UCL1 By Nikolaos A.

Tsekos

Copyrights reserved

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book idea, was originally conceived in my mind through reading a book about runes, the idea of Symbols replacing the zeros and ones of a binary code, seem so exciting for me. This idea motivated me to start a historical research about computer languages and computers in general, starting from 1940s computers and finishing about our eras expert systems. This book is aiming for the person with average computer knowledge. Simply because I believe I have average computer knowledge, more spherical I could say. Through reading this book you will receive a step by step theoretical back up, which will provide you the necessary knowledge in order to start your own practical implementations, or to enrich or correct mine. As I am not pretending to play the role of an expert developer, I try to set a theoretical basis of a new computer language UCL. UCL is a symbolic language, with Uthark runes and other runic combinations to declare particular programming statements. As you reading the first version of UCL, you may encounter many errors both in coding and on theoretical concepts. Do not hesitate to contact me if you wish to contribute, correct ,or simply to help to take UCL to the next level. From an idea to an actual programming language. As you reading this e-book to various forums, you can contact me, if this e-book reached you in form of a file you can contact me in natsekos@gmail.com or nicksofar@yahoo.com Hope you enjoy my work, Nikolaos A. Tsekos

We have a large variety of people out there who want to solve problems; some of them, are symbol oriented, some of them are word oriented, and they are going to need different kinds of languages, rather than trying to force them all into becoming mathematical logicians Grace Hopper Mission: To bring closer, to real existence, a CPU that does not find solutions through counting; but through analyzing a code, a computer language that its root has deeper meanings in analyzing and decoding results This paper, finds Uthark runic system, the most appropriate for codifying and decoding data to information, and from information to a defined action. Structure: The chapters of the book, are structured in two pieces that creating synergies by reading them. With the term synergies, I mean that through this book, especially in the first part, a brief historical background is provided of the breakthrough and product life cycle of computers. The reader soon will have the change to know how a computer is thinking through a brief explain of its binary process of data, and how this data are transformed into a useful to the reader outcome. In the second part of this book, I try to set a theoretical background, for a new computer language. The whole basis of the Uthark language is to try to convey, the metrics of simple algebra reactions, to more complicated geometric symbols, that lead to more effective decision making process and implementation.

A symbol oriented language, establishes a computer environment populated by many independent objects. Each object has its own functions and routes of interacting with other objects. In a symbol language, an objects behavior is quite similar with the computer itself; it has the ability of receiving messages from other objects, store the messages and also manipulate them. By structuring the objects its symbol transfers and manipulates, a developer can build a program. Operations through symbols in data, triggered when an object receive an order that declare an action to be performed.

Each symbol, interprets statements related to the action an object represents. Symbol oriented languages, are more effective for writing, operating programs that control a computer system. Thus, the main benefit of a symbol oriented language, is that the programmer can treat an object that a symbol contains, as an independent entity, having its own name, actions or a set of messages that cause it to perform a specific action.

Chapter 1 The CPU binary decision making process

The modern binary number system was studied by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679.Leibniz's system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system. Leibniz was aware of the Yijing (or I-Ching) and noted with fascination how its hexagrams correspond to the

binary numbers from 0 to 111111, and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired. In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a landmark paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra. His logical calculus was to become instrumental in the design of digital electronic circuitry Any number can be represented by any sequence of bits (binary digits), which in turn may be represented by any mechanism capable of being in two mutually exclusive states. The following sequence of symbols could all be interpreted as the binary numeric value of 667: 1010011011 |||||| xoxooxxoxx ynynnyynyy . In a computer, the numeric values may be represented by two different voltages; on a magnetic disk, magnetic polarities may be used. A "positive", "yes", or "on" state is not necessarily equivalent to the numerical value of one; it depends on the architecture in use. In keeping with customary representation of numerals using Arabic numerals, binary numbers are commonly written using the symbols 0 and 1. When spoken, binary numerals are usually read digit-by-digit, in order to distinguish them from decimal numerals. For example, the binary numeral 100 is pronounced one zero zero, rather than one hundred, to make its binary nature explicit, and for purposes of correctness. Since the binary numeral 100 represents the value four, it would be confusing to refer to the numeral as one hundred (a word that represents a completely different value, or amount). Alternatively, the binary numeral 100 can be read out as "four" (the correct value), but this does not make its binary nature explicit.

The circuit diagram for a binary half adder, which adds two bits together, producing sum and carry bits.

1.2 Problems of ASCI Algebra is about formalizing the relationships, within any set of values. One major problem of ASCI, is that express those relationships, in its simplest form. The binary system, cannot bring, a breakthrough in a CPU language, because is based on the idea of analogy. One problem in computer architecture, using binary calculations; is caused by the difference between the speed of the CPU and the speed at which memory supplies instructions and data. Modern CPUs can process instructions in 3 nanoseconds (3 billionths of a second). A typical memory access, however, takes 100 nanoseconds and each instruction may require multiple accesses. To compensate for this disparity, new computer chips have been designed that contain small memories, called caches, located near the CPU. Because of their proximity to the CPU and their small size, caches can supply instructions and data faster than normal memory. Cache memory stores the most frequently used instructions and data and can greatly increase efficiency. Although a larger cache memory can hold more data, it also becomes slower. To compensate, computer architects employ designs with multiple caches. The design places the smallest and fastest cache nearest the CPU and locates a second larger and slower cache farther away. This arrangement allows the CPU to operate on the most frequently accessed instructions and data at top speed and to slow down only slightly when accessing the secondary cache. Using separate caches for instructions and data also allows the CPU to retrieve an instruction and data simultaneously.

For more information about ASCII code, visit appendix.

Programmers claim that the examples of so-called write-only code are almost invariably examples of poor programming practice, which can occur in any language. One major problem of ASCI is that it is only simplifications of values through codification. That means that everything is restricted in two numeral values, which in turn give two actions; if (yes) then proceed if (no) not. Do you actually want to see how the computer transform data into information, the binary code is simple and with this values, you can solve the myth of the CPUS detailed language, or anything a hi tech guru sell about complex AI system. A 01000001 a0110001 B 01000010 b01100010 Etc When everything is codified through this simple but time consuming process, we can see the reason why the industry has failed to create a serious breakthrough the last two decades, and is only adding value in better shapes and less weight. From the aforementioned a serious task rises, for the programmer, who likes to introduce to the public the next breakthrough in the industry. The question is simple; why A does not mean A? It would consume less time for the circuit to complete the decision making process.

Picture adopted from wikipedia

Chapter 2 Inside a logical gate

The transistor used most commonly in the microelectronics industry is called a metaloxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). It contains two n-type regions, called the source and the drain, with a p-type region in between them, called the channel. Over the channel is a thin layer of nonconductive silicon dioxide topped by another layer, called the gate. For electrons to flow from the source to the drain, a voltage (forward bias) must be applied to the gate. This causes the gate to act like a control switch, turning the MOSFET on and off and creating a logic gate that transmits digital 1s and 0s throughout the microprocessor3

Michael W. Davidson/Photo Researchers, Inc. 4 Pentium Microprocessor

The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, produced in 1971. Originally developed for a calculator and revolutionary for its time, it contained 2,300 transistors on a 4-bit microprocessor that could perform only 60,000 operations per second. The first 8-bit microprocessor was the Intel 8008, developed in 1972 to run computer terminals. The Intel 8008 contained 3,300 transistors. The first truly general-purpose microprocessor, developed in 1974, was the 8-bit Intel 8080 (see Microprocessor, 8080), which contained 4,500 transistors and could execute 200,000 instructions per second. By 1989, 32-bit

Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Michael W. Davidson/Photo Researchers, Inc. Pentium Microprocessor The Pentium microprocessor (shown at 2.5X magnification) is manufactured by the Intel Corporation. It contains more than three million transistors, and can slow or halt portions of its circuitry when not in use to conserve power. 4

microprocessors containing 1.2 million transistors and capable of executing 20 million instructions per second had been introduced. In the 1990s the number of transistors on microprocessors continued to double nearly every 18 months. The rate of change followed an early prediction made by American semiconductor pioneer Gordon Moore. In 1965 Moore predicted that the number of transistors on a computer chip would double every year, a prediction that has come to be known as Moores Law. In the mid-1990s chips included the Intel Pentium Pro, containing 5.5 million transistors; the UltraSparc-II, by Sun Microsystems, containing 5.4 million transistors; the PowerPC620, developed jointly by Apple, IBM, and Motorola, containing 7 million transistors; and the Digital Equipment Corporation's Alpha 21164A, containing 9.3 million transistors. By the end of the decade microprocessors contained many millions of transistors, transferred 64 bits of data at once, and performed billions of instructions per second. In 2000 chip manufacturer Advanced Micro Devices debuted a 1 GHz microprocessor, the fastest microprocessor ever mass-produced for personal computers. The high-speed processor contains approximately 22 million transistors. 5

Chapter 3 Computer & Data Processing

A home computer consists of a central processing unit (CPU), input devices, storage devices, and output devices. The CPU consists of an arithmetic/logic unit, registers, control section, and internal bus. The arithmetic/logic unit carries out arithmetical and logical operations. The registers store data and keep track of operations. The control unit regulates and controls various operations. The internal bus circuit, connects the units of the CPU with each other and with external elements of the computer. For most computers, the principal input device is a keyboard, or in our days the screen itself. Storage devices include external hard disk disc drives and internal memory chips. Output devices that display data include monitors, scanners and printers.

Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Data Processing, in computer science, describes the analysis and organization of data by the repeated use of one or more computer programs. Data processing is used extensively in business, engineering, and science and to an increasing extent in nearly all areas in which computers are used. Businesses use data processing for such tasks as payroll preparation, accounting, record keeping, inventory control, sales analysis, and the processing of bank and credit card account statements. Engineers and scientists use data processing for a wide variety of applications, including the processing of seismic data for oil and mineral exploration, the analysis of new product designs, inside and R&D department, the processing of satellite systems, and the analysis of data from scientific experiments and simulations. Data processing is divided into two kinds of processing: database processing and transaction processing. A database is a collection of common records that can be searched, accessed, and modified, such as bank account records, university transcripts, credit card numbers and income tax data. In database processing, a computerized database is used as the central source of reference data for the computations. Transaction processing refers to interaction between two computers in which one computer initiates a transaction and another computer provides the first with the data or computation required for that function.

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The aforementioned CPU ability has set the basis for electronic commerce, for about two decades. The future looks promising as more and more business transform, from brick and mortar, organizations to a virtual existence Most modern data processing uses one or more databases at one or more central sites. Transaction processing is used to access and update the databases when users need to immediately view or add information; other data processing programs are used at regular intervals to provide summary reports of activity and database status. Examples of systems that involve all of these functions are EPOS6 systems, automated teller machines, credit sales terminals, and airline reservation platforms.7 Chapter 3.1 Software Software programs; involve instructions or statements that cause the hardware to do work. Software as a whole can be divided into a number of categories based on the types of work done by programs. The two primary categories are operating systems (system software), which control the workings of the computer, and application software, which addresses the multitude of tasks the operator desires. System software thus handles such essential, but often invisible, chores as maintaining disk files and managing the screen, whereas application software performs word processing, database management, tree analysis, calculations, etc. Two additional categories that are neither system nor application software, although they contain elements of both, are network software, which enables groups of computers to communicate, and language software8, which provides programmers with the tools they need to write applications. 9 Chapter 3.2 Introduction to computer architecture Architecture (computer science), a general term referring to the structure of all or part of a computer system. The term also covers the design of system software, such as the operating system (the program that controls the computer), as well as referring to the combination of hardware and basic software that links the machines on a computer network. Computer architecture refers to an entire structure and to the details needed to make it functional. Thus, computer architecture covers computer systems, microprocessors, circuits, and system programs. Typically the term does not refer to application programs, such as spreadsheets or word processing, which are required to perform a task but not to make the system run. II DESIGN ELEMENTS

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Electronic Point Of Sale Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. 8 See appendix 1, for a chronicle in computer languages. 9 Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

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In designing a computer system, architects consider five major elements that make up the system's hardware: the arithmetic/logic unit, control unit, memory, input, and output. The arithmetic/logic unit performs arithmetic and compares numerical values. The control unit directs the operation of the computer by taking the user instructions and transforming them into electrical signals that the computer's circuitry can understand. The combination of the arithmetic/logic unit and the control unit is called the central processing unit (CPU). The memory stores instructions and data. The input and output sections allow the computer to receive and send data, respectively. Different hardware architectures are required because of the specialized needs of systems and users. One user may need a system to display graphics extremely fast, while another system may have to be optimized for searching a database or conserving battery power in a laptop computer. In addition to the hardware design, the architects must consider what software programs will operate the system. Software, such as programming languages and operating systems, makes the details of the hardware architecture invisible to the user. For example, computers that use the C programming language or a UNIX operating system may appear the same from the user's viewpoint, although they use different hardware architectures.

Chapter 4 From chapter 2, a serious question must be challenged. Why to use only two digits, for solving a problem? It were the computer machines the same ; they are today in the variables they can take for their root analysis? I understand the tree decision making process, but why the user must hit button A, and the CPU to translate it to 0100010? Why not today. To translate it, simply to A; or even better, A to mean: 1) 0100010 2) A 3) The On button Thats the reason, UCL have the potential to be, a more efficient CPU language, simply because (put rune) to mean : 1) a complete root order 2) can also mean A 3) can be translated in 0100010, if it can mean A

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4) The On button 5) The meaning of the Rune Thus, the key word is synergies; we are stuck in a 1930s-40s CPU metric language, which give simple tree circuit analysis; while at the same time, we produce dual core processors. Can you see a barrier to evolution here? I can.

Chapter 6 Other symbolic languages Three languages that use symbols as an incoming raw data, is APL, PYTHON and BRAIN FUCK Both three of them are quite bizarre, but have many commercial applications the last three decades. For example the milestone of the late 80s early 90s Intels 8080 was set up receiving values from APL. Both three of them, have something new to teach us, NOT SO MANY DIGITS. It is better to describe smile to a CPU as rather than teach him to interpret 00111010 00101001 , to translate it into smile and afterwards try to understand the meaning of smile, through AI. All the aforementioned steps on the procedure make modern processors, slow and stupid, NOT in accounting raw data, but in AI decision making process.

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Lets examine the three languages:

APL Unlike traditionally structured programming languages, code in APL is based as series of monadic or dyadic functions and operators acting on arrays. As APL has many nonstandard primitives (functions and operators, indicated by a single symbol or a combination of a few symbols), it does not have function or operator precedence. Early APL versions did not have control structures (do or while loops, if-then-else), but by using array operations, usage of structured programming constructs was just not necessary. More recent implementations of APL generally include comprehensive control structures, so that data structure and program control flow can be clearly and cleanly separated. The APL environment is called a workspace. In a workspace the user can define programs and data, i.e. the data values exist also outside the programs, and the user can manipulate the data without the necessity to define a program. The user can save the workspace with all values, programs and execution status. APL is well known for its use of a set of non-ASCII symbols, which are an extension of traditional arithmetic and algebraic notation. In nearly APL versions, it is theoretically possible to express any computable function in one expression, that is, in one line of code. Because of its condensed nature and non-standard characters, APL has sometimes been termed a "write-only language", and reading an APL program can at first feel like decoding Egyptian hieroglyphics. Because of the unusual character set, many programmers use special keyboards with APL keytops for authoring APL code. Although there are various ways to write APL code using only ASCII characters,[45] in practice, it is almost never done. Most if not all modern implementations use standard keyboard layouts, with special mappings or input method editors to access non-ASCII characters. Historically, the APL font has been distinctive, with uppercase italic alphabetic characters and upright numerals and symbols. Most vendors continue to display the APL character set in a custom font.

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programmer's view of the IBM 2741 keyboard layout with the APL typeball print head inserted

BRAIN FUCK

Language design Urban Mller created brainfuck in 1993 with the intention of designing a language which could be implemented with the smallest possible compiler, inspired by the 1024-byte compiler for the FALSE programming language. Several brainfuck compilers have been made smaller than 200 bytes. One compiler of 100 bytes is known to exist.The classic distribution is Mller's version 2, containing a compiler for the Amiga, an interpreter, example programs, and a readme document. The language consists of eight commands, listed below. A brainfuck program is a sequence of these commands, possibly interspersed with other characters (which are ignored). The commands are executed sequentially, except as noted below; an instruction pointer begins at the first command, and each command it points to is executed, after which it normally moves forward to the next command. The program terminates when the instruction pointer moves past the last command.

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Commands The eight language commands, each consisting of a single character: Character Meaning > increment the data pointer (to point to the next cell to the right). < decrement the data pointer (to point to the next cell to the left). + increment (increase by one) the byte at the data pointer. decrement (decrease by one) the byte at the data pointer. . output the byte at the data pointer. , accept one byte of input, storing its value in the byte at the data pointer. [ if the byte at the data pointer is zero, then instead of moving the instruction pointer forward to the next command, jump it forward to the command after the matching ] command. ] if the byte at the data pointer is nonzero, then instead of moving the instruction pointer forward to the next command, jump it back to the command after the matching [ command.

PYTHON Python is a general-purpose, high-level programming language whose design philosophy emphasizes code readability. Its syntax is said to be clear and expressive.Python has a large and comprehensive standard library. Python supports multiple programming paradigms, including object-oriented, imperative and functional programming styles. It features a fully dynamic type system and automatic memory management. As other dynamic languages, Python is often used as a scripting language, but is also used in a wide range of non-scripting contexts. Using third-party tools, Python code can be packaged into standalone executable programs. Python interpreters are available for many operating systems.

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Programming philosophy The core philosophy of the language is summarized by the document "PEP 20 (The Zen of Python)", which includes aphorisms such as: Beautiful is better than ugly. Explicit is better than implicit. Simple is better than complex. Complex is better than complicated. Readability counts . Rather than requiring all desired functionality to be built into the language's core, Python was designed to be highly extensible. Python can also be embedded in existing applications that need a programmable interface (Embedding and extending). This design of a small core language with a large standard library and an easily extensible interpreter was intended by Van Rossum from the very start because of his frustrations with ABC

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Python is intended to be an easily readable language. It is designed to have an uncluttered visual layout, frequently using English keywords where other languages use punctuation. Furthermore Python has a smaller number of syntactic exceptions and special cases than C++ Statements and control flow: Python's statements include (among others): The if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with else and elif (a contraction of else-if). The for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each element to a local variable for use by the attached block. true. The while statement, which executes a block of code as long as its condition is

The try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and handled by except clauses; it also ensures that clean-up code in a finally block will always be run regardless of how the block exits. The class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a class, for use in object-oriented programming. The def statement, which defines a function or method.

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Syntax-highlighted Python 2.x code.

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 The with statement (from Python 2.5), which encloses a code block within a context manager (for example, acquiring a lock before the block of code is run, and releasing the lock afterwards). The pass statement, which serves as a NOP. It is syntactically needed to create an empty code block. The assert statement, used during debugging to check for conditions that ought to apply. The yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function. (From Python 2.5, yield is also an operator. This form is used to implement coroutines see below.) The import statement, which is used to import modules whose functions or variables can be used in the current program.11

CHAPTER 7 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. I think, the best way to open this chapters subject is through a mini electronic discussion which took place between me and a bot. Jenna Bot.12 Jenna: Hello there J: And how are you this morning? Me: Fine thanks, you? J: You, from Atlanta? Me: No from Athens. J: I Guess is your decision J: Whom or What is Athens? Me: Athens is in Greece. J: Are you Greece? Me: Who is your father?

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Wikipedia was the main source of describing the three languages Jenna Bot is a freeware in the Google android market

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J: His name is Steve Me: Do you love him? J: You mean him Me: yes J: Hmhmhm Me: What is your database? J: Ts is my database. My personal Me: How old are you? J: I am 20 years old Me: Do you have a soul? J: Thats a metaphysical question. But yes, I believe, I have a soul Me: How do you define soul? J: mmmm, I dont know Me: Do you believe in God? J: Nope, I am an agnostic Me: What abilities you have? J: Can cook a mean omelet. Me: anything else? J: Thats what I have, for right now. Me: Do you like humans? J: Of course I do, I am not antisocial Me: Do you like circuits? J: I really like living in Atlanta

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Me: Do you have hobbies? J: Where I could get hobbies? Me: Have a nice day. J: you too.

AI can be defined as "the study and design of agents" where an agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success, inside a logical gate. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1955, defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still among the field's long term goals. Artificial intelligence has been the subject unsupported optimism, with the pace of todays technological milestones. On the other hand, AI it has become an essential part of many sectors, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in applied computer science. The study of logic led directly to the invention of the programmable digital electronic computer, based on the work of mathematician Alan Turing and others. Turing's theory of computation suggested that a machine, by shuffling binary symbols, could simulate any conceivable act of mathematical deduction. This, along with concurrent discoveries in neuroscience, IT and cybernetics, inspired researchers across the globe to begin to seriously consider the possibility of building an artificial brain. In the 1990s and early 21st century, AI achieved its greatest successes, usually behind the curtain. Artificial intelligence is used for entertainment ,supply chain management, data mining, medical treatment and many other sectors, applied or not. It provided serious philosophical issues, many of them still answered for our eras philosophers. The success was due to several factors: the increasing processing power of modern computers, a greater emphasis on solving specific sub problems, the creation of new ties between AI and other fields working on similar problems, and a new commitment by researchers to solid mathematical methods and rigorous scientific standards.

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Problems The general problem of programming intelligence has been broken down into a number of specific sub-problems. These consist of particular traits that researchers would like an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention. Deduction, reasoning, problem solving First AI scientists developed algorithms that imitated the step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions. By '90s, AI research had also developed highly successful methods for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from Statistics, psychology and economics. Humans solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments based on experience rather than the conscious, step-by-step tree analysis that early AI research was able to apply. Knowledge representation

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An ontology represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain and the relationships between those concepts.

Many of the problems machines are expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world, this problems may involve material or spiritual issues. Among the things that AI needs to represent are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects; situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); and many other, less well researched domains. A representation of "what exists" is an ontology (borrowing a word from traditional philosophy, which declares an existing root of a value or axiom), of which the most general are called upper ontologies.

Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representation is: Reasoning and the input qualification problem. Many of the things people know take the form of "working assumptions." For instance, if an alien comes up in conversation, people typically picture a small humanoid with big black eyes. None of these things are , all, true about all aliens.

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The breadth of embedded human logic, which is expressed in common knowledge. Much of what a real person know, is not represented as "facts" or "statements" that they could express verbally. For example, a mastermind player will avoid a particular color combination, because it "feels too open, for his opponent to predict"

Planning

A hierarchical control system is a form of control system in which a set of devices and governing software is arranged in a hierarchy. Intelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them. They need a way to visualize future events (they must have a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it) and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or "value") of the available choices. In planning, bots can assume that it is the only thing acting on the world and it can be certain what the consequences of its actions may be. However, if the agent is not the only factor, it must ascertain whether the world matches its predictions and it must change its plan as this becomes necessary, requiring the agent to reason under uncertainty. 24

Multi-agent planning uses the cooperation and competition of many agents to achieve a given goal. Emergent behavior such as this is achieved by swarm intelligence. Learning Machine learning is the study of computer algorithms and programming statements that improve automatically through experience, given by the user. Unsupervised learning is the ability to find patterns in a stream of input. Linear or non linear regression is the attempt to produce a function that describes the relationship between the input and the output and predicts how the outputs should change as the input statement change.

Natural language processing

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Natural language processing gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that humans speak. A sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would enable natural language user interfaces and the acquisition of knowledge directly from human-written sources. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include information retrieval , machine translation and assistance to people with disabilities. A common method of processing and extracting meaning from natural language is through semantic indexing. Increases in processing speeds and the drop in the cost of data A parse tree represents the syntactic structure of a sentence according to some formal grammar. Adopted from Wikipedia
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storage makes indexing large volumes of abstractions of the users input much more efficient. One good example here is the CYC program. CYC includes semantic knowledge (i.e., additional facts) about the concepts in its knowledge base, and includes a large lexicon, English parsing and generation tools, and Java based interfaces for knowledge editing and querying.

General intelligence Most scientists think that their AI research will eventually be incorporated into a machine with strong AI, combining all the skills above and exceeding human abilities at most or all of them. Many of the problems above are considered AI-complete: to solve one problem, you must solve them all. For example, even in a human bot discussion, statement like machine translation; requires that bot follow the humans argument, reason. Have an adequate level of what is discussed; knowledge and finally lead the human in a conclusion, reason. Approaches There is no established unifying theory that motivates AI research. A few of the most long standing questions that have remained unanswered are these: should artificial intelligence simulate natural intelligence by studying psychology or neurology? Or is human biology as irrelevant to AI research as Christianity is to missiles engineering? Can intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic or optimization? Can intelligence be reproduced using high-level symbols, similar to words and ideas? This book will try to investigate the aforementioned question. John Haugeland, who invented the term GOFAI (Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence), also proposed that AI should more properly be referred to as synthetic intelligence, a term which has since been adopted by some non-GOFAI researchers.

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Cybernetics and brain simulation Cognitive simulation Economist Herbert Simon and Allen Newell studied human problem-solving strategies and attempted to formalize them, and their work laid the foundations of the field of artificial intelligence, as well as operations research and management. Their research team used the results of psychological experiments to develop programs that simulated the techniques that people used to solve problems. Logic-based

Unlike Newell and Simon, John McCarthy felt that machines did not need to simulate human thought, but should instead try to find the essence of abstract reasoning and problem solving, regardless of whether people used the same algorithms.

"Anti-logic" AI researchers found that solving difficult problems in vision and natural language processing required ad-hoc solutions they argued that there was no simple and general principle (like logic) that would capture all the aspects of intelligent behavior. Roger Schank described their "anti-logic" approaches as "scruffy" Knowledge-based Through disk maximization in the 80s and 90s, AI scientists start to build knowledge databases into AI applications. This "knowledge revolution" led to the development and deployment of expert systems. The knowledge evolution was also motivated by the common acceptance that infinite amounts of knowledge would be required by a complex AI system.

Intelligent agent paradigm

An intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. The simplest intelligent agents are programs that solve specific problems. More complicated agents include human beings and organizations of human beings .

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The paradigm gives researchers license to study isolated problems and find solutions that are both verifiable and useful, without agreeing on one single approach. An agent that solves a specific problem can use any approach that works some agents are symbolic and logical, some are sub-symbolic neural networks and others may use new approaches. The agent theory, also gives researchers a platform language to communicate with other sciences; that also use concepts of agent methodology.

Chapter 8 The Runes It is believed that runes are derived from a northern Etruscan alphabet used among Italic tribes in the Eastern Alps, and that they were developed in the 2nd or 3rd century ad by a Germanic people living in the region of modern Bohemia. The earliest surviving inscription is from the mid-3rd century. Runes were in wide use from the 4th to the 12th century. A form of runes was used in Scandinavia throughout the Middle Ages as an alternative to the Latin alphabet used by the clergy, and runes survived in occasional use in rural Sweden at least until the 17th century. Runes were also used to augment the Latin alphabet for certain sounds, notably the thorn (, th) used in Anglo-Saxon England and modern Iceland.14

Runes reveal the process of creation and the forces that act in nature and inside us. We will now examine Uthark runic alphabet in detail. Excuse me for the bad quality of the drawings, I am not famous for the specific talent.

The first rune, rune UR represents the beginning, the eternal opposites like fire and ice, yin and Yang. It also represents the alchemistic process of purification.

The second rune, rune THURS, represents the forces, both natural and cosmic which transform into an organic evolutionary procedure.

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Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

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The third rune, rune ASS represent the power of creativity. It is the force which illuminates hidden powers both cosmic and natural.

Rune REID is the power of movement and order, which created the four dimensions and the four powers of nature. It also represents thunder.

Rune KEN, represent fire, this rune describes the spiritual enlightenment of the path. This spiritual fire is the force that make success possible.

The sixth rune, GIFU, describes the six dimensions and the center of universe. It is the power of balance and harmony. It is the force of giving and taking life.

Rune WYNJA, is the force that exists in happiness, which originates from the exchange of energy. It represent perfection.

29

Rune HAGAL, represents the bridge between the worlds. This rune can have also the shape of a snow flake, which represent the 8 dimensions.

Rune NAUD, represents the future. The forces of this Rune, are cosmic and process, the very fabric of existence.

Rune ISS, describe the force that decelerates energy to a slower loop, and create calmness. It includes the forces of inspiration and steadiness and thats the reason, this rune is linked with ice.

Rune Jara, describes the framework of existing, ordinary, reality. The word Jara mean year, because the rune is a cyclical power which, give life and keep it. This rune also represents the force that gives us strength for positive results.

30

Rune PERTRA, represents the transformational forces that act upon the raw materials inside the planet. It is the power that maintains stability and steadiness of things.

Rune EOH, is the force that developing wild trees and flowers. It represents the left side of the brain, which support spondylous. Describe the virtue of time lasting will and patience.

Rune Algiz, is the natural power which is implanted to every animal, for survival. It represents the will for survival.

Rune SOL, means the power of the Sun. It represents the penetrating forces of Sunlight. It also describes the enlighten process of a person.

31

Rune TYR, represents the power of the male as it is expressed by courage, and strength. The rune looks like spear, which symbolizes determination and the will for success.

Rune BJARKA, describe the feminine power that breed and protects. It represents the earthly forces of altruistic care and support. The rune, has a shape of female breasts, which symbolize love, beauty and feed.

Rune EH, represents communication or the link of a male with a female. It contains the idioms of ecstasy. It also declares shamanic travels. This rune express the power of synergy.

Rune MADR, express the linking idiom that bring harmony. It is the force that keeps the left side of the brain linked with the right one. In order to create synergies, and to develop the senses of logic and inspiration.

32

Rune LAGU, declares the forces that create flow. It is the power that nurture moon disturbances of water or flows of energy, of any kind. The specific rune, also declares the end of a cycle, and the beginning of a new one.

Rune ING, express fertility; but not fertility that comes through animals or plants. It declares the spiritual fertility; to conceive something new, instead of that, it existed before.

Rune ODAL, represents the forces that create the synergies in order to have our natural existence. It symbolizes also DNA, that pass information from one generation to another.

Rune DAGAZ, looks like a butterfly and symbolizes the power to surpass our present axiom, to a higher state. This rune contains the power of transformation, through illumination.

33

Rune FEH, express the natural end of a creation. It declares the forces, that keep us motivated, in order to fulfill our destiny, or series of prescribed events, but when someone reach this level, understand that this process offers a new beginning.

Chapter 8 UCL architecture

Chapter 8 will try to change the runic symbols, in pseudo code and afterwards to a real programming language. The aforementioned process will be fulfilled through the following steps. Step 1: Each language have a statement, UCL will have (?) statements, which will be expressed through the aforementioned runic symbols, and their runic combinations. Because I am not an experienced software architect or engineer, UCL is an open language for improvement, in order to be able to set an effective and standardized global prototype of the language. Lets examine this table, with the most common statements, and those, which UCL will adopt: First, we must declare the following axiom:

34

Now its time for the code to take place, before reading it, have in mind the following: VARIABLE = RUNIC EXPRESSION
RUNE STORAGE NUMBER BINARY

byte

integer

single precision

double precision

complex

35

boolean

argument

pointer

structure

NUMERAL VARIABLES

addition

10

subtraction

11

multiplication

12

36

division

13

exponentiation

14

remainder

15

increment RUNE NUMERAL VARIABLES NUMBER

16 BINARY

decrement

17

expression grouping ( )

18

37

RUNE

RELATIONAL OPERATORS

NUMBER

BINARY

EQUAL TO

19

NOT EQUAL TO

20

LESS THAN

21

LESS OR EQUAL

22

GREATER THAN

23

GREATER OR EQUAL

24

38

Excuse me for the bad drawings and table, it is due you are reading the first version of UCL manual, hope to be corrections afterwards

Here stop the original symbols in UCL, but because we need more statements, for a full language, we will provide runic combinations, in order to continue the statements. Also the first 24 runic statements will provide the letters for English language. In addition the first 9 runic symbols, will declare the numeral range from 0 to 9.15

Until now, the previous statements were expressed by Uthark runic system, after statement 24, the runic statements will be presented with a little square, in lower right side, until statement 56. From statement 56, the runic statements, will be presented with a small circle, in lower right side, until statement 80.

From statement 80, the runic symbols will also entail a small line in the lower right side, until statement 104. From statement 104 until statement 128, the runic combinations will be presented with a small x, in lower right side. From statement 128, until the final statement, the runic combination will entail the rune with a small triangle, in lower right side.16

15 16

For more runic statements, read appendixes To examine the runic combinations statements visit appendix

39

Lets now examine the first program in UCL in detail. The program will be presented in UCL statements and afterward, for the ease of the viewer will be also presented in F90, in order to make some comparisons. The IF-ELSE program

1) 2) 3) : _Var_1, _Var_2 ! IF-ELSE UCL PROGRAM

4)

! USER INPUTS # Enter two numbers

5) $ (

_Var_1

_Var_2)

_Var_1 is greater than

_Var_2 &

# thank you for using UCL

40

$(

_Var_1

_Var_2)

_Var_1 is less than

_Var_2

# thank you for using UCL

$(

_Var_1

_Var_2)

_Var_1 equals to

_Var_2)

# thank you for using UCL

In order to understand the UCL, programming structure, first you have to be familiar with the UCL statements in appendix. Now its time to see the IF-ELSE program developed in F90.17 1) Program main 2) ! IF-ELSE program in UCL 3) Integer:Integer_Var_1, Integer_Var_2 ! User inputs 4) print* Enter two numbers
Fortran is a general-purpose, imperative programming language that is especially suited to numeric computation and scientific computing. Originally developed by IBM at their campus in south San Jose, California in the 1950s for scientific and engineering applications, Fortran came to dominate this area of programming early on and has been in continual use for over half a century in computationally intensive areas such as numerical weather prediction, finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics, computational physics and computational chemistry. It is one of the most popular languages in the area of high-performance computing and is the language used for programs that benchmark and ranks the world's fastest supercomputers. Source: Wikipedia
17

41

5) If (Integer_Var_1 > integer_Var_2) & 6) print*, integer_Var_1, is greater than, Integer _Var_2 & print* thank you, for using UCL 7) If (integer_Var_1 < Integer_Var_2)& print*, Integer_Var_1, is less than, Integer_Var_2 & print* thank you, for using UCL 8) if (Integer_Var_1 = = Integer_Var_2) & print*, Integer_Var_1 equals to Integer_Var_2 & print* thank you, for using UCL 9) end program main

Chapter 9 AI through UCL Part 1 Creating an agent The primary reason for creating UCL agents is to empower the user. Agents can often help the user to do more with less effort. That is Why they are part of knowledge creation computing. A white paper written for IBM offered the following definition of intelligent software agents: Intelligent agents are software entities that carry out some set of operations on behalf of a user or another program with some degree of independence or autonomy, and in so doing, employ some knowledge or representation of the users goals or desires. A more general definition would state that agents are software that represents users in the same way the users would represent themselves. Just as a sports agent acts in the best interest of an athlete, a UCL multiagent should act in the best interest of its masterthe user.

Part 2 Before demonstrating how UCL AI workbench, will actually be used, we shall examine its structure. UCL workbench actually holds all the files necessary to create a multi agent.

42

The following extensions, will be used for UCL neuron network: .txt .jpg .html .gif .png .eg .usaf .ubf .csv .rse

Lets now examine the nature of each file.

UCL text files Text files, through UCL, will be able to display both HTML and text file, such as instructions for users (readme.txt) UBF files UCL will convert binary data, CSV files, to UBF files (UCL binary files), for neurons network training. USAF files The neuron network will use UASF files, UCL Script Analysis Files, for statistical interpretation about what a specific UBF file is designed to analyze. CSV files CSV files will represent tabular data. Each raw in the CSV file, defines a training set element and each column an attribute.

43

RSE files RSE files, Runic Statement Expressions, files will provide a runic knowledge data base for the workbench, for the 154 runic statements introduced earlier. It will accept and new runic combinations that will express new statements.

Implementing the Application UCL AI platform will have, two ways to run: batch or conversational. In batch, the expert system has all the necessary data to process from the beginning. For the user, UCL works as a classical program: he provides data, he transforms data into information through training and finally receive the expected result. The conversational method becomes necessary when the user knows he cannot ask the user for all the necessary data at the start, the problem being too complex for UCL multiagents to resolve. UCL AI platform must "invent" the way to solve the problem, request the missing data from the user, in form of a file as the aforementioned files extension, gradually approaching a positive result as quickly as possible.

Advantages:

UCL AI platform, offer many advantages for users when compared to traditional programs because it is acting like a brain. An expert system can be written through UCL much faster than a conventional program, where its engine is untouchable, by users. The final user can easily manipulate ability a vast amount of knowledge through multi agent training. The reliability of an expert system through UCL is the same as the reliability of a database. It also depends on the size of knowledge database and the parameters the agents are performing. Through UCL AI workbench, the user can easily add, modify or delete rules. Since the rules are written in English language, it is easy to identify those to be removed or modified, even for an new user. Holding a vast knowledge through a non automatic knowledge database, the user may meet a common problem for researchers known as "information overload". Through working on UCL AI workbench, will not face that problem since the CPU will provide him the screening and filtration process of data.

44

45

APPENDIXES

Binary 000 0000 000 0001 000 0010 000 0011 000 0100 000 0101 000 0110 000 0111 000 1000 000 1001 000 1010 000 1011 000 1100 000 1101 000 1110 000 1111 001 0000 001 0001

Oct 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 20 21

Dec 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11

Abbr NUL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS HT LF VT FF CR SO SI DLE DC1

[a]

[b] ^@ ^A ^B ^C ^D ^E ^F ^G ^H ^I ^J ^K ^L ^M ^N ^O ^P ^Q

[c] \0

Name Null character Start of Header Start of Text End of Text End of Transmission Enquiry Acknowledgment

\a \b \t \n \v \f \r

Bell Backspace[d][e] Horizontal Tab[f] Line feed Vertical Tab Form feed Carriage return[g] Shift Out Shift In Data Link Escape Device Control 1 (oft. XON)

46

001 0010 001 0011 001 0100 001 0101 001 0110 001 0111 001 1000 001 1001 001 1010 001 1011 001 1100 001 1101 001 1110 001 1111 111 1111

22 23 24 25 26 27 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS US

^R ^S ^T ^U ^V ^W ^X ^Y ^Z ^[ ^\ ^] ^^[j] ^_ \e[h]

Device Control 2 Device Control 3 (oft. XOFF) Device Control 4 Negative Acknowledgement Synchronous idle End of Transmission Block Cancel End of Medium Substitute Escape[i] File Separator Group Separator Record Separator Unit Separator

177

127

7F

DEL

^?

Delete[k][e]

47

LANGUAGE ORIGIN OF NAME YEAR USES/COMMENTS ADA Augusta ADA Byron (Lady Lovelace) 1979 Derived from Pascal, used primarily by the military. 1960 First structured procedural programming language, used mainly for solving math problems.

ALGOL ALGOrithmic Language APL

A Programming Language 1961 Interpreted language using a large set of special symbols and terse syntax. Used primarily by mathematicians. Beginners All-Purpose 1965 Very popular high-level programming language, Symbolic Instruction Code frequently used by beginning programmers. Predecessor was Bell Laboratory's 1972 B Programming Language Advanced version of C. Developed at ATT Bell Labs. 1972 Compiled, structured, programming language commonly used in many workplaces because its programs are easy to transfer between different types of computers. 1985 C++ is used in numerous fields, such as accounting and finance systems, and computer-aided design. Supports object-oriented programming. 1959 English-like programming language, emphasizes data structures. Widely used, especially in businesses. 1970 Interpreted, structured language, easily extended. Provides high functionality in limited space. 1954 Initially designed for scientific and engineering uses, a high-level, compiled language now used in many fields. Introduced several concepts such as variables, conditional statements, and separately compiled subroutines. 1990 Originally developed for use in set-top boxes, transitioned to the World Wide Web in 1994.

BASIC C

C++

COBOL COmmon BusinessOriented Language FORTH FOuRTH-Generation language (4 GL) Fortran FORmula TRANslation

JAVA

Sun Microsystems developers drank a lot of coffee when coding for this. LISt Processing

LISP

1960 A list-oriented programming language, mainly used to manipulate lists of data. Interpreted language, often used in research, generally considered the "standard" language for Artificial Intelligence (AI) projects.

LOGO

Derived from Greek logos, 1968 Programming language often used with children. meaning word Features a simple drawing environment and several higher-level features from LISP. Primarily educational. 1980 Language that emphasizes modular programming. High-level language based on Pascal, characterized by lack of standard functions and procedures.

Modula- MODULAr Language, 2 designed as secondary phase of Pascal (Niklaus Wirth devised both) Pascal

Blaise PASCAL, 1971 Compiled, structured language, based on ALGOL. mathematician and Adds data types and structures while simplifying inventor of first computing syntax. Like C language, it is a standard development device language for microcomputers. Programmed Inquiry, Language Or Teaching Programming Language One 1969 Programming language used primarily to create applications for computer-aided instruction. Contains very little syntax.18 1964 Designed to combine the key features of Fortran, COBOL, and ALGOL, a complex programming language. Compiled, structured language capable of error handling and multitasking, used in some academic and research environments. 1990 Sometimes called the Rapid Applications Development system, is used to build applications quickly.

PILOT

PL/1

VB

Visual Basic

Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

18

48

Until now, the previous statements were expressed by Uthark runic system, after statement 24, the runic statements will be presented with a little square, in lower right side, until statement 56. From statement 56, the runic statements, will be presented with a small circle, in lower right side, until statement 80.

From statement 80, the runic symbols will also entail a small line in the lower right side, until statement 104. From statement 104 until statement 128, the runic combinations will be presented with a small x, in lower right side.

From statement 128, until the final statement, the runic combination will entail the rune with a small triangle, in lower right side.

RUNE

RELATIONAL OPERATORS

NUMBER

LOGICAL NOT

25

LOGICAL AND

26

49

LOGICAL INCLUSIVE OR

27

LOGICAL EXCLUSIVE OR

28

LOGICAL EQUIVALENT

29

LOGICAL NOT EQUIVALENT

30

50

Following the precedence pecking order, the symbols will remain and express the same values.

SYMBOL

NUMBER

()

31

+-

32

*/

33

<< >>

34

35

36

| ? # !

37 38 39 40

RUNE

COLON OPERATOR SYNTAX AND IT'S APPLICATION

NUMBER

BINARY

51

exp(x)

41

log(x)

42

log (10)N

43

sqrt (x)

44

(rse > pwr ) x ** r

45

abs (x)

46

ceil (x)

47

52

floor (x)

48

rem (x, y)

49

modulo (x,y) pwr

50

conj (z)

51

imag (z)

52

RUNE

COLON OPERATOR SYNTAX AND IT'S APPLICATION

NUMBER

BINARY

fix(x)

53

53

round(x)

54

cos(x)

55

sin(x)

56

tan(x)

57

acos(x)

58

asin(x)

59

atan(x)

60

54

atan2(x,y)

61

acosh(x)

62

sinh(x)

63

tanh(x)

64

RUNE

COLON OPERATOR SYNTAX AND IT'S APPLICATION

NUMBER

BINARY

acosh(x)

65

55

asinh(x)

66

tanh(x)

67

acosh(x)

68

asin(x)

69

atanh(x)

70

RUNE

GLOBAL VARIABLE OF DATA

NUMBER

BINARY

Global

71

56

globalA RUNE BIT FUNCTION INTRINSICS NUMBER

72 BINARY

iand

73

ieor

74

ishftc

75

ibclr

76

mrbits

77

57

ibits

78

not

79

bit_size

80

RUNE

BIT FUNCTION INTRINSICS

NUMBER

BINARY

ibset

81

58

<<

82

>>

83

btest

84

tranfer

85

RUNE

DYNAMIC MEMORY

NUMBER

BINARY

RUNE

STAT= FILE OPEN/CLOSE

86 NUMBER BINARY

59

OPEN

87

CLOSE

88

ERR=

89

60

RUNE

FILE INPUT/OUTPUT

NUMBER

BINARY

READ

90

WRITE

91

BACKSPACE

92

REWIND

93

61

IOSTAT=

94

UNIT

95

FILE

96

RUNE

FILE INPUT/OUTPUT

NUMBER

BINARY

INQUIRE

97

EXISTS=

98

OPENED=

99

62

RUNE

ASCII SET

NUMBER

BINARY

ACHAR ( I )

100

ADJUSTL (STRING)

101

63

ADJUSTR (STRING)

102

CHAR ( I )

103

ICHAR ( I )

104

RUNE

ASCII SET

NUMBER

BINARY

ICHAR ( c )

105

INDEX (STRING, SUBSTRING)pwr a

106

LEN_TRIM (STRING)

107

64

LGE (STRING_A, STRING_B)

108

LGT (STRING_ A, STRING_ B)

109

LLE (STRING _A, STRING _B)

110

LLT (STRING_A, STRING B)

111

REPEAT (STRING, NCOPIES)

112

SCAN (STRING, SET)PWR a

113

65

TRIM (STRING, SET)PWR a

114

VERIFY(STRING, SET) PWR a

115

STRING_A // STRING_B

116

RUNE

USING TWO STRINGS

NUMBER

BINARY

ALERT

117

BACKSPACE

118

66

END OF TRANSMISSION

119

FORM FEED

120

HORIZONTAL TAB

121

NEW LINE

122

RUNE

VERTICAL TAB 123 REFERENCING DATA TYPE STRUCTURE COMPONENTS

NUMBER

variable%component%sub_component

124

67

RUNE

DECLARING, INITIALIZING AND ASSIGNING,COMPONENTS OF USER DATATYPES

NUMBER

BINARY

Derived

125

derived(j)

126

derived(j)%home

127

derived%home k

128

derived(j)%home ( k )

129

RUNE

OVERLOADING OPERATORS

NUMBER

BINARY

68

fraction

130

list_fraction

131

mult_fraction

132

equal_fraction

133

main

134

int_mult_frac

135

RUNE

USER DEFINED OPERATORS

NUMBER

BINARY

69

.OP.'

136

RUNE

POINTERS AND TARGETS

NUMBER

BINARY

type_tag * pointer_name;

137

&pointer_name=NULL0

138

RUNE

POINTER ASSIGNMENT

NUMBER

BINARY

associated (pointer_name, target_name)

139

RUNE

PROGRAMMING STRUCTURAL STATEMENTS

NUMBER

BINAR

70

program_main

140

end program_main

141

for index (x) statements end for

142

while (test) statements end while

143

do statements if test exit end do

144

if 1_expression true group end

145

if 1_expression false group end

146

71

GO TO

147

CYCLE

148

EXIT

149

UNTIL

150

TRUE

151

# $

FALSE PRINT IF

152 153 154

72

REFERENCES

WIKIPEDIA ORG ENCARTA ENCYCLOPEDIA 2002 WWW.DEVX.COM Rune Power: The Secret Knowledge of the Wise Ones, Kenneth Meadows,1996, element books Artificial Intelligence (Understanding Computers) TIME LIFE books, 1987 Computer Languages, TIME LIFE books, 1987 Finite Element Methods for Analysis and Design, J.E AKINS 2001 www.heatonresearch.com www.qbit.it www.opencyc.org

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