Gear ratio

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search The gear ratio of a gear train, also known as its speed ratio, is the ratio of the angular velocity of the input gear to the angular velocity of the output gear.[1] The gear ratio can be calculated directly from the numbers of teeth on the gears in the gear train. The torque ratio of the gear train, also known as its mechanical advantage, is determined by the gear ratio.[2] The speed ratio and mechanical advantage are defined so they yield the same number in an ideal linkage.

Illustration of gears of an automotive transmission

Contents
[hide]

1 Gear trains with two gears o 1.1 Formulae 2 Speed ratio 3 Torque ratio 4 Idler gears o 4.1 Formulae o 4.2 Example 5 Belt drives

6 Automotive applications o 6.1 Example o 6.2 Wide-ratio vs. close-ratio transmission 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Gear trains with two gears

In a gear train, the input gear, or drive gear, transmits power to the output gear, also known as the driven gear. The input gear, which is usually connected to a power source, such as a motor or engine, transmits power through any other gears that may be in the gear train to the output gear.

Two meshing gears transmit rotational motion.

[edit] Formulae
The simplest gear train is a pair of meshing gears in which the input gear drives the output gear. The gear teeth are designed so that the pitch circles of the two gears roll on each other without slipping. The velocity, represented by v, of the points of contact of the two pitch circles are the same. If the input gear GA has the radius rA and angular velocity , and meshes with output gear GB of radius rB and angular velocity , then:

The number of teeth on a gear is proportional to the radius of its pitch circle, which means that the ratios of the gears' angular velocities, radii, and number of teeth are equal. Where NA is the number of teeth on the input gear and NB is the number of teeth on the output gear, the following equation is formed:

This shows that a simple gear train with two gears has the gear ratio R given by

This equation shows that if the number of teeth on the output gear GB is larger than the number of teeth on the input gear GA, then the input gear GA must rotate faster than the output gear GB.

[edit] Speed ratio

The teeth of a gear are distributed on the circumference of the pitch circle so that the thickness of each tooth t and the space between two teeth are the same. The pitch p of a gear, which is the distance between the equivalent points on two teeth, is equal to twice the thickness of a tooth,

The pitch of a gear GA can be computed from the number of teeth NA and the radius rA of its pitch circle

In order to mesh smoothly two gears GA and GB must have the same sized teeth and therefore they must have the same pitch p, which means

This equation shows that the ratio of the circumference, the diameters and the radii of two meshing gears is equal to the ratio of their number of teeth,

The speed ratio of two gears rolling without slipping on their pitch circles is given by,

therefore

In other words, the gear ratio, or speed ratio, is inversely proportional to ratio of the radii of the pitch circles and the number of teeth of the two gears.

[edit] Torque ratio

A gear train can be analyzed using the principle of virtual work to show that its torque ratio, which is the ratio of its output torque to its input torque, is equal to the gear ratio, or speed ratio, of the gear train. This means that the input torque TA applied to the input gear GA and the output torque TB" on the output gear GB are related by the ratio

where R is the gear ratio of the gear train. The torque ratio of a gear train is also known as its mechanical advantage, thus

[edit] Idler gears

In a sequence of gears chained together, the ratio depends only on the number of teeth on the first and last gear. The intermediate gears, regardless of their size, do not alter the overall gear ratio of the chain. However, the addition of each intermediate gear reverses the direction of rotation of the final gear. An intermediate gear which does not drive a shaft to perform any work is called an idler gear. Sometimes, a single idler gear is used to reverse the direction, in which case it may be referred to as a reverse idler. For instance, the typical automobile manual transmission engages reverse gear by means of inserting a reverse idler between two gears. Idler gears can also transmit rotation among distant shafts in situations where it would be impractical to simply make the distant gears larger to bring them together. Not only do larger gears occupy more space, the mass and rotational inertia (moment of inertia) of a gear is proportional to the square of its radius. Instead of idler gears, a toothed belt or chain can be used to transmit torque over distance.

[edit] Formulae
If a simple gear train has three gears, such that the input gear GA meshes with an intermediate gear GI which in turn meshes with the output gear GB, then the pitch circle of the intermediate gear rolls without slipping on both the pitch circles of the input and output gears. This yields the two relations

The speed ratio of this gear train is obtained by multiplying these two equations to obtain

Notice that this gear ratio is exactly the same as for the case when the gears GA and GB engaged directly. The intermediate gear provides spacing but does not affect the gear ratio. For this reason it is called an idler gear. The same gear ratio is obtained for a sequence of idler gears and hence an idler gear is used to provide the same direction to rotate the driver and driven gear, if the driver gear moves in clockwise direction, then the driven gear also moves in the clockwise direction with the help of the idler gear.

[edit] Example

2 gears and an idler gear on a piece of farm equipment, with a ratio of 42/13 = 3.23:1 Assuming that in the photo the smallest gear is connected to the motor, it is the driver gear. The somewhat larger gear on the upper left is called an idler gear. It is not connected directly to either the motor or the output shaft and only transmits power between the input and output gears. There is a third gear in the upper-right corner of the photo. Assuming that that gear is connected to the machine's output shaft, it is the output or driven gear. The input gear in this gear train has 13 teeth and the idler gear has 21 teeth. Considering only these gears, the gear ratio between the idler and the input gear can be calculated as if the idler gear was the output gear. Therefore, the gear ratio is driven/driver = 21/13 = ~1.62 or 1.62:1. This ratio means that the driver gear must make 1.62 revolutions to turn the driven gear once. It also means that for every one revolution of the driver, the driven gear has made 1/1.62, or 0.62, revolutions. Essentially, the larger gear turns more slowly. The third gear in the picture has 42 teeth. The gear ratio between the idler and third gear is thus 42/21, or 2:1, and hence the final gear ratio is 1.62x2=~3.23. For every 3.23 revolutions of the smallest gear, the largest gear turns one revolution, or for every one revolution of the smallest

gear, the largest gear turns 0.31 (1/3.23) revolution, a total reduction of about 1:3.23 (Gear Reduction Ratio (GRR) = 1/Gear Ratio (GR)). Since the idler gear contacts directly both the smaller and the larger gear, it can be removed from the calculation, also giving a ratio of 42/13 = ~3.23.

[edit] Belt drives

Belts can have teeth in them also and be coupled to gear-like pulleys. Special gears called sprockets can be coupled together with chains, as on bicycles and some motorcycles. Again, exact accounting of teeth and revolutions can be applied with these machines.

Valve timing gears on a Ford Taunus V4 engine the small gear is on the crankshaft, the larger gear is on the camshaft. The crankshaft gear has 34 teeth, the camshaft gear has 68 teeth and runs at half the crankshaft RPM. (The small gear in the lower left is on the balance shaft.) For example, a belt with teeth, called the timing belt, is used in some internal combustion engines to synchronize the movement of the camshaft with that of the crankshaft, so that the valves open and close at the top of each cylinder at exactly the right time relative to the movement of each piston. A chain, called a timing chain, is used on some automobiles for this purpose, while in others, the camshaft and crankshaft are coupled directly together through meshed gears. Regardless of which form of drive is employed, the crankshaft to camshaft gear ratio is always 2:1 on four-stroke engines, which means that for every two revolutions of the crankshaft the camshaft will rotate once.

[edit] Automotive applications

Automobile drivetrains generally have two or more major areas where gearing is used. Gearing is employed in the transmission, which contains a number of different sets of gears that can be changed to allow a wide range of vehicle speeds, and also in the differential, which contains the final drive to provide further speed reduction at the wheels. In addition, the differential contains

further gearing that splits torque equally between the two wheels while permitting them to have different speeds when travelling in a curved path. The transmission and final drive might be separate and connected by a driveshaft, or they might be combined into one unit called a transaxle. The gear ratios in transmission and final drive are important because different gear ratios will change the characteristics of a vehicle's performance.[citation needed]

[edit] Example
A 2004 [(Eicher 11.10 3M5D)
with a six-speed manual transmission has the following gear ratios in the transmission:

Gear

Ratio

1st gear 2.97:1 2nd gear 2.07:1 3rd gear 1.43:1 4th gear 1.00:1 5th gear 0.84:1 6th gear 0.56:1 reverse 3.38:1 In 1st gear, the engine makes 2.97 revolutions for every revolution of the transmissions output. In 4th gear, the gear ratio of 1:1 means that the engine and the transmission's output rotate at the same speed. 5th and 6th gears are known as overdrive gears, in which the output of the transmission is revolving faster than the engine's output. The Corvette above has a differential ratio of 3.42:1, meaning that for every 3.42 revolutions of the transmissions output, the wheels make one revolution. The differential ratio multiplies with the transmission ratio, so in 1st gear, the engine makes 10.16 revolutions for every revolution of the wheels. The cars tires can almost be thought of as a third type of gearing. This car is equipped with 295/35-18 tires, which have a circumference of 82.1 inches. This means that for every complete revolution of the wheel, the car travels 82.1 inches (209 cm). If the Corvette had larger tires, it would travel farther with each revolution of the wheel, which would be like a higher gear. If the car had smaller tires, it would be like a lower gear. With the gear ratios of the transmission and differential, and the size of the tires, it becomes possible to calculate the speed of the car for a particular gear at a particular engine RPM. For example, it is possible to determine the distance the car will travel for one revolution of the engine by dividing the circumference of the tire by the combined gear ratio of the transmission and differential.

It is also possible to determine a car's speed from the engine speed by multiplying the circumference of the tire by the engine speed and dividing by the combined gear ratio.

Gear

Distance per engine revolution Speed per 1000 RPM 7.7 mph (12.4 km/h) 11.0 mph (17.7 km/h) 15.9 mph (25.6 km/h) 22.7 mph (36.5 km/h) 27.1 mph (43.6 km/h) 40.6 mph (65.3 km/h)

1st gear 8.1 in (210 mm) 2nd gear 11.6 in (290 mm) 3rd gear 16.8 in (430 mm) 4th gear 24.0 in (610 mm) 5th gear 28.6 in (730 mm) 6th gear 42.9 in (1,090 mm)

[edit] Wide-ratio vs. close-ratio transmission

This section may contain original research. (April 2009) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2011) Main article: Close-ratio transmission A close-ratio transmission is a transmission in which there is a relatively little difference between the gear ratios of the gears. For example, a transmission with an engine shaft to drive shaft ratio of 4:1 in first gear and 2:1 in second gear would be considered wide-ratio when compared to another transmission with a ratio of 4:1 in first and 3:1 in second. This is because the close-ratio transmission has less of a progression between gears. For the wide-ratio transmission, the first gear ratio is 4:1 or 4, and in second gear it is 2:1 or 2, so the progression is equal to 4/2 = 2 (or 200%). For the close-ratio transmission, first gear has a 4:1 ratio or 4, and second gear has a ratio of 3:1 or 3, so the progression between gears is 4/3, or 133%. Since 133% is less than 200%, the transmission with the smaller progression between gears is considered close-ratio. However, the difference between a close-ratio and wide-ratio transmission is subjective and relative.[3] Close-ratio transmissions are generally offered in sports cars, sport bikes, and especially in race vehicles, where the engine is tuned for maximum power in a narrow range of operating speeds, and the driver or rider can be expected to shift often to keep the engine in its power band. Factory 4-speed or 5-speed transmission ratios generally have a greater difference between gear ratios and tend to be effective for ordinary driving and moderate performance use. Wider gaps

between ratios allow a higher 1st gear ratio for better manners in traffic, but cause engine speed to decrease more when shifting. Narrowing the gaps will increase acceleration at speed, and potentially improve top speed under certain conditions, but acceleration from a stopped position and operation in daily driving will suffer. Range is the torque multiplication difference between 1st and 4th gears; wider-ratio gear-sets have more, typically between 2.8 and 3.2. This is the single most important determinant of lowspeed acceleration from stopped. Progression is the reduction or decay in the percentage drop in engine speed in the next gear, for example after shifting from 1st to 2nd gear. Most transmissions have some degree of progression in that the RPM drop on the 1-2 shift is larger than the RPM drop on the 2-3 shift, which is in turn larger than the RPM drop on the 3-4 shift. The progression may not be linear (continuously reduced) or done in proportionate stages for various reasons, including a special need for a gear to reach a specific speed or RPM for passing, racing and so on, or simply economic necessity that the parts were available. Range and progression are not mutually exclusive, but each limits the number of options for the other. A wide range, which gives a strong torque multiplication in 1st gear for excellent manners in low-speed traffic, especially with a smaller motor, heavy vehicle, or numerically low axle ratio such as 2.50, means that the progression percentages must be high. The amount of engine speed, and therefore power, lost on each up-shift is geater than would be the case in a transmission with less range, but less power in 1st gear. A numerically low 1st gear, such as 2:1, reduces available torque in 1st gear, but allows more choices of progression. There is no optimal choice of transmission gear ratios or a final drive ratio for best performance at all speeds, as gear ratios are compromises, and not necessarily better than the original ratios for certain purposes.

[edit] See also

Outline of machines Gear train Wheel train (horology) Epicyclic gearing - related to turboprop reduction gear boxes Continuously variable transmission (CVT) Mechanism (engineering) Virtual work

[edit] References
1. ^ J. J. Uicker, G. R. Pennock, and J. E. Shigley, 2003, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Oxford University Press, New York. 2. ^ B. Paul, 1979, Kinematics and Dynamics of Planar Machinery, Prentice Hall. 3. ^ Cangialosi, Paul (2001). "TechZone Article: Wide and Close Gear Ratios". 5speeds.com. Medatronics. http://www.5speeds.com/ratios.html. Retrieved 28 October 2012.

[edit] External links

Gearing Commander - Online motorcycle speed calculator with bike database for gearing, sprockets, ratio, tyres, chain, RPM etc. Also creates speed graphs, final drive ratio graphs and shifting speed graphs. Gear ratio at How Stuff Works Not only BMW "Nerd's" Gearing Calculator "GearCalc" - a program that calculates theoretical maximum speeds in each gear, and speed per 1000 RPM "Gear Calculator" - online gear ratio calculator "Gear Face to Pitch Comparison Chart" - a comparison of diameter, face and pitch in multiple gear sizes. "Car performance estimations" - gear ratios/performance estimations calculator

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Transmission (mechanics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search "Gearbox" redirects here. For the video game developer, see Gearbox Software.

Five-speed + reverse gearbox from the 1600 Volkswagen Golf (2009). A machine consists of a power source and a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Merriam-Webster defines transmission as an assembly of parts including the speed-changing gears and the propeller shaft by which the power is transmitted from an engine to a live axle.[1] Often transmission refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed and torque conversions from a rotating power source to another device.[2][3] In British English, the term transmission refers to the whole drive train, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft (for rear-wheel drive), differential, and final drive shafts. In American English, however, the distinction is made that a gearbox is any device which converts speed and torque, whereas a transmission is a type of gearbox that can be shifted to dynamically change the speed-torque ratio such as in a vehicle. The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Transmissions are also used on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and anywhere else where rotational speed and torque needs to be adapted. Often, a transmission will have multiple gear ratios (or simply gears), with the ability to switch between them as speed varies. This switching may be done manually (by the operator), or automatically. Directional (forward and reverse) control may also be provided. Single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque (and sometimes direction) of motor output.

In motor vehicles, the transmission will generally be connected to the crankshaft of the engine. The output of the transmission is transmitted via driveshaft to one or more differentials, which in turn, drive the wheels. While a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds (essential to avoid wheel slippage on turns) as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the only mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation (for example, diesel-electric transmission and hydraulic drive system). Hybrid configurations also exist.

Contents
[hide]

1 Explanation 2 Uses 3 Simple 4 Multi-ratio systems o 4.1 Automotive basics o 4.2 Manual o 4.3 Non-synchronous o 4.4 Automatic o 4.5 Semi-automatic o 4.6 Bicycle gearing 5 Uncommon types o 5.1 Dual clutch transmission o 5.2 Continuously variable o 5.3 Infinitely variable o 5.4 Electric variable 6 Non-direct o 6.1 Electric o 6.2 Hydrostatic o 6.3 Hydrodynamic 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Explanation
Transmission types

Manual

Sequential manual Non-synchronous

Preselector

Automatic

Manumatic Semi-automatic Electrohydraulic Dual clutch Saxomat

Continuously variable

Bicycle gearing

Derailleur gears Hub gears

v t e

Interior view of Pantigo Windmill, looking up into cap from floor -- cap rack, brake wheel, brake and wallower. Pantigo Windmill is located on James Lane, East Hampton, Suffolk County, Long Island, New York.

Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horsepowered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, and hoisting. Most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft (e.g. a motor crankshaft). This means that the output shaft of a gearbox will rotate at a slower rate than the input shaft, and this reduction in speed will produce a mechanical advantage, causing an increase in torque. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in shaft speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the physical direction in which power is transmitted. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several different gear ratios. In this case, most of the gear ratios (often simply called "gears") are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque. However, the highest gears may be "overdrive" types that increase the output speed.

[edit] Uses
Gearboxes have found use in a wide variety of differentoften stationaryapplications, such as wind turbines. Transmissions are also used in agricultural, industrial, construction, mining and automotive equipment. In addition to ordinary transmission equipped with gears, such equipment makes extensive use of the hydrostatic drive and electrical adjustable-speed drives.

[edit] Simple

The main gearbox and rotor of a Bristol Sycamore helicopter The simplest transmissions, often called gearboxes to reflect their simplicity (although complex systems are also called gearboxes in the vernacular), provide gear reduction (or, more rarely, an increase in speed), sometimes in conjunction with a right-angle change in direction of the shaft (typically in helicopters, see picture). These are often used on PTO-powered agricultural equipment, since the axial PTO shaft is at odds with the usual need for the driven shaft, which is either vertical (as with rotary mowers), or horizontally extending from one side of the implement to another (as with manure spreaders, flail mowers, and forage wagons). More complex

equipment, such as silage choppers and snowblowers, have drives with outputs in more than one direction. The gearbox in a wind turbine converts the slow, high-torque rotation of the turbine into much faster rotation of the electrical generator. These are much larger and more complicated than the PTO gearboxes in farm equipment. They weigh several tons and typically contain three stages to achieve an overall gear ratio from 40:1 to over 100:1, depending on the size of the turbine. (For aerodynamic and structural reasons, larger turbines have to turn more slowly, but the generators all have to rotate at similar speeds of several thousand rpm.) The first stage of the gearbox is usually a planetary gear, for compactness, and to distribute the enormous torque of the turbine over more teeth of the low-speed shaft.[4] Durability of these gearboxes has been a serious problem for a long time.[5] Regardless of where they are used, these simple transmissions all share an important feature: the gear ratio cannot be changed during use. It is fixed at the time the transmission is constructed. For transmission types that overcome this issue, see Continuously Variable Transmission, also known as CVT.

[edit] Multi-ratio systems

Tractor transmission with 16 forward and 8 backward gears

Amphicar gearbox cutaway w/optional shift for water going propellers Many applications require the availability of multiple gear ratios. Often, this is to ease the starting and stopping of a mechanical system, though another important need is that of maintaining good fuel efficiency.

[edit] Automotive basics

The need for a transmission in an automobile is a consequence of the characteristics of the internal combustion engine. Engines typically operate over a range of 600 to about 7000 revolutions per minute (though this varies, and is typically less for diesel engines), while the car's wheels rotate between 0 rpm and around 1800 rpm. Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque and power outputs unevenly across the rev range resulting in a torque band and a power band. Often the greatest torque is required when the vehicle is moving from rest or traveling slowly, while maximum power is needed at high speed. Therefore, a system that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high torque at low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating within its limits, is required. Transmissions perform this transformation.

A diagram comparing the power and torque bands of a "torquey" engine versus a "peaky" one The dynamics of a car vary with speed: at low speeds, acceleration is limited by the inertia of vehicular gross mass; while at cruising or maximum speeds wind resistance is the dominant barrier. Many transmissions and gears used in automotive and truck applications are contained in a cast iron case, though more frequently aluminium is used for lower weight especially in cars. There are usually three shafts: a mainshaft, a countershaft, and an idler shaft. The mainshaft extends outside the case in both directions: the input shaft towards the engine, and the output shaft towards the rear axle (on rear wheel drive cars- front wheel drives generally have the engine and transmission mounted transversely, the differential being part of the transmission assembly.) The shaft is suspended by the main bearings, and is split towards the input end. At the point of the split, a pilot bearing holds the shafts together. The gears and clutches ride on the mainshaft, the gears being free to turn relative to the mainshaft except when engaged by the clutches. Types of automobile transmissions include manual, automatic or semi-automatic transmission.

[edit] Manual
Main article: Manual transmission Manual transmission come in two basic types:

a simple but rugged sliding-mesh or unsynchronized / non-synchronous system, where straight-cut spur gear sets are spinning freely, and must be synchronized by the operator matching engine revs to road speed, to avoid noisy and damaging "gear clash", and the now common constant-mesh gearboxes which can include non-synchronised, or synchronized / synchromesh systems, where typically diagonal cut helical (or sometimes either straight-cut, or double-helical) gear sets are constantly "meshed" together, and a dog clutch is used for changing gears. On synchromesh boxes, friction cones or "synchrorings" are used in addition to the dog clutch to closely match the rotational speeds of the two sides of the (declutched) transmission before making a full mechanical engagement.

The former type was standard in many vintage cars (alongside e.g. epicyclic and multi-clutch systems) before the development of constant-mesh manuals and hydraulic-epicyclic automatics, older heavy-duty trucks, and can still be found in use in some agricultural equipment. The latter is the modern standard for on- and off-road transport manual and semi-automatic transmission, although it may be found in many forms; e.g., non-synchronised straight-cut in racetrack or super-heavy-duty applications, non-synchro helical in the majority of heavy trucks and motorcycles and in certain classic cars (e.g. the Fiat 500), and partly or fully synchronised helical in almost all modern manual-shift passenger cars and light trucks. Manual transmissions are the most common type outside North America and Australia. They are cheaper, lighter, usually give better performance, and fuel efficiency (although automatic transmissions with torque converter lockup and advanced electronic controls can provide similar results). It is customary for new drivers to learn, and be tested, on a car with a manual gear change. In Malaysia and Denmark all cars used for testing (and because of that, virtually all those used for instruction as well) have a manual transmission. In Japan, the Philippines, Germany, Poland, Italy, Israel, the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand, Austria, Bulgaria, the UK,[6][7] Ireland,[7] Sweden, Norway, Estonia, France, Spain, Switzerland, the Australian states of Victoria, Western Australia and Queensland, Finland, Lithuania and the Czech Republic, a test pass using an automatic car does not entitle the driver to use a manual car on the public road; a test with a manual car is required.[citation needed] Manual transmissions are much more common than automatic transmissions in Asia, Africa, South America and Europe. Manual transmissions can include both synchronized and unsynchronized gearing. For example, reverse gear is usually unsynchronised, as the drive is only expected to engage it when the vehicle is at a standstill. Many older (up to 1970s) cars also lacked syncro on first gear (for various reasons - cost, typically "shorter" overall gearing, engines typically having more low-end torque, the extreme wear which would be placed on a frequently used 1st gear synchroniser...), meaning it also could only be used for moving away from a stop unless the driver became adept at double-declutching and had a particular need to regularly downshift into the lowest gear.

Some manual transmissions have an extremely low ratio for first gear, which is referred to as a "creeper gear" or "granny gear". Such gears are usually not synchronized. This feature is common on pickup trucks tailored to trailer-towing, farming, or construction-site work. During normal on-road use, the truck is usually driven without using the creeper gear at all, and second gear is used from a standing start. Some off-road vehicles, most particularly the Willys Jeep and its descendents, also had transmissions with "granny first"s either as standard or an option, but this function is now more often provided for by a low-range transfer gearbox attached to a normal fully synchronised transmission.

[edit] Non-synchronous
Main article: Non-synchronous transmissions There are commercial applications engineered with designs taking into account that the gear shifting will be done by an experienced operator. They are a manual transmission, but are known as non-synchronized transmissions. Dependent on country of operation, many local, regional, and national laws govern the operation of these types of vehicles (see Commercial Driver's License). This class may include commercial, military, agricultural, or engineering vehicles. Some of these may use combinations of types for multi-purpose functions. An example would be a power take-off (PTO) gear. The non-synchronous transmission type requires an understanding of gear range, torque, engine power, and multi-functional clutch and shifter functions. Also see Double-clutching, and Clutch-brake sections of the main article.

[edit] Automatic
Main article: Automatic transmission

Epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing as used in an automatic transmission. Most modern North American and Australian and some European and Japanese cars have an automatic transmission that will select an appropriate gear ratio without any operator intervention. They primarily use hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, or torque converter is placed in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use may or may not be possible. Automatic transmissions are easy to use. However, in the past, automatic transmissions of this type have had a number of problems; they were complex and expensive, sometimes had

reliability problems (which sometimes caused more expenses in repair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts (due to "slippage" in the torque converter), and their shift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the advancement of modern automatic transmissions this has changed.[citation needed] Attempts to improve the fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque converters which lock up beyond a certain speed, or in the higher gear ratios, eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears which automatically actuate above certain speeds; in older transmissions both technologies could sometimes become intrusive, when conditions are such that they repeatedly cut in and out as speed and such load factors as grade or wind vary slightly. Current computerized transmissions possess very complex programming to both maximize fuel efficiency and eliminate any intrusiveness. This is due mainly to electronic advances rather than mechanical ones although improvements in CVT technology and the use of automatic clutches have also helped. The 2012 model of the Honda Jazz sold in the UK actually claims marginally better fuel consumption for the CVT version than the manual version. For certain applications, the slippage inherent in automatic transmissions can be advantageous; for instance, in drag racing, the automatic transmission allows the car to be stopped with the engine at a high rpm (the "stall speed") to allow for a very quick launch when the brakes are released; in fact, a common modification is to increase the stall speed of the transmission. This is even more advantageous for turbocharged engines, where the turbocharger needs to be kept spinning at high rpm by a large flow of exhaust in order to keep the boost pressure up and eliminate the turbo lag that occurs when the engine is idling and the throttle is suddenly opened.

[edit] Semi-automatic
Main article: Semi-automatic transmission A hybrid form of transmission where the an integrated control system handles manipulation of the clutch automatically, but the driver can still - and may be required to - take manual control of gear selection. This is sometimes called a "clutchless manual," or "automated manual" transmission. Many of these transmissions allow the driver to fully delegate gear shifting choice to the control system, which then effectively acts as if it was a regular automatic transmission. They are generally designed using manual transmission "internals", and when used in passenger cars, have synchromesh operated helical constant mesh gear sets. Early semi-automatic systems used a variety of mechanical and hydraulic systems - including centrifugal clutches, torque converters, electro-mechanical (and even electrostatic) and servo/solenoid controlled clutches - and control schemes - automatic declutching when moving the gearstick, pre-selector controls, centrifugal clutches with drum-sequential shift requiring the driver to lift the throttle for a successful shift, etc. - and some were little more than regular lockup torque converter automatics with manual gear selection. Most modern implementations, however, tend to be standard or slightly modified manual transmissions (and very occasionally modified automatics, even including a few cases of CVTs with "fake" fixed gear ratios), with servo-controlled clutching and shifting under command of the

central engine computer. These are intended to be a combined replacement option both for more expensive and less efficient "normal" automatic systems, and for drivers who prefer manual shift but are no longer able to operate a clutch, and users are encouraged to leave the shift lever in fully automatic "Drive" most of the time, only engaging manual-sequential mode for sporty driving or when otherwise strictly necessary. Specific types of this transmission include: Easytronic, Tiptronic and Geartronic, as well as the systems used as standard in all ICE-powered Smart-MCC vehicles, and on geared step-through scooters such as the Honda Cub or Suzuki Address. A dual-clutch transmission uses two sets of internals which are alternately used, each with its own clutch, so that a "gearchange" actually only consists of one clutch engaging as the other disengages, making for a supposedly "seamless" shift with no break in (or jarring reuptake of) power transmission. Each clutch's attached shaft carries half of the total input gear complement (with a shared output shaft), including synchronised dog clutch systems that pre-select which of its set of ratios is most likely to be needed at the next shift, under command of a computerised control system. Specific types of this transmission include: Direct-Shift Gearbox. There are also sequential transmissions which use the rotation of a drum to switch gears, much like those of a typical fully manual motorcycle.[8] These can be designed with a manual or automatic clutch system, and may be found both in automobiles (particularly track and rally racing cars), motorcycles (typically light "step-thru" type city utility bikes, e.g. the Honda Cub) and quadbikes (often with a separately engaged reversing gear), the latter two normally using a scooter-style centrifugal clutch.

[edit] Bicycle gearing

Shimano XT rear derailleur on a mountain bike Main articles: Bicycle gearing, Derailleur gears, and Hub gear Bicycles usually have a system for selecting different gear ratios. There are two main types: derailleur gears and hub gears. The derailleur type is the most common, and the most visible,

using sprocket gears. Typically there are several gears available on the rear sprocket assembly, attached to the rear wheel. A few more sprockets are usually added to the front assembly as well. Multiplying the number of sprocket gears in front by the number to the rear gives the number of gear ratios, often called "speeds". Hub gears use epicyclic gearing and are enclosed within the axle of the rear wheel. Because of the small space, they typically offer fewer different speeds, although at least one has reached 14 gear ratios and Fallbrook Technologies manufactures a transmission with technically infinite ratios.[9] Causes for failure of bicycle gearing include: worn teeth, damage caused by a faulty chain, damage due to thermal expansion, broken teeth due to excessive pedaling force, interference by foreign objects, and loss of lubrication due to negligence.

[edit] Uncommon types

[edit] Dual clutch transmission
Main article: Dual clutch transmission This arrangement is also sometimes known as a direct shift gearbox or powershift gearbox. It seeks to combine the advantages of a conventional manual shift with the qualities of a modern automatic transmission by providing different clutches for odd and even speed selector gears. When changing gear, the engine torque is transferred from one gear to the other continuously, so providing gentle, smooth gear changes without either losing power or jerking the vehicle. Gear selection may be manual, automatic (depending on throttle/speed sensors), or a 'sports' version combining both options.

[edit] Continuously variable

Main article: Continuously variable transmission The Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) is a transmission in which the ratio of the rotational speeds of two shafts, as the input shaft and output shaft of a vehicle or other machine, can be varied continuously within a given range, providing an infinite number of possible ratios. The CVT allows the relationship between the speed of the engine and the speed of the wheels to be selected within a continuous range. This can provide even better fuel economy if the engine is constantly running at a single speed. The transmission is in theory capable of a better user experience, without the rise and fall in speed of an engine, and the jerk felt when poorly changing gears. CVTs are increasingly found on small cars, and especially high-gas-milage or hybrids vehicles. On these platforms the torque is limited because the electric motor can provide torque without changing the speed of the engine. By leaving the engine running at the rate that generates the best gas milage for the given operating conditions, overall milage can be improved over a system with a smaller number of fixed gears, where the system may be operating at peak efficiency only

for a small range of speeds. CVTs are rare on other platforms, especially high-torque applications, as they are generally constructed using rubber belts or similar devices that are subject to slippage at high torque.

[edit] Infinitely variable

The IVT is a specific type of CVT that includes not only an infinite number of gear ratios, but an infinite range as well. This is a turn of phrase, it actually refers to CVTs that are able to include a "zero ratio", where the input shaft can turn without any motion of the output shaft while remaining in gear. Zero output implies infinite ratios, as any "high gear" ratio is an infinite number of times higher than the zero "low gear". Most (if not all) IVTs result from the combination of a CVT with an epicyclic gear system with a fixed ratio. The combination of the fixed ratio of the epicyclic gear with a specific matching ratio in the CVT side results in zero output. For instance, consider a transmission with an epicyclic gear set to 1:-1 gear ratio; a 1:1 reverse gear. When the CVT side is set to 1:1 the two ratios add up to zero output. The IVT is always engaged, even during its zero output. When the CVT is set to higher values it operates conventionally, with increasing forward ratios. In practice, the epicyclic gear may be set to the lowest possible ratio of the CVT, if reversing is not needed or is handled through other means. Reversing can be incorporated by setting the epicyclic gear ratio somewhat higher than the lowest ratio of the CVT, providing a range of reverse ratios.

[edit] Electric variable

The Electric Variable Transmission (EVT) combines a transmission with an electric motor to provide the illusion of a single CVT. In the common implementation, a gasoline engine is connected to a traditional transmission, which is in turn connected to an epicyclic gear system's planet carrier. An electric motor/generator is connected to the central "sun" gear, which is normally un-driven in typical epicyclic systems. Both sources of power can be fed into the transmission's output at the same time, splitting power between them. In common examples, between and of the engine's power can be fed into the sun gear. Depending on the implementation, the transmission in front of the epicyclic system may be greatly simplified, or eliminated completely. EVTs are capable of continuously modulating output/input speed ratios like mechanical CVTs, but offer the distinct benefit of being able to also apply power from two different sources to one output, as well as potentially reducing overall complexity dramatically. In typical implementations, the gear ratio of the transmission and epicyclic system are set to the ratio of the common driving conditions, say highway speed for a car, or city speeds for a bus. When the drivers presses on the gas, the associated electronics interprets the pedal position and immediately sets the gasoline engine to the RPM that provides the best gas milage for that setting. As the gear ratio is normally set far from the maximum torque point, this set-up would normally result in very poor acceleration. Unlike gasoline engines, electric motors offer efficient torque across a wide selection of RPM, and are especially effective at low settings where the gasoline engine is inefficient. By varying the electrical load or supply on the motor attached to

the sun gear, additional torque can be provided to make up for the low torque output from the engine. As the vehicle accelerates, the power to the motor is reduced and eventually ended, providing the illusion of a CVT. The canonical example of the EVT is Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive. This implementation has no conventional transmission, and the sun gear always receives 28% of the torque from the engine. This power can be used to operate any electrical loads in the vehicle, recharging the batteries, powering the entertainment system, or running the air conditioning. Any residual power is then fed back into a second motor that powers the output of the drivetrain directly. At highway speeds this additional generator/motor pathway is less efficient than simply powering the wheels directly. However, during acceleration, the electrical path is much more efficient than engine operating so far from its torque point.[10] GM uses a similar system in the Allison Bus hybrid powertrains and the Tahoe and Yukon pick-up trucks, but these use a two-speed transmission in front of the epicyclic system, and the sun gear receives close to half the total power.

[edit] Non-direct
[edit] Electric
Main article: Diesel-electric transmission Electric transmissions convert the mechanical power of the engine(s) to electricity with electric generators and convert it back to mechanical power with electric motors. Electrical or electronic adjustable-speed drive control systems are used to control the speed and torque of the motors. If the generators are driven by turbines, such arrangements are called turbo-electric. Likewise installations powered by diesel-engines are called diesel-electric. Diesel-electric arrangements are used on many railway locomotives, ships, large mining trucks, and some bulldozers. In these cases, each driven wheel is equipped with its own electric motor, which can be fed varying electrical power to provide any required torque or power output for each wheel independently. This produces a much simpler solution for multiple driven wheels in very large vehicles, where drive shafts would be much larger or heavier than the electrical cable that can provide the same amount of power. It also improves the ability to allow different wheels to run at different speeds, which is useful for steered wheels in large construction vehicles.

[edit] Hydrostatic
See also Continuously variable transmission > Hydrostatic CVTs Hydrostatic transmissions transmit all power hydraulically, using the components of hydraulic machinery. They are similar to electrical transmissions, but hydraulic fluid as the power distribution system rather than electricity. The transmission input drive is a central hydraulic pump and final drive unit(s) is/are a hydraulic motor, or hydraulic cylinder (see: swashplate). Both components can be placed physically far

apart on the machine, being connected only by flexible hoses. Hydrostatic drive systems are used on excavators, lawn tractors, forklifts, winch drive systems, heavy lift equipment, agricultural machinery, earth-moving equipment, etc. An arrangement for motor-vehicle transmission was probably used on the Ferguson F-1 P99 racing car in about 1961. The Human Friendly Transmission of the Honda DN-01 is hydrostatic.

[edit] Hydrodynamic
If the hydraulic pump and/or hydraulic motor make use of the hydrodynamic effects of the fluid flow, i.e. pressure due to a change in the fluid's momentum as it flows through vanes in a turbine. The pump and motor usually consist of rotating vanes without seals and are typically placed in close proximity. The transmission ratio can be made to vary by means of additional rotating vanes, an effect similar to varying the pitch of an airplane propeller. The torque converter in most automotive automatic transmissions is, in itself, a hydrodynamic transmission. Hydrodynamic transmissions are used in many passenger rail vehicles, those that are not using electrical transmissions. In this application the advantage of smooth power delivery may outweigh the reduced efficiency caused by turbulence energy losses in the fluid.

[edit] See also

Chain drive Epicyclic gearing Hydraulic transmission Manual transmission Motorcycle transmission Transfer case

[edit] References
1. ^ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/transmission Merriam-Webster definition of transmission 2. ^ J. J. Uicker, G. R. Pennock, and J. E. Shigley, 2003, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms, Oxford University Press, New York. 3. ^ B. Paul, 1979, Kinematics and Dynamics of Planar Machinery, Prentice Hall. 4. ^ Stiesdal, Henrik (August 1999), The wind turbine: Components and operation, http://www.windmission.dk/workshop/BonusTurbine.pdf, retrieved 2009-10-06. 5. ^ Musial, W.; Butterfield, S.; McNiff, B. (May 2007), National Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/41548.pdf. 6. ^ Practical Driving Test FAQs 7. ^ a b Graduated Licensing: Is it what it's meant to be? 8. ^ [1] Howstuffworks.com 9. ^ Rohloff 14-speed hub 10. ^ "The Prius 'Continuously Variable Transmission'"

Powertrain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search For the UK engine manufacturer, see Powertrain Ltd. For the fictional Transformers character, see Powertrain (Transformers). "Drive train" redirects here. For other uses, see Drivetrain (disambiguation).

Powertrain of a modern automobile, comprising the wheels, suspension, drive shaft, exhaust system, engine and transmission. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010) In a motor vehicle, the term powertrain or powerplant refers to the group of components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface, water, or air. This includes the engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, and the final drive (drive wheels, continuous track as in tanks or Caterpillar tractors, propeller, etc.). Sometimes "powertrain" is used to refer to simply the engine and transmission, including the other components only if they are integral to the transmission. In a carriage or wagon, running gear designates the wheels and axles in distinction from the body. A motor vehicle's driveline or drivetrain consists of the parts of the powertrain excluding the engine and transmission. It is the portion of a vehicle, after the transmission, that changes depending on whether a vehicle is front-wheel, rear-wheel, or four-wheel drive, or less-common six-wheel or eight-wheel drive. In a wider sense, the power-train includes all of its components used to transform stored (chemical, solar, nuclear, kinetic, potential, etc.) energy into kinetic energy for propulsion purposes. This includes the utilization of multiple power sources and nonwheel-based vehicles.

Contents
[hide]

1 Developments 2 Manufacturing 3 Frames and powertrains 4 Final drive 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

[edit] Developments
Powertrain development for diesel engines involves the following trends: modular injection, electronic valve control, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), and advanced combustion. Spark ignition engine development trends include: Fuel injection, and more recently, Gasoline direct injection, and improving Volumetric efficiency by using 4 valves per cylinder, Variable valve timing, Variable length intake manifolds, and turbocharging. Attention to new fuel qualities (no sulphur and aromates) allow new combustion concepts. These promise to combine clean combustion with high efficiency. So-called "combined combustion systems" (CCV) (Volkswagen, 2003) or "diesotto" cycles (Mercedes-Benz) are based on synthetic fuels (synthetic diesel, biomass to liquid (BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL)).[1]

[edit] Manufacturing
The manufacturing of powertrain components and systems is important to industry, including the automotive and other vehicle sectors. Competitiveness drives companies to engineer and produce powertrain systems that over time are more economical to manufacture, higher in product quality and reliability, higher in performance, more fuel efficient, less polluting, and longer in life expectancy. In turn these requirements have led to designs involving higher internal pressures, greater instantaneous forces, and increased complexity of design and mechanical operation. The resulting designs in turn impose significantly more severe requirements on parts shape and dimension; and material surface flatness, waviness, roughness, and porosity. Quality control over these parameters is achieved through metrology technology applied to all of the steps in powertrain manufacturing processes.

[edit] Frames and powertrains

In automotive manufacturing, the frame plus the "running gear" (powertrain) makes the chassis. Later, a body (sometimes referred to as "coachwork"), which is usually not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. Commercial vehicle manufacturers may have "chassis only" and "cowl and chassis" versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies. These include buses, motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, etc.

The frame plus the body makes a glider (a vehicle without a drivetrain).

[edit] Final drive

The final drive is the last in the set of components which delivers torque to the drive wheels. In a road vehicle, it incorporates the differential. In a railway vehicle, it sometimes incorporates the reversing gear. Examples include the Self-Changing Gears RF 28 (used in many first-generation diesel multiple units of British Railways)[2] and RF 11 used in the British Rail Class 03 and British Rail Class 04 diesel shunting locomotives.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Powertrain Look up drivetrain or powertrain in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Car safety Electric vehicle Electric vehicle conversion Giubo Gear train Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

[edit] References
1. ^ Mercedes plans petrol/diesel hybrid 2. ^ Mann, R. H., Diesel Rail-Cars, Draughtsmens and Allied Technicians Association, 1964, pp 45-50

[edit] External links

New powertrain technologies conference, 27 and 28- March-2007. http://www.caradvice.com.au/105/car-frame-chassis/ Honda F1 Race Car Frame. Drivetrain Quiz HIL Test Bench (Delphi Motor) Technical Paper: A Closed-Loop Drive-train Model

[hide]

v t e

Powertrain
Part of the Automobile series Hybrid powertrains

Hybrid vehicle drivetrain Automatic transmission Clutch Continuously variable transmission Differential Direct-Shift Gearbox Drive shaft Dual-clutch transmission Easytronic Electrohydraulic manual transmission Electrorheological clutch Epicyclic gearing Fluid coupling Gear stick Hydramatic Limited slip differential Locking differential Manual transmission Manumatic multitronic Parking pawl Roto Hydramatic Saxomat Semi-automatic transmission Super Turbine 300 Torque converter Transaxle Transmission control unit Turbo-Hydramatic Universal joint Anti-roll bar (sway bar) Axle Axle track Beam axle

Transmission

Suspension

Camber angle Car handling Coil spring De Dion tube Double wishbone Hydragas Hydrolastic Hydropneumatic Independent suspension Leaf spring Live axle MacPherson strut Multi-link suspension Panhard rod Shock absorber Swing axle Toe angle Torsion bar Trailing arm Unsprung mass Watt's linkage Wheel alignment Wheelbase Ackermann steering geometry Caster angle Kingpin Oversteer Power steering Rack and pinion Torque steering Understeer Automatic braking Anti-lock braking system Brake bleeding Brake fade Brake fluid Brake lining Disc brake Drum brake Electronic brakeforce distribution Electronic stability control Engine braking Hydraulic brake

Steering

Brakes

Hydraulic fluid Inboard brake Parking brake Regenerative brake Vacuum servo All-terrain tyre Alloy wheel Bias-ply tire Contact patch Custom wheel Drive wheel Hubcap Mud-terrain tyre Paddle tires Radial tire Rostyle wheel Run-flat tire Schrader valve Slick tyre Spinner Tire code Tire-pressure monitoring system Tread Treadwear rating Tweel Whitewall tire Wire wheels

Roadwheels and tires (tyres)

Close Home Education HOW TO USE A COMPASS the best place on Squidoo to learn HOW TO USE A COMPASS!!

by TheGreenDude 8 Comments Like11

Ranked #6,449 in Education, #194,425 overall Ads by Google Satellite Maps Get Maps, Directions, Street Views & Traffic with Free Install! www.MapsGalaxy.com Bosch ESP Bosch sensor technology for your driving safety. Get more info here. www.bosch.com/ESP Inspirational daily quote Art, photos, spiritual love & faith Positive Living in The Urantia Book www.TruthBook.com THE COMPASS - Exquisite Simplicity...

HOW TO USE A COMPASS - A round dial, an artistic face, and a magnetic needle... profoundly uncomplicated, yet this very simple device can help perform triangulations, find bearings, help you read maps more accurately, and it can even keep you from getting hopelessly lost in the wilderness. But for many, this simple little device is a conundrum, tied in a riddle, wrapped in a mystery. What are the deep secrets that it holds?

This page has been created for all of you out there wishing to solve all of the mysteries surrounding this brilliant and intriguing piece of wonderment, which is as useful to us today as it has been for us since untold ages past. This is the first in a series of lens pages in the subject of navigation. The second is on How to Read a Map, and the third thus far, is on Using a Map and Compass. It is my hope that these pages will serve to help educate individuals, teachers and those who homeschool children, and are perhaps wishing to find good subject matter for outdoor activities on field trips. Please enjoy your stay here, and have fun learning what you can ^_^ This is a work in progress, and things are being added to this page all the time - bookmark (press "ctrl" & "d") for future reference! Contents at a Glance The best piece of equipment to bring alo... The Compass - a trustworthy Companion... NEEDLE and CARD - know the difference... The parts to a good, well equipped, orie... The parts of a good, well equipped compa... More Contents at a Glance The best piece of equipment to bring alo... The Compass - a trustworthy Companion... NEEDLE and CARD - know the difference... The parts to a good, well equipped, orie... The parts of a good, well equipped compa... A "compass rose", showing the... Getting to know the CARDINAL POINTS... Reading your compass...

STEP #1 STEP #2 STEP #3 STEP #4 DECLINATION - the difference between the... Lines of MAGNETIC DECLINATION. Adjusting your compass to your area's de... DECLINATION ADJUSTMENT, plain and simple... Triangulation, and how it's done... Okay, so what's next? So, what do y'all think so far? ^_~ Less The best piece of equipment to bring along on your travels! Hey, we have a little something called "GPS" these days, you know - why use a compass? Well let's answer that one simply, and then we can move on... * batteries aren't needed * there's no need to receive a signal * if you drop it in water, it will still work * they're timelessly functional * they're much more inexpensive * they're not as bulky, and much lighter - and... * they're much more fun, and heck - they look way cool! The Compass - a trustworthy Companion... ...it will never leave you stranded.

Wherever you find yourself on this wonderful planet of ours, your trusty friend, the compass, will always point North. Many use this invaluable piece of equipment - backpackers, hikers, campers, and even boy scouts and girl scouts. But also aircraft pilots, ship captains, and even people just driving their car. But there are different types of compasses, and we need to discuss what type is best and the most useful. So - on with the discussion! NEEDLE and CARD - know the difference... ...and know which one is best to use. There are many different types of compasses, but we can pretty much group them all up into two major types - "needle" and "card". CARD COMPASSES are those with a flat circular rotating "card" (as opposed to just a needle) to indicate direction, and are of those that include toy compasses (but they do actually work to point north), such as we might find on key chains, from gum ball machines, or in lego sets. But this kind can also serve as professional compass types, and are usually enhoused in plastic spheres, such as the ball type we might find in cars, in the handles of survival knives, or the more sophisticated gimbaled variety, found on ships. NEEDLE COMPASSES are those that use a needle to point to different directions about the compass's cardinal points. We can also find small toy compasses of this type too, as well as the more professional variety used for finding one's way through the wilderness, or for reading maps. A further distinction among needled compasses is that some are merely round housings with a needle within them, while others are fully equipped on a plate with scales and markings that allow for better ease in finding bearings and declination - this latter variety is known as an orienteering compass, also known as a Mountaineering compass - it is this type of compass that we will be learning about on this lens.

The parts to a good, well equipped, orienteering compass... The parts of a good, well equipped compass... ...and getting to know what they do. Now let's get to know and understand all of the parts of the orienteering compass and learn what they all do. SCALES; These correspond to different map scales, and help us to figure out distances along routes on a map. DIRECTION OF TRAVEL ("DOT"); This arrow is used to point the compass in the direction you are going. MAGNIFIER; This is used to see tiny map features on your map with more clarity. INDEX POINTER; This is the "tail end" of the Direction of Travel arrow, and should end right at the edge of the dial, where you take degree readings. DIAL; Used to rotate the entire housing of the compass, this is the ring in which is engraved all of the degree markings. DECLINATION MARKS; These are used to adjust the compass, according to the area's declination IMPORTANT - see to it that your compass can make adjustments for declination, in order for it to be very useful for map navigation, and for finding your bearing without needing to do any mental math (more on what declination is, later). NEEDLE; This is the magnetized piece of metal within the housing, which rotates freely on a nearfrictionless point, when we hold the compass level. One end is usually painted red (or with luminous paint), to indicate NORTH. ORIENTING LINES; These are a series of parallel lines marked on the base plate and on the floor of the housing, and are used in finding your bearing.

HOUSING; The liquid-filled main part of the compass which houses the needle. This often has a bubble of air in the liquid inside in order to help check that you are holding the compass level. BASE PLATE; The main body on which the rest of the compass is mounted. ORIENTING ARROW; Used for, among other things, orienting a compass to a map - this is marked on the floor of the housing, and rotates with the housing when the dial is turned. Some compasses also come equipped with a sight to help aim the compass at distant objects, and a mirror to be able to see the distant objects and the compass face at the same time - but while these are great features, they aren't excessively necessary (but they are really cool! ^_^). Wikipedia.org says, " ....compasses are still widely in use as they can be small, use simple reliable technology, are comparatively cheap, often easier to use than GPS, require no energy supply, and unlike GPS, are not affected by objects, e.g, trees that can block the reception of electronic signals." Here is an excellent, and very inexpensive SILVA Explorer compass of the type that this Squidoo lens is focussed on, with all of the parts and functions mentioned above in bold. No doubt you've seen these out there in some places for about 50-60 bucks, but I found it for less then half that (below)!! To learn more about this compass and what it's capable of, just click on the little image below;

A "compass rose", showing the CARDINAL, INTERCARDINAL, and SECONDARY INTERCARDINAL points. Getting to know the CARDINAL POINTS... ...and all the in-betweens. Your compass has four CARDINAL POINTS - these are marked as N, E, S and W, representing North, East, South and West, respectively. In between these, are the INTERCARDINAL POINTS, marked as NE, SE, SW and NW, representing Northeast, Southeast, Southwest and Northwest, respectively. In between these, are the SECONDARY INTERCARDINAL POINTS, which are marked as NNE, ENE, ESE, SSE, SSW, WSW, WNW and NNW - representing just what you'd think they'd represent. Thought I was going to name the whole list, didn't ya? hehe ^_^ Well, for example, "NNW" would be called "North-Northwest"... sometimes you might hear someone call this "North by Northwest" - this is the same thing. Now, we could continue to break down the points further in this way, but calling a point "E-E-E-N-N-E-NE", or some silliness, would be just downright ridiculous. I mean c'mon, really :P

This is why the dial is marked with 360 degrees. (Although, truth be told, upon further inspection you can see that the above image also shows indications of tertiary and quaternary intercardinal points - but thankfully, these are *quite* unnecessary.) For general rough directions, we can use the cardinal, intercardinal and secondary intercardinal points but for more precise directions, we can use the DEGREES. Reading your compass... ...the basics. My blood-brother and I used to joke around, frustrating someone when they'd ask, "How do you read a compass?" - we'd simply say, "It points North" - and leave it at that. True, almost all compasses do point North, almost always with the red painted end (or painted with luminescent paint). However, a few compasses are marked differently. Check to make sure which end points North. Face the morning sun at sunrise, and look at your compass. The point that's pointing in a general direction to your left is the North end of the compass needle. Once you've got that all figured out, we'll begin reading the compass. STEP #1

Okay, let's try out an example here. Hold your compass steady, keeping it level, and hold it so that the DOT (Direction Of Travel) arrow is pointing straight away from you. Turn yourself as you watch the compass until it indicates that North is directly in front of you.

The compass in the picture at the right is pointing due North, at 0 degrees (some say 360 degrees - this is the same thing). STEP #2

Now, while turning your body around, yet keeping your compass in front of you, you'll notice that the needle continues to point in the same direction in relation to the Earth. Turn yourself until the needle points to the East mark at 90 degrees, like in the picture at the right of this paragraph. Okay - does this now mean that you are facing East? NO!! It's very easy to make this mistake, so see that you keep your wits about you. Next, we will clear things up. STEP #3

To figure out more clearly just what direction we are actually facing in, we turn the compass dial until the red part of the needle is aligned with the red outlined orienting arrow (or in the case of this illustration, the two red parallel lines). You may have heard this before, whether in the Scouts, at summer camp, on YouTube or elsewhere this is what is called, "keeping red in the shed" - the "red" being the North end of the needle, and the "shed" being the orienting arrow on the floor of the housing. As the picture on the right shows, putting red in the shed reveals that we are facing West, at 270 degrees. STEP #4

You can find your bearing by facing in the direction that you're headed in (called your heading, which is pretty much the same thing as your bearing), keep "red in the shed", and see what degree number is indicated by the index pointer (the tail end of the DOT arrow, where it meets the dial). Reading the bearing on the compass in the picture to the right shows a heading of about 63 degrees. There... pretty simple, eh? For generally finding your way around in this manner alone, this can work fairly well - but for using a map in conjunction with your compass, or if there is a need to share or report accurate bearings, we will need to learn about adjusting for declination. Now, let's see if we can learn a bit about this very important topic. DECLINATION - the difference between the "Two Norths"... Adjusting your compass for MAGNETIC DECLINATION...

DECLINATION is the difference between the "two Norths". Perhaps you've heard the terms "Magnetic North" and "True North" - but isn't there only one North?? Generally, yes - it is at the "top" of the globe. However, technically there is a difference in the two spins of the Earth. We all know that the Earth spins on it's axis, as evident from the "rising" and "setting" of the sun, day in and day out. But the molten part of Earth's iron core also spins, generating for the Earth an electromagnetic field. This internal spin is just a little bit unaligned with the external spin, and is always in motion, and so Magnetic North tends to wobble a bit in relationship with True North. DECLINATION is a term which describes the difference between these two reference points in any given area. Let's take a look at a picture that will help understand this.

Lines of MAGNETIC DECLINATION. Try to imagine things like this - two sticks, both are about as long as you are tall, are standing upright a small distance apart, stuck into the ground. Let's let these represent True North and Magnetic North. If you are standing in line with them, then one will be behind the other in your line of sight - you will be standing in line with them... If we imagine one of them is magnetic, our compass would point to it - but being that both sticks are in line in relation to our position, our compass would seem to point to both, and this is the effect of zero declination. (Much like the line marked "0" on the map above.) Now, while these two sticks are in line ahead of you, if you then take a few steps to the left or to the right, you will notice that you can now see both sticks clearly, without one blocking the other from view. One is still a bit closer to you than the other, but in relation to your line of vision, one now seems to be

to one side, and the other is to the other side of your line of sight. One would be "True North", while our compass would be pointing to the other, which would be "Magnetic North", and we could begin to see the deviation. If we walked in an arc around the two sticks in the ground (the two "poles"), we could begin to see how this deviation (or declination) can increase or decrease, depending on our location in relation to the two poles. Know what I mean? This is the effect of declination, to varying degrees. Adjusting your compass to your area's declination... ...failing to do this while using a compass in conjuction with a map could get you lost. Depending on where you are on the planet, the magnetic declination of the area will vary in different amounts. You will find that in some areas, this will be very minimal, even downright negligible - but in other areas, this can vary quite a bit. Look again at the map image above to see what I mean. According to the map image above, we can see that, for example, if we were somewhere in the middle of Louisiana, we wouldn't have to worry about this at all... but if we were in Washington or Oregon, we would definitely need to make adjustments to our compass, or we would end up losing our way. DECLINATION ADJUSTMENT, plain and simple...

To adjust your compass for declination, you should first know what the declination in your area is. A good topographical map of your area will have this information on it.

HOWEVER - due to the fact of the wobbling that the Magnetic North Pole does, the declination changes a little bit as years go by... as a result, any map that is 10 or 15 years old will not have the most correct, current declination information on it. Depending on your area, this variation could be quite substantial, so do keep this in mind!! Once you know your declination, turn the dial of your compass to adjust for this. Put the "shed" to the appropriate degree mark, keeping the "N" in line with the Index Pointer and DOT arrow. Now the needle is indicating Magnetic North with "red in the shed", while the "N" and the DOT arrrow are indicating True North, as this compass image clearly displays. Now your compass matches your map, and you can keep aware of your location and chart your courses correctly. When aiming your compass at a distant object in order to take a bearing, the degrees read from the dial will now be true and accurate. If your compass cannot adjust for declination separately from everything else, you can still work it out in your head, if need be. For example, if you are in the Vermont/New Hampshire area, with a 20 degree West declination, simply add 20 degrees to the heading you read on your compass dial. However, if you find your self somewhere out on the Western side of zero, with a declination of 20 degrees East for example, then you need to subtract 20 degrees from the heading you read. This is one of the more loaded, multi-featured compasses that are out there today - the SILVA Ranger 515CLQ compass. This one has 1:24,000, 1:25,000, and 1:50,000 scales (in two colors - easier to read) for any topographical map, 1/20" and millimeter rules for mapping, and silicone map-gripping feet. Also has sighting mirror with vee-notch, a clinometer, and geared declination. As you may already know, these are the kind one finds in some places for around 110-125 bucks, but I found it for less than half that (below)!! To find out more about this compass and what it's capable of, just click on the little photo of it below.

Triangulation, and how it's done... ...using two points to find the location of a third.

Triangulation is how we find the distance of a certain point by using two other known points and knowledge of the distance between those two points. Confused? Allow me to explain... Let's say that there is a lookout tower somewhere in Yellowstone National park ("A"), and from that lookout tower, a forest ranger sees some smoke in the distance, which could be a sign of a forest fire. He takes a bearing of where it is in relation to his viewpoint, but this is not enough. The fact is, the source of the smoke could be anywhere along that line - close by to him, or further away. This is the

information he needs. So he radios another forest ranger in another lookout tower ("B") that he knows is 2 miles away from him, and that ranger also takes a bearing. Now with the knowledge of the two bearings, and the distance between the two reference points, they can now radio the firefighters and know exactly where to send them.

Still just a little fuzzy? Okay, let's try out another example; Let's say that for some reason you want to know how far across a river is - maybe you want to build a rope bridge, and need to know how long of a rope to use. As the picture on the right suggests, one person stands directly across the river from a landmark on the opposite side - a tree, for example. Another person, with a compass, walks along the bank of the river, keeping an eye on his compass bearing, focusing on that same tree across the river, and comes to a stop at 45 degrees. Now they can know that the distance between eachother - the two people - is the same distance it is across the river. Triangulation! A means of using two points to pinpoint a third! Kinda cool, eh? ^_^ Okay, so what's next? Good compass skills are best complemented by map reading skills...

Now comes a little bit more fun... so far, those of you out there who have struggled over the question, "What the heck is the secret to this compass thingy?", have now hopefully now had everything come to you in a much simpler ease of understanding - looking back, there isn't really any great mystery now, is there? The next move now comes to reading maps, and then combining the two skills together in a well orchestrated operation. But let's take things one step at a time, and first cover a small few fundamentals of map reading. Now - play around a bit with your new compass skills, get the feel for it all, commit it all to memory, and then go to my next page about MAP READING. After that, we'll move onto another, more in-depth page on combining the two skills. You'll find that the next page will be short, sweet, and very simple. It doesn't go into things in overabundance, as it is merely a prerequisite piece of knowledge before we go into the joint operation of using a compass in conjunction with map reading, in which more mapping things will be covered in the appropriate manner. Little bites at a time, I often say. Thank you very much for spending some of your time here, and if you've enjoyed your stay, do please tell your friends about it ^_~ Now get in some practice, remember to have fun, and then click the above link to expand your navigation skills a bit more. I'll see you there! ^_^ More to come shortly - I'm typing away as you read this. Please save this page location in your "favorites" or "bookmarks" for future reference (hold down the "ctrl" key on your keyboard, then press "d") - check back soon to see what has been added since your last visit!! So, what do y'all think so far? ^_~ Add Comment

Reply JoyfulPamela May 27, 2010 @ 8:00 am | delete Great information! Thanks for sharing it! :)

Reply ElizabethJeanAllen May 20, 2009 @ 4:52 pm | delete Hi, My name is Elizabeth Jean Allen and I am the new group leader for the Nature and the Outdoors Group. Lizzy

Reply tandemonimom Apr 25, 2009 @ 6:11 pm | delete Welcome to The Homeschooling Group!

Reply EagleScoutMom Apr 22, 2009 @ 10:27 pm | delete Great lens ! I've taken a few orienteering lessons during my 15 years in Scouting and you've covered it all !!! I will refer my "lost" scouts to your site!! 5 *****

Reply Evelyn_Saenz Apr 13, 2009 @ 10:42 am | delete Thank you for joining the Lesson Plans Group. Please don't forget to add your lens to the Plexo so that it can become one of the featured lenses. Please remember to visit the other lenses in our group and than come back to vote on them. Have a wonderful day! Happy Squidooing, Evelyn

Reply kellywissink Apr 4, 2009 @ 10:24 am | delete Well done! Welcome to the Home Schooling Support Group - Kelly

Reply TheGreenDude Mar 17, 2009 @ 11:31 pm | in reply to Bruce Price | delete Hmm - okay... KIDS - there is another kind of compass that you use to draw circles with... it looks nothing like any of the magnetic needle navigation compasses in the pictures on this page, and you can't draw circles with these... nor can you find your way around the wilderness with the kind of compass that uses a pencil. I hope that clears things up hehe ^_~

Reply Bruce Price Mar 16, 2009 @ 3:27 pm | delete Excellent. But mention the other kind of compass, the one for drawing, so kids will know the differences. Show All Comments Ads by Google Log on to Monster.com Update your Resume & Be Visible to Employers www.monsterindia.com NCERT Class 6th - 10th Learn with animated videos & tests Study from Home. Register free LearnNext.com/FreeTrial

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by TheGreenDude

I am interested in helping to provide educational information for those who seek a "greener" (and *easier*) way of living, perhaps also even in a "bac...more 4 featured lenses Winner of 4 trophies! Top lens HOW TO USE A COMPASS the best place on Squidoo to learn HOW TO USE A COMPASS!! Feeling creative?Create a Lens! Related Tags How to use a compass education backpacking safety backpacking skills backpaking tips bearing brunton compass camp safety camping safety camping skills camping tips

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