h e r e is n o final n in t h e T u r k i s h version, w h i le t h e r e is in t h e Greek, a n d t h e sagir nun (n) is used in Yonye, p r o b a b l y a r e s p o n s e to palatalizatio n of / n / before / i / , still c o m m o n t o d a y in dialects of Greek. But w h a t is p e r h a p s m o s t i n t r i g u i n g is t h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e O t t o m a n captions s e e m e d c o m p e l l e d t o see t h e castles as r e p r e s e n t i n g villages, a n d t h e m e n s t a n d i n g in front of t h e m as village elders. To a h i s t o r i a n familiar w i t h t h e style of t h e O t t o m a n t a x r e g i s t e r (defter), t h e formula karye-L. (village or s e t t l e m e n t of...) is i m m e d i a t e l y recognizable. In all likelihood, t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i s h c a p t i o n s was also familiar w i t h s u c h registers, often c o m p i l e d u p o n t h e c o n q u e s t of n e w provinces, a n d chose to i n t e r p r e t t h e s c e ne in t h a t light. While it m a y s e e m odd for a r u l e r s e r v i ng as t h e a n c i e n t e q u i v a l e n t of M e h m e d II to receive bowls of y o g h u r t from village elders, a p p a r e n t l y t h a t is w h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e captions m a d e of t h e scene. He decided to u s e t h e w o r d karye (which in O t t o m a n usage usually m e a n s 'village') for t h e castles in front of w h o s e gates stood a m a n d r e s s e d in red, a n d kal'e ( m e a n i n g 'castle') for ones w h e r e he was dresse d in blueand t h e n , in t h e m a r g i n a l caption, to refer to t h e m collectively as 'villages' (koyler), e v e n t h o u g h in t h e p i c t u r e t h e y a p p e a r t o b e fortified. Be t h a t as it m a y , t h e topos is a c o m m o n one: a c o n q u e r i n g r u l e r t o u r s t h e land, a n d t h e leaders of t h e local p o p u l a t i o n s c o m e a n d s u b m i t to him. 4 2 T h e a u t h o r of t h e caption s was simply t r y i n g to m a k e sense as best h e could of t h e i m a g e before himand in his m i n d , t h e r e was a p p a r e n t l y n o
41

[Right margin] Hazret-i iskender 'askerden aynlup koyleri seyr eyledukde, koy ululan hirer canak yogurt He istikb eyledukleri tasvirdiir [Labels, from left to right] Karye-i Yuniye, Kal'e-i Karniye, Kal'e-i Lidye, Karye-i Frigye, Kal'e-i L Karye-i Panfilye 41 See, for example, the description in the anonymous chronicle Ahval-i Sultan Mehemmed of the submission of Ottoman Anatolia to Mehmed I after he defeated his brother isa. Dimitris Kastritsis, The Tales of Sultan Mehmed, Son of Bayezid Khan, Sources of Oriental Languages and Literatures 78 (Cambridge, MA, 2007), 18 (Oxford Anonymous Chronicle folios 70V-71R, Ner! Codex Menzel 116-117): "...he...toured the entire land. Wherever he went,, people came and submitted to his authority." TUBA/JTS 36-2011

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c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n a r u l e r w h o b e h a v e d solemnly at c o u r t , b u t could receive t h e leaders of n e w l y subjected regionseven village elderswhile o n c a m p a i g n . In conclusion, I h o p e I h a v e b e e n able t o s h o w in this p r e l i m i n a r y article t h a t t h e O t t o m a n caption s in t h e Alexande r R o m a n c e of t h e Hellenic Institute in Venice a r e well w o r t h s t u d y i n g b e c a u s e t h e y o p e n u p a w h o l e n e w aspect of t h e m a n u s c r i p t , as well as p r o v i d i n g insights i n t o t h e e m p i r e of M e h m e d II. J u s t as t h e illustrations succeed in t r a n s f o r m i n g A l e x a n d e r i n t o a f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E m p e r o r of Trebizond, like its p a t r o n w h o w a s m o s t p r o b a b l y Alexios III, t h e O t t o m a n caption s t u r n h i m into a late fifteenthc e n t u r y O t t o m a n Sultanlike t h e i r p a t r o n , w h o could only h a v e b e e n M e h m e d II. I h a v e suggested t h a t t h e captions w e r e m a d e b y a T u r k i s h - s p e a k e r well-versed in t h e style of early O t t o m a n chronicles, w i t h t h e assistance of s o m e o n e w h o could r e a d Greek, w h o was p r o b a b l y called in only w h e n his services w e r e r e q u i r e d . M u c h of t h e t i m e t h e y w e r e notfor while a t t e m p t i n g to r e n d e r t h e Greek n a m e s as a c c u r a t e l y as possible, t h e a u t h o r of t h e T u r k i s h caption s was usually h a p p y t o a t t e m p t his o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n o r m s of t h e w o r l d in w h i c h h e lived. In so doing, h e m a d e of t h e m a n u s c r i p t a sor t of g r a p h i c novel, w h i c h w h e n r e a d w o u l d reinforce t h e idea of Alexander's e m p i r e as a m o d e l for t h a t of t h e O t t o m a n Sultan. And a n excellent m o d e l it was: for t h e Islamicate Alexander h a s u n c e r t a i n e t h n i c origins, b u t a g o o d Muslim pedigreethe captions call h i m Hazret-i Jskender, u s i n g t h e title n o r m a l l y r e s e r v e d for saints or P r o p h e t s , since h e is identified w i t h t h e Qur anic Dul-karneyn ('The T w o - h o r n e d One'). This pedigree, in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e late Byzantine images in t h e m a n u s c r i p t , m a d e t h e w o r k in its n e w form i m m e d i a t e l y a p p r o p r i a t e for t h e O t t o m a n Empire of M e h m e d t h e C o n q u e r o r , itself a n Islamic versio n of t h e E a s t e rn R o m a n E m p i r e w i t h claims to u n i v e r s a l sovereignty over East a n d West. But t h e r e are still m a n y secrets left t o be revealed by t h e O t t o m a n captions of Codex Gr. 5these will b e t h e subject of a m u c h l o n g e r work .

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Figure 1 (folio 1r)

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Figure 2 (folio 4v)

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Figure 3 (folio 15r)

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Figure 4 (folio 21r)

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Figure 5 (folio 23r)

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Figure 6 (folio 29r)

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Figure 7 (folio 40r)

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Figure 8 (folio 43r)

TUBA/JTS 36-2011