Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
CVM 6100
CONTENTS
Connective Tissue Structures ........................................3 Osteology .........................................................................5 Arthrology.......................................................................7 Myology .........................................................................10 Biomechanics and Locomotion ...................................12 Serous Membranes and Cavities.................................15 Formation of Serous Cavities ......................................17 Nervous System ............................................................19 Autonomic Nervous System.........................................23 Abdominal Viscera .......................................................27 Pelvis, Perineum and Micturition ...............................32 Female Genitalia...........................................................35 Male Genitalia ..............................................................37 Head Features (Lectures 1 and 2) ...............................40 Cranial Nerves ..............................................................44
Fascia [L. band] collagenous fibrous tissue that hold the body together superficial fascia = subcutaneous tissue between skin & muscles/bone (body wall) - regionally variable in amount (site for subcutaneous injection) - contains: cutaneous muscle, mammary tissue, fat (also edema fluid) [e.g., cutaneous trunci m.; superficial muscles of facial expression] deep fascia = packing/binding tissue surrounding muscles, bones, & organs - serves to compartmentalize skeletal muscles - forms several named structures, viz., named regional fascia, e.g., thoraco-lumbar fascia, fascia lata, etc. (fascia is named where it is thick & distinct (i.e., dense c.t. vs. loose areolar c.t.) retinaculum [L. rope or cable] fascia that binds passing tendons to the surface of the carpus or tarsus (also, transverse humeral retinaculum) raphe [G. seam] fascia that joins right and left counterparts of a particular muscle at the midline (e.g., ventral abdomen = linea alba) epimysium [G. on + muscle] fascia covering the surface of a muscle, depending on the muscle, it may be thin (transparent) or dense (opaque & white); also, perimysium = c.t. around muscle fascicles; and endomysium = c.t. within muscle fascicles)
Axial section through metacarpus and digit: 1 = interosseus m.; 2 = digital extensor tendon; 3 = metacarpal bone; 4 = dorsal sesamoid bone; 5 = proximal phalanx; 6 = proximal sesamoid bone; 7 = metacarpal pad; 8 = digital flexor tendons; 9 = digital annular ligaments; 10 = digital pad; 11 = unguis (nail)
Transverse section through antebrachium (horse): 1 = superficial fascia; 2 = cephalic vein; 3 = radius (bone); 4 & 5= deep fascia (compartmentalizing muscles); Med. = medial; Cr. = cranial
Osteology...
Bone Functions
Support body shape & weight
Development: Endochondral bones develop from cartilage precursors Protection [most bones] of vulnerable organs Intramembranous bones directly from mesenchyme (fascia) [bones of calvaria & face] Ca++ & PO4- Location: reservoir for ions Axial skeleton head, vertebral column ( including tail), ribs & sternum Red Marrow Appendicular skeleton bones of limbs, including source of blood cells scapula & os coxae(hip bone)
Heterotopic bones os penis [ carnivore; rodent ] os cardis [ cattle ]
Bone Composition
Collagen fibers by weight: 1/3 of bone by volume: 1/2 of bone Hydroxyapatite crystals (Ca)10(PO4)6(OH)2 95% solid (vs. water) 65% mineral; 35% organic
Shape: Long bones length greater than diameter Short bones approximately equivalent dimensions Flat bones e.g., scapula, os coxae, many bones of skull Irregular bones short & multiple processes (vertebrae) Sesamoid bones small seed-like within tendons, e.g., patella (knee cap)
ligament
periosteum
metaphysis
spongy bone
diaphysis
compact bone marrow cavity nutrient artery entering nutrient foramen
metaphysis epiphysis
endosteum
Mechanical Considerations
Strength = amount of strain a bone can withstand without breaking. Bone is best at withstanding compression, especially against the grain
(compressing long axes of osteones)
External Force
Tensile strength = 1/2 of compression; comparable to tendons & ligaments Shear strength = 1/4 of compression; most fracture are the result of shear forces
General Principle:
Bones are designed to provide adequate strength with minimal material (minimal mass or weight). Such an economy of bone mass/weight offers evolutionary advantages; viz., faster reaction capability; reduced metabolic requirements.
Hollow-Shaft Construction
Force Force
tensile strain
compressive strain
STRAIN 0
compression
distance
patella
Torque = F x d
Arthrology
(Joint = Articulation = Union of two or more bones)
Classification:
Fibrous joints immobile joints, united by fibrous tissue, may ossify with age. Three types are recognized: 1] Suture = [L. seam] undulating seams between bones of the skull 2] Gomphosis = tooth in an alveolus, united by periodontal ligament 3] Syndesmosis = bones joined by ligaments, e.g., [radius & ulna] and [tibia & fibula] Cartilaginous joints immobile joints, united by cartilage, ossify with age. Two types are recognized: 1] Symphysis = [G. grow together] fibrocartilage union, e.g., pelvic symphysis; mandibular symphysis; (also, intervertebral disk) 2] Synchondrosis = hyaline cartilage union, e.g., physis Synovial joints mobile joints, fibrous tissue enclosing a synovial cavity Classified on the basis of... Number of bones: Simple joint = formed by two bones, e.g., shoulder joint Compound joint = formed by more than two bones, e.g., elbow joint, carpal joint Shape: Hinge (ginglymus) joint = movement in one plane Ball & socket (spheroid) joint = capable of circumduction Plane joint = gliding action, e.g., vertebral articular processes
also, Ellipsoid, Saddle, Condylar, Trochoid
Joint features... articular (hyaline) cartilage covers the opposing surfaces of the bones synovial membrane lines a synovial cavity that separates the bones the membrane secretes synovial fluid into the cavity fibrous (collagenous tissue) layer located external to synovial membrane mechanically joins the bones, blends with periosteum selectively thickened to form ligaments NOTE: Joint Capsule = fibrous layer and synovial membrane together. Additional features found in some synovial joints... meniscus = fibrocartilage in the synovial cavity, interposed between the bones (one meniscus in temporomandibular joint; two semilunar menisci in stifle) internal ligaments that appear to be within the joint cavity (such ligaments are actually surrounded by synovial membrane and thus they are outside the synovial cavity itself) fat pads between the fibrous & synovial layers produce synovial folds that may protrude into the joint cavity
Myology
There are three categories of muscle tissue: 1] smooth muscle = not striated; associated with viscera (gut, vessels, glands, etc.) 2] cardiac muscle = striated; musculature of the heart 3] skeletal muscle = striated; generally attached to bone; usually under voluntary control
Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal (striated) muscle is composed of elongate, multinucleated cells (muscle fibers). Different types of muscle fibers are found among the skeletal muscles of the body, e.g.,
slow contracting, fatigue resistant, aerobic metabolism (Type I) fast contracting, fatigue resistance, aerobic metabolism (Type 2A) fast contracting, fatigue susceptible, anaerobic metabolism (Type 2B) Note: Skeletal muscle will not contract in the absence of a functional nerve supply (denervation atropy occurs). One neuron innervates a variable number of muscle fibers. The neuron plus the muscle fibers it innervates constitute a motor unit. To produce a stronger contraction, the nervous system activates more motor units.
Tendon protection: A. bursa = synovial pocket inserted between a tendon and a bony prominence B. tendon synovial sheath = lubrication where tendons are bound, e.g., by retinaculum
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Muscle names:
Muscle names may be latinized (flexor digitorum profundus) or anglicized (deep digital flexor). Muscle are named (originally in the human) for their shape (deltoideus) or location (brachialis) or attachments (sternohyoideus) or structure (biceps) or function (supinator) or combinations of these (pronator quadratus; superficial digital flexor; serratus ventralis; flexor carpi radialis; etc.)
Muscle architecture:
Multiple muscles and multiple parts or heads (head = a separate belly and origin) exist to distribute (as opposed to concentrate) stresses on bones and to provide movement diversity. Fascicle & fiber arrangement: Parallel arrangement, e.g., strap or spindle arrangement, fibers/fascicles arranged parallel to the tendon of insertion. This results in a greater range of shortening and thus yields greater movement velocity (distance per time). Pennate arrangement = fibers/fascicles arranged at an angle to the direction in which the tendon moves. This results in a greater area of muscle fibers along axes of contraction and produces more strength (at the expense of a reduced range of contraction). Note: The amount of force that a muscle can generate is proportional to the area of muscle fibers, i.e., number of contractile protein molecules, multiplied by the cosine of the muscle-tendon angle. Three types of pennate arrangement are: unipennate, e.g., ulnar & radial heads of the deep digital flexor muscle; bipennate, e.g., infraspinatus muscle; multipennate, e.g., humeral head of the deep digital flexor muscle.
Bipennate
Multipennate
11
Linear Force:
Force is a vector quantity it has magnitude, direction, & point of application. As a vector, force can be partitioned into component forces, e.g., into vertical (body weight ) and horizontal (propulsion; braking) forces. Action evokes reaction: the ground supports body hoof weight and, via friction, the ground provides the actual propulsion or braking force which is why veterinarretraction ians should pay attention to the condition of the ground. r e a c t i o n support Dynamic forces (when an animal is moving) can weight action be hundreds of times greater than static forces. Bones, friction ligaments, tendons, etc. are designed to withstand dynamic forces. ground
Fmiddle
gluteal
d i (m.g.) d i (s)
do Vi Fi Vo Fo di
Fi di = Fo do & Fo = Fi di/do for velocity: Vo = Vi do/di The expression do/di is a gear ratio. Low gear muscles (e.g., semitendinosus) are used when the limb is bearing weight; high gear muscles (e.g., gluteal mm.) are better suited for speed than for bearing weight.
F semitendinosus
do
Fo
12
Trunk Biomechanics:
Functional goals unimpeded limb movement: self-contained [box vs. beanbag] only vertical forces on limbs adjust to variable loads flexible during locomotion (carnivores)
LOAD LOAD
Bad!
Design analogy: Trunk design may be thought of as analogous to a bow and string vertebral column = bow
epaxial mm.
Good!
epaxial mm.
three muscular strings two stabilize the bow: 1) epaxial mm. 2) longus mm. & sublumbar mm.
sublumbar mm. longus mm. rectus abdominis & other abdominal mm.
one flexes the bow: 3) rectus abdominis & other abdominal mm. (antagonize 1&2)
neck forms an inverted bow stabilized by longus mm. dorsiflexed (extended) by epaxial mm. & ligamentum nuchae (which is absent in the cat)
epaxial mm.
longus mm.
13
Features of Vertebrae
Vertebral processes: pcesses: spinous articular transverse vertebral foramen Vertebral body Transverse Section Through A Vertebra Vertebral arch: lamina pedicle
spinous process cranial articular process transverse process caudal articular process intervertebral foramen
Vertebra
intervertebral discs
vertebral canal intervertebral foramen spinaous process cranial articular process transverse process
Intervertebral Disc:
anulus fibrosus nucleus pulposus spinal nerve
vertebral foramen
wing of atlas
spinal cord
vertebra T5
thoracic cavity
Peritoneal Cavity
transversalis fascia retroperitoneal abdominal wall kidney ligament uterus gut peritoneal cavity vessel mesentery visceral peritoneum parietal peritoneum
trachea
LUNG
HEART
ligament
thoracic wall
16
Coelom Development:
hindgut
During gastrulation, the space between ectoderm and coelom endoderm (and between trophoblast and hypoblast) is filled by inflow of primary mesenchyme that becomes mesoderm. Cavitation occurs in lateral mesoderm, establishing the yolk sac coelom bounded by somatopleure and splanchnopleure. As head and tail processes develop and lateral body Coelom folds merge medially (except at the umbilicus), embryonic and (Longitudinal View) extra-embryonic compartments of the coelom can be differentiated. The former becomes the Mesoderm = somite neural tube serous cavities, the latter is filled by allantoic notochord = intermediate fetal membrane. foregut = lateral Formation of the head process brings Lateral the heart and pericardial coelom within the Body embryo, positioned ventral to the foregut. Folds Right and left sides of the embryonic coelom embryonic are separated by gut and by dorsal and ventral coelom mesenteries, the latter fails to develop at the mesentery level of the midgut. Thus, the embryonic coelom features an anterior-ventral pericardial compartment, a somatopleure extra-embryonic caudal peritoneal compartment, and bilateral coelom splanchnopleure yolk pleural compartments (channels) connecting sac the pericardial and peritoneal compartments. Mesoderm lining the coelom forms mesothelium.
Diaphragm Formation
(Caudal View)
degenerating mesonephros
pleuroperitoneal fold
septum transversum
pleuroperitoneal canal
vertebra aorta
esophagus
central tendon
diaphragm muscle
Early
Late
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Nervous System
Neuron = functional cell of Nervous System:
receives excitation (at a synapse or at a receptor); conducts excitation (along an axon); transmits excitation (via release of chemical at a synapse).
Most neurons are multipolar cell body is located where input excitation occurs Sensory neurons are unipolar cell body is located along the axon (in a spinal ganglion)
Dendrites Cell body AXON
Input
Multipolar Neuron
Synapse
Unipolar Neuron
Synapse AXON conducts excitation Receptor becomes excited Cell body (in spinal ganglion)
transmits excitation
Definitions:
Nerve = bundle of axons ensheathed by supporting cells and enveloped by connective tissue Root = nerve that is adjacent to the CNS and enveloped by meninges Ganglion = localized site where a nerve is enlarged due to a collection of cell bodies: Spinal ganglia contain unipolar cell bodies (located on dorsal roots of spinal nn.) Autonomic ganglia contain multipolar cell bodies that innervate viscera.
Vertebra T8
(Transverse Section)
vertebral canal intervertebral foramen
Spinal Nerve:
The spinal cord and spinal roots are located within the vertebral canal of the vertebral column. Dorsal and ventral spinal roots unite to form a spinal nerve (bilaterally). Adjacent vertebrae combine to form an intervertebral foramen (dorsal to an intervertebral disc). The spinal nerve is found within the intervertebral foramen, from which it exits the vertebral canal. The spinal nerve is enveloped by connective tissue (epineurium,
perineurium, & endoneurium). In contrast, the spinal cord and the dorsal and ventral spinal roots are surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid enclosed within meninges.
spinal nerve
19
sympathetic trunk ramus communicans ventral root (in meninges) meningreal branch meningeal
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) = VE (sometimes the ANS includes GVA as well as VE fibers) The VE pathway, from the CNS to a visceral organ, is unique in that it is composed of two multipolar neurons (the other efferent pathway and the two afferent pathways have just a single neuron). The first neuron in the pathway has its cell body in the CNS (brain or spinal cord). The cell body of the second neuron is located within an autonomic ganglion in the peripheral nervous system. The autonomic nervous system operates largely at a subconscious level [auto-nomic = self-rule].
20
Cutaneous innervation:
Neck Thorax Abdomen Limbs series of dorsal and ventral cutaneous nn. series of dorsal, lateral and ventral cutaneous nn. series of dorsal and lateral cutaneous nn. individually named cutaneous branches of regional nerves that originate from nerve plexuses (brachial or lumbosacral) to the limbs. Face named cutaneous branches of cranial nerves.
C-1 is not cutaneous C-2 supplies dorsal head Dorsal Cutaneous nn. of neck (from medial br. of dorsal br.) Dorsal cutaneous nn. of trunk (from lateral br. of dorsal br.)
Great Auricular n. (from C-2 ventral branch) Ventral Cutaneous nn. of neck (from ventral branch) Ventral cutaneous nn. (from ventral branches) Superficial radial n. (named cutaneous n. from named regional n.) cutaneous nn. from dorsal & ventral caudal plexuses
Lateral cutaneous nn. (from ventral branches) first (intercostalbrachial) & last (lateral cutaneous femoral) are largest
Trunk mm.
L1 L2 L3
Limb mm.
L4 L5 L6 L7 L4 L5 L6 L7 L4 L5 L6 L7 Ventral branches
From a Gross Anatomy perspective ... MYOTOME = muculature derived from one somite and thus innervated by a single spinal nerve per body half. DERMATOME = skin derived from one somite and thus innervated by a single spinal nerve per body half. 21
lateral branch
dorsal branch
muscle branch
medial branch
muscle branch
Thoracic Spinal N.
muscle branch
spinal ganglion
Cervical Spinal N.
lateral branch
muscle branch muscle branch
dorsal branch
Lumbar Spinal N.
adjacent ventral branch
nerve plexus
muscle branch
muscle branch
NOTE: named nerves give off named cutaneous and muscle branches within the limb
22
1) preganglionic neuron cell body located in CNS; axon synapses in an autonomic ganglia 2) postganglionic neuron cell body in an autonomic ganglion; axon innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle or gland Note: The preganglionic neuron always releases acetylcholine at its synaptic terminals. The postganglionic neuron releases acetylcholine or norepinephrine (noradrenalin) as its transmitter chemical to excite target cells.
NOTE: A single preganglionic neuron may synapse on 17 postganglionic neurons located in eight ganglia.
Autonomic Ganglion
CNS
preganglionic neuron postganglionic neuron myelin sheath
Target Organ
ANS Divisions:
basis for recognizing two divisions Feature Sympathetic Parasympathetic Distribution: ----------------------- whole body ------------------------------- viscera in body cavities; in head Preganglionic origin: ------------- thoracolumbar spinal cord-------------- sacral spinal cord & brainstem Postganglionic neuron:----------- usually adrenergic ----------------------- always cholinergic (Transmitter released: ---------- norepinephrine --------------------------- acetylcholine ) Functional role: ------------------- fight or flight--------------------------- routine visceral operations
Functional Differences:
Structure
iris (pupil)-----------------------------------heart -----------------------------------------bronchi --------------------------------------gut & bladder wall -------------------------gut & bladder sphincters ------------------cutaneous vessels --------------------------muscle vessels------------------------------sweat glands --------------------------------ALSO:
Sympathetic
dilate ----------------------------------------------------- constrict increase rate -------------------------------------------- decrease rate dilate ----------------------------------------------------- constrict inhibit motility ----------------------------------------- excite contraction contract -------------------------------------------------- relax constrict ------------------------------------------------- doesnt innervate dilate (cholinergic)------------------------------------- doesnt innervate secrete --------------------------------------------------- doesnt innervate semen ejaculation penis erection glucose release (liver) secretion stomach/pancreas 23
Parasympathetic
The sympathetic division is activated when the brain perceives a situation that is "life threatening", i.e., a situation that calls for mobilization of physiological resources in preparation for a great expenditure of energy to escape or combat the threat. The parasympathetic role is to restore & maintain routine visceral operations.
Autonomic Pathways
thoracic viscera
esophagus left ventral ventral & dorsal vagal vagal nerve branches trunk
dorsal vagal nerve trunk to celiacomesenteric nerve plexus stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas (celiac plexus) and small intestines, cecum, ascending & transverse colon (cranial mesenteric plexus)
DIAPHRAGM
NOTE: Postganglionic neurons are in terminal ganglia located within submucosal & myenteirc nerve plexuses
Parasympathetic pathways:
1] Cranial nerves III, VII, and IX .... later in the course. 2] Cranial nerve X (vagus nerve) innervates thoracic and abdominal viscera: Preganglionic pathway: the vagus n. branches travel to organs being innervated Synapse: occurs within organs innervated, in microscopic terminal ganglia S1 S3 Spinal Cord Postganglionic pathway: axons course in submucosal or myenteric plexuses to reach innervation targets (smooth m., cardiac m. or gland cells). 3] Sacral spinal cord innervates pelvic viscera: Preganglionic pathway: from the sacral cord to pelvic plexus (via ventral root; spinal nerve; ventral branch; sacral plexus; pelvic nerve). Synapse: occurs in a pelvic ganglion within the pelvic plexus (or in the organ Postganglionic pathway: branches from the pelvic plexus run directly to pelvic viscera.
innervated) spinal nerve lumbosacral plexus ventral root pelvic nerve
S2
hypogastric nerve
Brain Stem T1
spinal nerve ventral root
L4
sympathetic trunk & ganglia
T6
ramus communicans
vertebral n.
S 1-3
lumbar splanchnic n.
right hypogastric n.
major splanchnic n.
renal & left cranial gonadal celiac mesenteric gang. gang. gang. Prevertebral Ganglia
DIAPHRAGM
common carotid a.
25
Neck Region
Presynaptic path: ventral root; spinal n.; ramus communicans; sympathetic trunk vertebral nerve Synapse: cervical cervicothoracic ganglion sympathetic Postsynaptic path: trunk vertebral nerve; rami communicantes; cervical spinal nn.; dorsal or ventral branches to muscles & skin
cervicothoracic ganglion
spinal nerve
dorsal root
spinal ganglion
Thoracic Viscera
Presynaptic path: Synapse: Postsynaptic path: ventral root; spinal n.; ramus communicans; sympathetic trunk cervicothoracic & middle cervical ganglia cardiosympathetic nn. branch from ansa subclavia (also, branches that run with vagus n.) left cervicothoracic ganglion left sympathetic trunk
DIAPHRAGM
26
Abdominal Viscera
Presynaptic path: Synapse: Postsynaptic path: ventral root; spinal n.; ramus communicans; sympathetic trunk; splanchnic nn. prevertebral ganglia (left/right celiac, cranial mesenteric, caudal mesenteric, renal, and gonadal ganglia) located in nerve plexuses along the aorta nerve plexuses on abdominal arteries supplying particular organs
left sympathetic trunk
left minor splanchnic n. cranial mesenteric ganglion cranial mesenteric nerve plexus
cecum ascending colon transverse colon pancreas
DIAPHRAGM
small intestines
pancreas
Pelvic Viscera
Synapse:
Presynaptic path:
ventral root; spinal n.; ramus communicans; sympathetic trunk; lumbar splanchnic nn.; caudal mesenteric plexus caudal mesenteric ganglion (also, synapses in pelvic ganglia) hypogastric n.; pelvic plexus; branches directly to pelvic viscera (left/right)
Postsynaptic path:
ramus communicans
S2
L1
left pelvic plexus & ganglia plexus on aorta caudal mesenteric ganglion left hypogastric nerve
26 A 27
intrinsic eye muscles nasal glands salivary glands parotid salivary gland
thoracic viscera
abdominal viscera
26 B28
Abdominal Viscera
Note: The digestive system consists of the digestive tube (mouth, pharynx, & alimentary canal) plus the liver, pancreas, & salivary glands.
A. Esophagus cervical, thoracic, abdominal regions greater [ all striated in dog; proximal 2/3s striated in cat ] omentum B. Stomach: sphincters:
D2d C1e D2c C1b D2a C2 D2b
1] cardiac (at cardia) and 2] pyloric (at pylorus) regions: a] cardiac (surrounding cardia) b] fundic (fundus = blind end) c] body d] pyloric (antrum & canal) also, lesser curvature LESSER OMENTUM greater curvature GREATER OMENTUM
D2e
C1d D1 C1c C3
C. Small Intestines: 1) Duodenum MESODUODENUM regions: a] cranial flexure b] descending duodenum c] caudal flexure d] ascending duodenum e] duodenal-jejunal flexure 2) Jejunum MESOJEJUNUM 3) Ileum MESOILEUM antimesenteric vessel; ileocecal fold ileal (ileocolic) orifice
D3 D4a&b D4
MESENTERY
mesentery
mesocolon
D. Large Intestines: spleen 1) Cecum (blind end; no appendix) cecocolic orifice; ileocecal fold stomach ileal (ileocolic) orifice lesser 2) Colon MESOCOLON omentum cloaca cecum regions: a] ascending colon liver b] right colic flexure c] transverse colon d] left colic flexure so ga li s tri e] descending colon um i a n in a med ur 3) Rectum MESORECTUM falciform ligament urachus th e 4) Anal canal (retroperitoneal) umbilicus anus = external opening sphincters a] internal anal sphincter (smooth m.), and b] external anal sphincter (striated m.);
g ry a m e bl nt ad o de f r
ve ntr a
e lm
27
Liver secretes bile salts which emulsify ingested fat; bile is stored in the gallbladder
develops in ventral mesogastrium: [diaphragm / LIGAMENTS / LIVER / LESSER OMENTUM / stomach] Six lobes: right lateral lobe right medial lobe gall bladder quadrate lobe left medial lobe left lateral lobe caudate lobe papillary process & caudate process
pancreatic duct hepatic ducts
GALL BLADDER
cystic duct
bile duct
also, endocrine secretions (insulin, etc.) Structure: left lobe + body + right lobe; located in GREATER OMENTUM & MESODUODENUM Ducts: Pancreatic duct (smaller) empties with bile duct > major duodenal papilla Accessory pancreatic duct (larger) empties > minor duodenal papilla
Minor papilla
Kidney:
removes waste products from blood (urine); regulates fluid/salt balance (blood osmotic pressure)
capsule Topography right kidney is more cranial than the left; cortex cranial pole of right kidney is cupped by liver; outer left kidney is more loosely attached; inner feline kidneys are positioned more caudal. medulla
Surface features cranial / caudal poles dorsal / ventral surfaces medial / lateral borders: medial border has a hilus (where vessels and the ureter enter) that leads to a space (renal sinus) where the renal pelvis is located.
ureter
28
Kidney structure a fibrous capsule surrounds the kidney (capsular veins are prominent in the cat) renal cortex = superficial tissue that contains vascular glomeruli renal medulla = deep tissue (an outer part and a less vascular inner part can be distinguished) renal pyramid = the medulla between interlobar vessels (belonging to a renal lobe) renal papilla = the free tip of a renal pyramid (not present as such in carnivores) renal crest = median ridge produced by fusion of renal papillae in the carnivore Note: During development distinct lobation is present in all kidneys. Lobes fuse to a greater or lesser extent in different species. Carnivore kidneys appear unilobar, lobation is only evident where interlobar arteries separate renal pyramids.
Ureter (forms branches and calyces in multilobar kidneys) conveys urine from kidney to urinary bladder renal pelvis = expanded proximal end of ureter ( located within renal sinus of unilobar kidney) pelvic recess = lateral expansion of renal pelvis between interlobar vessels
Spleen:
Structure develops in dorsal mesogastrium;
becomes enlarged when capsular & trabecular smooth muscle relax (e.g., under barbiturate anesthesia)
Function serves as a reservoir for blood cells (blood storage) filters particles from blood, particularly over-aged erythrocytes
Abdominal Vessels
Aorta:
A. Branches to the abdominal wall: 1) lumbar aa. supply vertebral column, spinal cord, epaxial m., & skin over the back. 2) common trunk supplies abdominal wall & adrenal gland. via cranial abdominal a. and diaphragm (caudal phrenic a.) 3) deep circumflex iliac aa. supply abdominal wall (caudally) B. Branches to paired organs: 1) renal a. supplies kidney 2) ovarian a. or testicular a. supplies gonad Note: The above arterial branches are accompanied by satellite veins named the same as the arteries. The veins empty into the caudal vena cava. In contrast, satellite veins which drain the digestive tract empty into the portal vein rather than the caudal vena cava
29
C. Branches to unpaired organs (digestive system & spleen): 1) celiac a. supplies cranial abdominal viscera (esophagus, stomach, duodenum, liver & gall bladder, pancreas, spleen) the stomach has a quadrant blood supply (right/left & gastric/gastroepiploic aa.) 2) cranial mesenteric a. supplies duodenum to descending colon also pancreas 3) caudal mesenteric a. supplies descending colon & rectum D. Terminal branches of the aorta: (within pelvic cavity) 1) external iliac a. (paired) pelvic limbs 2) internal iliac a. (paired) pelvis (wall & viscera) 3) median sacral a. (unpaired) becomes median caudal a. of the tail
caudal phrenic a.
cranial abdominal a.
phrenicoabdominal a. renal a.
testicular or ovarian a.
Portal Vein:
The portal vein conveys blood between two capillary beds (between alimentary tract capillaries and liver sinusoids). Cranial and caudal mesenteric veins anastomose to from the portal vein which receives a splenic vein (left side) and the gastroduodenal vein (right side) before entering the liver. The circulation sequence is . . . Celiac and cranial and caudal mesenteric arteries and their branches > alimentary, etc. capillaries > satellite veins > portal vein > hepatic sinusoids > hepatic veins > caudal vena cava
mandibular medial retropharyngeal tracheal duct superficial cervical medial retropharyngeal tracheal (jugular) duct superficial cervical
deep cervical
brachiocephalic v. axillary
cranial mediastinal sternal right duct
thoracic duct
accessory axillary intercostal
axillary
tracheobronchial
LEFT
caudal mediastinal
RIGHT
diaphragm
cysterna chyla
mesenteric
lumbar
medial illiac
colic
popliteal
popliteal
superficial inguinal
deep inguinal
sacral hypogastric
deep inguinal
superficial inguinal
31
Pelvic Cavity Boundaries: cranial opening pelvic inlet, bounded by sacrum, ilium & pubis (rigid boundary) cavity walls osseous pelvis + obturator & gluteal mm. & sacrotuberous ligament (dog) caudal boundary perineum
3. External anal sphincter m. 4. Genital striated mm. : male bulbospongiosus m. & paired ischiocavernosus mm. female constrictor vestibuli, constrictor vulvae & ischiocavernosus mm. 5. Smooth mm.: rectococcygeus m. (anchors rectum) & retractor penis m.
rectococcygeus m.
coccygeus m.
levator ani m.
vagina pelvic symphysis
Micturition
Anatomy: Urinary Bladder apex ; body; neck (trigone = region of neck demarcated by ureters & urethra). Urethra female : terminates in vestibule; male : pelvic urethra [preprostatic (cat); prostatic; & postprostatic regions] & penile urethra Musculature: Detrusor m. = smooth muscle coat of apex & body; innervated by pelvic n. (S2 + S1 & S3 ) Internal urethral sphincter = smooth m.; innervated by hypogastric n. (L2 , L3 , L4 ) female vesical neck & cranial half of urethra male neck (dog); neck & preprostatic urethra (cat) External urethral sphincter = urethralis m. (striated); innervated by pudendal n. (S2 & S3 + S1 ) female caudal half of urethra male postprostatic urethra Urine Storage: Sphincters active via spinal reflexes and detrusor m. inhibited - internal sphincter exerts tonic activity after bladder is half full - external sphincter is activated voluntarily or reflexly during phasic pressure increase Micturition: Requires prolonged detrusor contraction and sphincter inhibition - free nerve endings (receptors) > GVA fibers in pelvic n. > ascending pathways > pons > descending spinal pathways > activate detrusor & inhibit sphincters
Pain: GVA pain fibers travel through the hypogastric nerve to reach the spinal cord and brain.
L-2 L-3 L-4 rami commuinicantes ventral branches: S-1 S-2 S-3
lumbosacral plexus
Male Cat
ureter
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ureter
vestibule
urethral opening vestibular bulb fossa clitoridis
vagina
a p e x
urinary bladder
n e c k urethra
Female
ureter ductus deferens prostate a p e x
clitoris
urinary bladder
pelvic symphysis
Male Dog
ureter urethalis m. internal urethral ductus (external urethral sphincter) deferens sphincter prostate bulboa p e x
urinary bladder
n e c k
Male Cat
muscle fascicles from longitudinal muscle coat of the ureter urethral crest colliculus seminalis
Trigone
(internal surface of dorsal wall of urinary bladder neck of male dog)
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vulval cleft
Labium Clitoris: homologue of the penis ventral - located deep (cranial) to the fossa of the clitoris commissure - composed of: glans = erectile tissue body = fat in a connective tissue capsule crus = scant erectile tissue enclosed in fibrous c.t. ( right & left crura) Note : The crus attaches to the ischial arch and an ischiocavernosus m. covers the crus
Vestibule: (vestibule of the vagina) - extends from vulval cleft to the transverse fold (hymen) that marks the vestibulo-vaginal junction - receives the external urethral opening, on a tubercle (dog) or in a slit (cat) - constrictor vestibuli m. (striated) is in the wall of the vestibule - the wall contains vestibular glands (mucous) a major vestibular gland in the cat
- in the dog, the wall contains an accumulation of erectile tissue = vestibular bulb
Vagina: - extends from the vestibule to a fornix at the level of the cervix - displays longitudinal folds when not expanded Uterus: 1. Cervix short, thick muscular wall & narrow canal 2. Body relatively short in carnivores 3. Uterine horns paired, relatively long Uterine tube: ( Oviduct; Fallopian tube ) - exits laterally from uterine horn (extends cranially, arcs ventrally, runs caudally, hooks dorsomedially) - terminates medial to ovary in a funnel-shaped infundibulum that has fimbriae (villi) Ovary source of ova & hormones (estrogen and during a pregnancy progesterone (CL)) Ligaments associated with the female genital tract: 1) suspensory ligament of the ovary extends from ovary to dorsal body wall 2) proper ligament of the ovary extends between ovary & cranial end of uterine horn 3) round ligament of the uterus extends from cranial end of uterine horn thru inguinal canal 4) broad ligament (lateral ligament of uterus), which has the following subdivisions: a) mesometrium; b) mesovarium; c) mesosalpinx (forms ovarian bursa) * The term vulva refers to female external genitalia. In human anatomy, the term vulva includes labia, clitoris &
vestibule, which is appropriate in woman because the vestibule is compressed. In domestic mammals, the vestibule is elongated and the term vulva is typically restricted to just the labia. Note: Women have major & minor labia, but domestic mammals have only one labium on each side. 35
Uterine Tube
(ventral view) mesovarium suspensory ligament
bursa opening
uterine tube
infundibulum
mesometrium
horn of uterus
vagina
36
Male Genitalia
Lateral View CAUDAL section CRANIAL
skin dartos cremaster m. internal spermatic facia external spermatic fascia vaginal cavity, bounded by: parietal vaginal tunic mesorchium [m-o] mesoductus deferens [m-d] visceral vaginal tunic
[Note: epid.= epididymis & d.d.= ductus deferens]
Scrotum:
situated between penis & anus cutaneous pouch; scrotal septum formed by dartos = smooth cutaneous muscle spermatic fascia: internal = a fibrous membrane (fibrous tunic) bound to parietal vaginal tunic external = areolar connective tissue within dartos cremaster muscle from internal abdominal oblique m.; attaches to internal spermatic fascia (not developed in the cat where a levator scroti m. attaches to the scrotal septum )
Epididymis:
spermatozoa storage & maturation occurs within the epididymis; single coiled duct: head > body > tail > ductus deferens proper ligament of the testis homologous with proper ligament of ovary ligament of the tail of epididymis (embryonic gubernaculum) homologous with round ligament of uterus
ligament of the tail of the epididymis TAIL ductus deferens BODY HEAD
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Spermatic cord = ductus deferens + testicular vessels + vaginal tunics & spermatic fascia
contribute seminal fluid to the ejaculate prostate (body + disseminated components) all males bulbourethral glands (paired, at ischial arch) not dog (vesicular glands [seminal vesicles] neither dog nor cat )
glands in wall of terminal segment of ductus deferens all males
Penis:
three regions: root (contains bulb of penis & crus of penis), body, and free part the penis is composed of: 1) penile urethra, 2) erectile tissue & 3) extrinsic muscles Three bodies of erectile tissue: corpus spongiosum penis: unpaired; surrounds urethra; begins as bulb of penis at root of penis corpus cavernosum penis: paired; main erectile organ (fibroelastic tunica albuginea) forms crus of penis at the root of the penis attaches to ischial arch; covered by the ischiocavernosus m.; replaced by os penis within free portion (carnivores) corpus spongiosum glandis or glans dog : pars longa glandis & pars bulbus glandis (covers whole free portion) cat : glans thin and distal [note: proximal skin has penile spines (cornified papillae)] Extrinsic penile muscles: bulbospongiosus m. (unpaired) covers the bulb of the penis; ischiocavernosus mm. (paired) covers the crus of the penis;
ischiourethralis mm. (paired) small, inserts on ring around dorsal vein of penis;
Prepuce:
cutaneous sheath which contains free part of penis (domestic mammals)
fascicles of cutaneous trunci m. encircling preputial orifice (dog ) = (retractor) preputial m.
Ejaculation:
sympathetic pathway contraction of ductus deferens, smooth m. in prostate & other glands, and internal urethral sphincter (to prevent reflux into bladder) also, contraction of urethralis m. & extrinsic penile mm. propels ejaculate along urethra.
38
39
Head Features
Skull = bones of cranium (enclose cranial cavity) + bones of face (includes the mandible)
Notes: calvaria = roof of cranial cavity (intramembranous bones, e.g., frontal, parietal, etc.) middle ear & inner ear are situated within the temporal bone (petrous part) dorsal & ventral conchae subdivide nasal cavity, into dorsal, middle, ventral & common nasal meati Joints: joints of the skull are fibrous for the most part; the calvaria has suture joints mandibular symphysis = fibrocartilaginous joint uniting right & left mandibles temporomandibular joint = a synovial that contains a meniscus also: atlanto-occipital synovial joint ("yes" motion) axio-atlantal synovial joint features dens ("no" motion)
Hyoid apparatus = chain of bones attached to the skull provides muscle attachment sites for movement of the tongue & larynx anchored by geniohyoideus m. (cranially) and sternohyoideus m. (caudally)
Mouth = oral cavity + accessory structures (tongue & teeth); the term mouth may also mean just oral cleft
vestibule (labial vestibule & buccal vestibule) Oral cavity:
TEETH TEETH
oral cavity proper (communicates caudally with pharynx) Teeth: dental formula: dog = (I3/3 C1/1 P4/4 M2/3) x 2 = 42; cat = (I3/3 C1/1 P3/2 M1/1) x 2 = 30 incisors adapted for grasping, pinching, scratching, nipping [ 3 vs. 2 in primates] canines weapons for tearing flesh during hunting & fighting cheek teeth for shearing [esp. upper P4 & lower M1]; grinding molars relatively reduced surfaces per tooth = vestibular/buccal, lingual, contact, & occlusal (masticatory)
Tongue = striated muscle; covered by mucosa, featuring papillae & taste buds papillae : fungiform, vallate, & foliate have taste buds filliform, conical , are mechanical (cat tongue has spines) tongue muscles : BODY intrinsic forms tongue proper (curl, ROOT APEX groove, bend, etc. the tongue) Intrinsic extrinsic move tongue relative to bone: genioglossus protracts tongue hyoglossus retracts tongue Genioglossus Styloglossus styloglossus retracts tongue
lyssa Hyoglossus 40
lyssa = cylindrical fibrous tissue enveloping fat & muscle (located ventrally at apex in carnivores).
Zygomatic Salv.G.
Parotid Lym.N. Fourth premolar Sublingual caruncle Parotid Salv.G. Mandibular Salv.G. Lateral Retropharyngeal Lym.N. Medial
Sublingual Salv.G.
polystomatic monostomatic
Mandibular Lym.N
Salivary Glands:
saliva moistens food to facilitate swallowing & contains amylase to disassemble starch; secretion is regulated by the autonomic nervous system (parasympathetic & sympathetic)
glands : 1) parotid duct goes to upper buccal vestibule (beside upper 4th premolar) 2) zygomatic [carnivores] ducts go to upper buccal vestibule (beside last upper tooth) 3) mandibular duct goes to sublingual caruncle 4) sublingual: a} monostomatic gland duct goes to sublingual caruncle b} polystomatic gland multiple ducts into oral cavity proper 5) buccal prominent in the cat, caudal to last lower molar 6) diffuse glandular tissue in cheeks, lips, tongue, & soft palate
Pharynx = common digestive-respiratory chamber (the wall of the pharynx is striated muscle)
Subdivided into 3 compartments (nasopharynx; oropharynx; & laryngopharynx); Note: Crossing of the air & ingesta pathways is potentially dangerous; strong physiological reflexes are required to overcome the poor anatomical design. Swallowing: (deglutition) 2 stages 1) voluntary initiation tongue acts as plunger to force bolus into oropharynx 2) mechanical-reflex completion bolus displaces soft palate; stimulates reflexes: - palatopharyngeal arch shortens & closes access to nasopharynx; - larynx is pulled forward allowing epiglottis to close laryngeal opening; - pharyngeal wall contracts to accelerate bolus into a relaxed esophagus.
Nasal Cavity
esophagus
L a
r y n x
trachea
1 = choane; 2 = auditory tube; 3 = palatopharyngeal arch; 4 = esophageal opening; 5 = laryngeal opening; 6 = epiglottis; 7 = palatine tonsil; 8 = palatoglossal fold; 9 = hard plate; 10 = soft palate.
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Regurgitation (vomition) and eructation (belching): - increased intra-abdominal pressure & stomach contraction; - chest expansion with closed glottis; - esophageal reverse peristalsis & reflex laryngeal closure (regurgitation). Esophagus: extends from pharynx (pharyngoesophageal ridge) to stomach entirely striated in dog; only cranial 2/3's striated in cat Larynx: composed of: paired mobile cartilages [right & left arytenoid] & three wall cartilages [epiglottis, thyroid, & cricoid] intrinsic and extrinsic skeletal muscles are innervated by vagus n. (vagus is sensory as well) glottis = vocal folds & the intervening cleft (closes to seal the opening into the trachea ) Note: the dog has a true vocal fold (a laryngeal ventricle); the cat has only a vocal ridge
Lymphatics:
A) Lymph nodes mandibular (several); parotid; medial & lateral retropharyngeal. Nodes & tonsils drain into the medial retropharyngeal lymph node node which is drained by a tracheal (jugular) lymph duct (which terminates in the brachiocephalic vein). B) Tonsils lymphatic tissue in mucosa; tonsils lack afferent lymphatics palatine tonsil compact, within fossa in the wall of the oropharynx (tonsillectomy) lingual tonsil diffuse, in root of tongue pharyngeal tonsil diffuse, in dorsal wall of pharynx tonsil of soft palate diffuse, in soft palate
Medial rectus m.
rectus m.
dorsal oblique m
ABDUCENT N.
Conjunctival sac: lined by palpebral & bulbar conjunctiva (mucosa of eyelids & sclera, respectively)
Note: Officially the third eyelid is called the semilunar conjunctival fold ; it is also called nictitating membrane
Lacrimal Apparatus:
tear production: lacrimal gland, gland of 3rd eyelid, & diffuse gland tissue. tear drainage: lacrimal puncta to lacrimal ducts to lacrimal sac to nasolacrimal duct (ends at nose)
Lacrimal gland Dorsal punta Dorsal lacrimal duct Lacrimal sac
PALPEBRAL FISSURE
Arterial considerations:
Common carotid a. divides into internal carotid a. traverses the middle ear to supply the brain via an arterial circle, and external carotid a. supplies the rest of the head In the cat, the extra-cranial internal carotid a. atrophies & the ascending pharyngeal a. supplies brain. Carotid sinus = enlargement at the origin of the internal carotid a. (occipital a. in cat) that contains baroreceptors which reflexly regulate blood pressure (glossopharyngeal nerve). Carotid body = chemoreceptors within arterial wall in the vicinity of the carotid sinus. Note: The brain also receives blood from the vertebral a., which supplies spinal branches to the cervical spinal cord. (The vertebral artery gives rise to a basilar a. that supplies the brainstem and then
joins the arterial circle fed by the internal carotid a.) 43
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves... 12 pair; emerge from the brain; exit through foramina in floor of cranial cavity. In contrast to spinal nerves:
individual cranial nerves differ in their fiber type composition regional overlapmultiple nerves innervate the same region or structure some cranial nerves lack a sensory ganglion cranial nerves have single roots
right side
Cranial nerves collectively have two additional (special) fiber types: Special Somatic Afferent vision & hearing Special Visceral Afferent olfaction & taste in addition to: General Somatic Afferent face, mouth General Visceral Afferent pharynx, larynx Somatic Efferent skeletal mm. Visceral Efferent parasympathetic
NOTE: Formerly, an additional fiber type was recognized; viz., Special visceral efferent (SVE) innervating skeletal m. derived from pharyngeal (branchial) arches. Thus, the current VE & SE types used to be designated "General Visceral Efferent" (GVE) and "General Somatic Efferent" (GVE).
canal for trigeminal nerve (V) internal acoustic meatus (VII & VIII)
oval foramen (mandibular of V) petrous part of temporal bone stylomastoid foramen (VII) jugular foramen (IX, X, XI) hypoglossal canal (XII)
I = Olfactory Nn. Smell [cribriform plate] (SVA) neuron cell bodies located within olfactory epithelium on the ethmoidal labyrinth. II = Optic N. Vision [optic foramen] (SSA) cell bodies are in the retina (actually the "nerve" is a CNS tract enveloped by meninges)
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III = Oculomotor N. Eye movement & pupil constriction [orbital fissure] (SE) innervates 4 extrinsic eye mm.: dorsal, medial, & ventral rectus; ventral oblique
(it also innervates the levator palpebrae superioris m.)
(VE) intrinsic eye mm.: ciliary body {accommodation} & iris {constrict pupil}
[postganglionic neurons are in the ciliary ganglion within orbit]
IV = Trochlear N. smallest, exits dorsally, decussates (SE) Dorsal oblique m. VI = Abducent N. Lateral gaze & 3rd eyelid protrusion (SE) lateral rectus m. & retractor bulbi m.
[orbital fissure]
[orbital fissure]
V = Trigeminal N. Sensory to face (GSA); Mm. of mastication (SE) [old SVE to branchial arch I] Three Divisions : ophthalmic n.: orbit; cornea; eyelids; & skin medial to eye [orbital fissure] maxillary n.: both lids laterally; upper jaw, teeth, lips; nose & nasal cavity [round f. & alar canal] mandibular n.: lower jaw, teeth, tongue; temporal region skin; also, innervates muscles of mastication [oval foramen]
[plus mylohyoid & tensor tympani mm.]
facial n.
C-2 dorsal cutaneous n.
vagus n.
(auditory meatus)
ophthalmic n. (of V)
maxillary n. (of V)
mandibular n. (of V)
VII = Facial N. Facial expression; taste; secretions (saliva, lacrimal, & nasal) [int. acoustic meatus>stylomastoid f.] (SE) mm. of facial expression (ears, eye lids, nose, & lips) [old SVE to branchial arch II]
(also, stapedius m. & caudal belly of the digastricus m.)
(VE) nasal glands, lacrimal gland, & the two ventral salivary glands (sublingual & mandibular)
[ postganglionic neurons are in the pterygopalatine & submandibular ganglia]
VIII = Vestibulocochlear N. Hearing; Head acceleration (SSA) [internal acoustic meatus] Within petrous part of temporal bone:: hearing: axons from bipolar cell bodies in spiral ganglion of the cochlea acceleration: bipolar cell bodies in vestibular ganglion, associated with the vestibular apparatus IX = Glossopharyngeal N. Taste; Pharyngeal sensation; Saliva [jugular foramen] (GVA) receptors in pharynx, middle ear, and carotid sinus & carotid body (SVA) taste buds at caudal 1/3rd of tongue (VE) parotid & zygomatic salivary glands
[postganglionic neurons are in the otic ganglion] (SE) one m. of pharynx [old SVE to branchial arch III]
X = Vagus N. [jugular foramen ] (SE) mm. of larynx, pharynx & esophagus (voice; cough; swallow; regurgitate)
[old SVE to branchial arches IV, V, & VI]
(VE) thoracic & abdominal viscera postganglionic neurons are in terminal ganglion (GVA) receptors in viscera and in the larynx, also pharynx
(SVA) taste in region of pharynx (GSA) skin of external auditory meatus via branch to facial n.
XI = Accessory N. Neck mm. [jugular foramen ] (SE) Four mm.: [cleidocervicalis; cleidomastoideus; omotransversarius; trapezius]
[old SVE to branchial arches IV, V, & VI]
dorsal root
segment C-7
spinal root of XI
brain stem
bulbar root of XI
spinal root of XI
Segment C-3
ventral root
XII = Hypoglossal N. Tongue mm. [hypoglossal foramen ] (SE) styloglossus, hyoglossus, genioglossus & intrinsic musculature)
[also contibutes to innervation of sternohyoid & sternothryroid mm.]
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mandibular n. (of V)
ophthalmic n.
zygomatic n.
facial n.
maxillary n. mandibular n.
infraorbital n.
caudal aricular n.
cranial auricular n.
auriculo-temporal n.
palpebral n. internal
stylomastoid aricular foramen nn.
Facial Nerve
ventral buccal n.
inferior alveolar n.
mandibular foramen
sublingual n.
47