Sie sind auf Seite 1von 112

PublicInterestEnergyResearch(PIER)Program FINALPROJECTREPORT

ADVANCEDLASERIGNITION SYSTEMINTEGRATEDARICE SYSTEMFORDISTRIBUTED GENERATIONINCALIFORNIA

Preparedfor: CaliforniaEnergyCommission Preparedby: ArgonneNationalLaboratory


MA Y 2012 C EC 500 2012 043

Prepared by: Primary Author(s): Sreenath Gupta Raj Sekar Argonne National Laboratory Argonne, IL, 60439 Contract Number: 500-02-022

Prepared for: California Energy Commission Avtar Bining, Ph.D.


Project Manager

Mike Gravely
Office Manager Energy Systems Research Office

Laurie ten Hope


Deputy Director RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DIVISION

Robert P. Oglesby Executive Director

DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared as the result of work sponsored by the California Energy Commission. It does not necessarily represent the views of the Energy Commission, its employees or the State of California. The Energy Commission, the State of California, its employees, contractors and subcontractors make no warrant, express or implied, and assume no legal liability for the information in this report; nor does any party represent that the uses of this information will not infringe upon privately owned rights. This report has not been approved or disapproved by the California Energy Commission nor has the California Energy Commission passed upon the accuracy or adequacy of the information in this report.

Acknowledgments
TheauthorsthanktheCaliforniaEnergyCommissionforthefunding,supportandguidance forthisproject.TheauthorswouldalsoliketothankMr.RonFiskum,TechnologyManager oftheAdvancedReciprocatingEngineSystemsProgramattheUnitedStatesDepartmentof Energyforcofundingthisproject.Wealsorecordourappreciationfortheinteractionwith AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemConsortiumpartners. Pleasecitethisreportasfollows: Gupta,Sreenath,andRajSekar(ArgonneNationalLaboratory).2008.AdvancedLaserIgnition SystemIntegratedARICESystemforDistributedGenerationinCalifornia.CaliforniaEnergy Commission,PIEREnvironmentallyPreferredAdvancedGenerationProgram.CEC500 2012043.

ii

Preface
TheCaliforniaEnergyCommissionsPublicInterestEnergyResearch(PIER)Program supportspublicinterestenergyresearchanddevelopmentthatwillhelpimprovethe qualityoflifeinCaliforniabybringingenvironmentallysafe,affordable,andreliableenergy servicesandproductstothemarketplace. ThePIERProgramconductspublicinterestresearch,development,anddemonstration (RD&D)projectstobenefitCalifornia. ThePIERProgramstrivestoconductthemostpromisingpublicinterestenergyresearchby partneringwithRD&Dentities,includingindividuals,businesses,utilities,andpublicor privateresearchinstitutions. PIERfundingeffortsarefocusedonthefollowingRD&Dprogramareas:

BuildingsEndUseEnergyEfficiency EnergyInnovationsSmallGrants EnergyRelatedEnvironmentalResearch EnergySystemsIntegration EnvironmentallyPreferredAdvancedGeneration Industrial/Agricultural/WaterEndUseEnergyEfficiency RenewableEnergyTechnologies Transportation

AdvancedLaserIgnitionIntegratedARICESystemforDistributedGenerationinCaliforniaisthe finalreportfortheAdvancedLaserIgnitionIntegratedAdvancedReciprocatingInternal CombustionEngine(ARICE)SystemforDistributedGenerationinCaliforniaproject Contractnumber50002022conductedbyArgonneNationalLaboratory.Theinformation fromthisprojectcontributestoPIERsEnvironmentallyPreferredAdvancedGeneration Program. FormoreinformationaboutthePIERProgram,pleasevisittheEnergyCommissions websiteatwww.energy.ca.gov/research/orcontacttheEnergyCommissionat9166544878.

iii

iv

Table of Contents
Preface:................................................................................................................................................iii Abstract.............................................................................................................................................xiii ExecutiveSummary............................................................................................................................1 1.0 1.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................5 . Introduction............................................................................................................................5 . 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 2.0 Background................................................................................................................5 FundamentalsofIgnition.........................................................................................8 WhyLaserIgnition?..................................................................................................9 ALISConsortium ....................................................................................................10 . GoalsandObjectives...............................................................................................11

(Task2.2)NaturalGasAirIgnitionExperimentalStudy...............................................13 2.1. 2.2. RationaleforTask2.2..............................................................................................13 ExperimentalSetup.................................................................................................14

2.2.1. Rapidcompressionmachine..................................................................................14 2.2.2. Laserignitionsystem..............................................................................................17 2.2.3. Conventionalignitionsystem................................................................................17 . 2.2.4. Operationalprocedure...........................................................................................18 2.3. ResultsandDiscussion...........................................................................................19

2.3.1. TestMatrix...............................................................................................................19 . . 2.3.2. IgnitionLimits.........................................................................................................20 2.3.5. ConclusionsforTask2.2.........................................................................................24 3.0 (Task2.3)DesignofALISComponents............................................................................25 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. GoalsandObjectivesofTask2.3...........................................................................25 LaserSystem............................................................................................................28 LaserPlugs...............................................................................................................31 HighPowerOpticalMultiplexer..........................................................................34 v

3.4.1. ElectroOpticModulator(PockelsCell)...............................................................34 3.4.2. RotatingMirror........................................................................................................35 3.4.3. Flipflop....................................................................................................................37 3.5. FiberOpticDelivery...............................................................................................38

3.5.1. Solidcorefibers........................................................................................................39 3.5.2. HollowGlassWaveguides(HGWs).....................................................................41 3.5.3. Advancedaircorefibers........................................................................................42 3.6. 3.7. 4.0 ElectronicInterface..................................................................................................43 ResultsandConclusionsforTask2.3...................................................................44

(Task2.4)SingleCylinderLaserIgnitionStudies...........................................................47 . 4.1. 4.2. StatementofWorkforTask2.4.............................................................................47 ExperimentalSetup.................................................................................................48

4.2.1. SingleCylinderEngine ..........................................................................................48 . 4.2.2. OpenPathLaserIgnitionSetup............................................................................50 4.2.3. Fibercoupledlaserignitionsetup........................................................................52 4.3. 4.4. TestMatrix...............................................................................................................54 . ResultsandDiscussionforTask2.4......................................................................56

4.4.1. FullLoadComparison(15barBMEP).................................................................58 . 4.4.2. PartLoadComparison(10barBMEP).................................................................62 4.4.3. FiberCoupledLaserIgnitionResults...................................................................64 4.5. 5.0 ConclusionsforTask2.4.........................................................................................65

(Task2.5)IntegrateALISandRefineforPerformanceonaMultiCylinderEngine..67 5.1. EngineandNaturalGasFuelingSystemInstallation........................................67

5.1.1. Multicylinderengine.............................................................................................67 5.1.2. NaturalGasFuelingsystem ..................................................................................68 . 5.2. ALISIntegration......................................................................................................69

5.2.1. Mechanicalintegration...........................................................................................70 5.2.2. ElectronicIntegration.............................................................................................72 . vi

5.2.3. ALIStesting..............................................................................................................75 6.0 (Task2.6)PerformanceTestingofIntegratedALISARICESystem.............................79 6.1. 6.2. 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 StatementofWorkforTask2.6.............................................................................79 MultiCylinderEngineTests..................................................................................79

(Task2.7)EconomicEvaluationforFeasibility................................................................81 SummaryandConclusions.................................................................................................83 References..............................................................................................................................85 GLOSSARY ...........................................................................................................................87 .

APPENDIXA:AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystem(ALIS)Consortium APPENDIXB:FutureHighPowerOpticalMultiplexingTechnologies

vii

List of Figures
Page Figure1.ComparisonofMaintenanceCostsforRichBurnandLeanBurnEngines...............6 Figure2.OperationalRegionofaTypicalLeanBurnEngine.(Courtesy:SwRI)......................7 Figure3.IgnitionLimitsofaTypicalFuelairSystem...................................................................8 Figure4.SchematicofaCapacitanceDischargeIgnition(CDI)System.....................................9 Figure5.ALISDevelopmentConsortium.....................................................................................11 Figure6.IgnitionLimitsofMethaneairMixturesEstablishedinaStaticChamber.Initial MixtureTemperature~22C..............................................................................................14 Figure7.SchematicoftheRapidCompressionMachine............................................................16 Figure8.APictureofArgonnesRapidCompressionMachine................................................16 . Figure9.SchematicoftheOpticalArrangementintheLaserIgnitionSystem. ......................17 . Figure10.ConventionalIgnitionSystemCart..............................................................................18 Figure11.TypicalPressureTracesfromRCMOperation;P1=1bar,=0.7...........................20 Figure12.MeasuredversusCalculatedPeakCombustionPressuresforVariousMethaneair . Mixtures,1.0<P1<3barand0.5<<1.0.........................................................................20 Figure13.IgnitionBoundariesDeterminedbyUsinganRCM..................................................21 Figure14.MinimumRequiredLaserEnergies(MRE)foraLensFocalLengthf=13mmand . LaserBeamQualityofM25.............................................................................................22 Figure15.MinimumRequiredLaserEnergiesforP237.7bar................................................22 Figure16.IgnitionDelaysforCDIandLaserIgnition.................................................................23 Figure17.RatesofPressureRiseforCDIandLaserIgnition.....................................................23 Figure18.SchematicoftheLaserPerCylinderConcept............................................................26 Figure19.SchematicoftheMultiplexedLaserConcept. ............................................................26 . Figure20.ACommerciallyAvailableDiodePumpedSolidStateLaser(DPSSL)Model: Centurion,Manufacturer:BigSkyLaser,Inc.,100Hz,45mJ/pulse.............................30 Figure21.RayPropagationSchemeinsideaLaserPlug.............................................................32 Figure22.SchematicofaTwoLensLaserPlug............................................................................33 Figure23.SchematicofaPockelsCellBasedMultiplexer[18]..................................................34 . viii

Figure24.PhotographofaPockelsCellBasedTwoChannelMultiplexer..............................35 Figure25.SchematicofaRotatingMirrorMultiplexer...............................................................36 Figure26.PhotographofArgonnesRotatingMirrorMultiplexer............................................36 Figure27.SchematicofaFlipFlopMultiplexer...........................................................................37 Figure28.(a)SchematicofSetuptoMeasuretheTimeResponseoftheFlipFlop(b)A TypicalDetectorResponseCurve......................................................................................37 Figure29.SchematicofLaserRefocusingSchemeattheDistalEndoftheOpticalFiber......39 Figure30.FiberFaceLaserIntensityDistributionProfilesforanInjectionSchemeUsing(a) PlanoConvexLens,(b)CombinationofAxiconandPlanoConvexLens...................40 Figure31.TheRefractiveIndexDistributioninTwoSolidCoreFibers:(a)StepIndexFiber, and(b)GradientIndexFiber..............................................................................................41 Figure32.(a)SchematicoftheCrossSectionofaHollowGlassWaveguide(HGW),and(b) APhotographShowingSparkGenerationUsingHGWintheLab..............................42 Figure33.(a)SchematicoftheCrossSectionofaMultiLayerHollowGlassWaveguide,and (b)PhotographofanAirCorePhotonicBandgapFiber................................................43 Figure34.SchematicDiagramoftheElectronicInterface...........................................................44 Figure35.SchematicoftheControlSchemeoftheBSCRESingleCylinderEngineUsing SwRIsRPECS......................................................................................................................49 Figure36.PhotographShowingtheInstalledLaserPlugintheCombustionChamber........51 Figure37.SetupfortheOpenPathLaserIgnitionTestsonaLargeBore,SingleCylinder BombardierBSCRE04Engine............................................................................................51 Figure38.LayoutoftheFiberCoupledLaserIgnitionSystem..................................................52 Figure39.FiberCoupledLaserIgnitionSystemasMountedontheBombardierBSCRE04 Engine.....................................................................................................................................53 Figure40.ArbitraryCylinderPressureandHeatReleaseComparisontoClarify NomenclatureofCombustionParameters.......................................................................57 Figure41.COVofIMEPversusEquivalenceRatio(EQR)ataBMEPof15bar......................58 Figure42.CombustionStabilitywithConventionalSparkIgnitionataBMEPof15bar......59 Figure43.CombustionStabilitywithLaserIgnitionataBMEPof15bar................................59 Figure44.BSNOXBrakeThermalEfficiencyTradeoffataBMEPof15bar.............................61 Figure45.CylinderPressureComparison.....................................................................................61 ix

Figure46.CylinderPressureandHeatReleaseComparison.....................................................62 Figure47.COVofIMEPversusEquivalenceRatioataBMEPof10bar..................................63 Figure48.BSNOXBrakeThermalEfficiencyTradeoffataBMEPof10bar............................63 Figure49.AComparisonofBurnDurationsforDifferentModesofIgnition.........................64 Figure50.APhotographoftheCumminsQSK19GEngineinoneoftheEngineTestCellsat ArgonneNationalLaboratory............................................................................................68 Figure51.ASchematicoftheIntegratedALIS.............................................................................70 Figure52.AschematicoftheIntegratedALISShownInstalledonOneCylinderofaMulti CylinderEngine....................................................................................................................71 Figure53.PictureoftheALISAssemblyMountedonArgonnesQSK19GEngine(Top View).LaserHeadontheRightisnotShown.................................................................72 Figure54.(a)SchematicRepresentationoftheuseofElectronicInterfaceina6cylinder Engine,(b)SchematicRepresentationoftheuseofElectronicInterfaceforLabScale Testing....................................................................................................................................73 Figure55.FunctionalRepresentationoftheElectronicInterface...............................................74 Figure56.TimingDiagramfor1800rpmOperation,redPulsesTriggerLaserPowerSupply #1WhileBluePulsesTriggerLaserPowerSupply#2. .................................................74 . Figure57.Pictureofthe6ChannelALISAssemblyontheTestrig(TopView).AlsoShown aretheLaser,BNC565PulserandtheElectronicInterface.LaserPlugsarenot Visible. ...................................................................................................................................75 . Figure58.PictureofMisfireDetectionSystem.............................................................................76 Figure59.DataFromoneoftheLongTermDurabilityTests....................................................77 FigureB1.(a)PhotographofaGalvanometerBasedSystem.Courtesy:Cambridge Technology,Inc.(b)UseofGalvanometerforLaserScanning[28]................................1 FigureB2.PhotographofaPiezoBasedLaserScanner.Courtesy:PhysiqueInstrumente. ....2 . FigureB3.(a)PhotographofaMEMSBasedMirrorArray,and(b)TexasInstruments DigitalMirrorDevice.............................................................................................................2

List of Tables
Page Table1.Performancetargetsforadvancedreciprocatinginternalcombustionengines..........5 Table2.PerformanceRequirementsofanAdvancedIgnitionSystem(Courtesy:Caterpillar, CumminsandWaukesha)..................................................................................................28 Table3.PerformanceSpecificationsofSomeCommerciallyAvailablePulsedDPSSL..........31 Table4.HollowGlassWaveguidesTestedforHighPowerLaserTransmission...................41 . Table5.SpecificationsofSwRIsBSCREEngine..........................................................................50 Table6.TestMatrixforSingleCylinderLaserIgnitionStudies................................................55 .

xi

xii

Abstract
TheprimarygoalofthisprojectwastodevelopandtestanAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystem (ALIS)forimprovingefficiencyandreducingengineoutemissionsofoxidesofnitrogen (NOx)fromnaturalgasfueledreciprocatingenginescommonlyusedfordistributed generationinCalifornia.Thespecificobjectiveoftheprojectwastodesign,developand demonstrateanintegratedALISonamulticylindernaturalgasfueledreciprocatingengine meetingorexceedingCaliforniasDistributedGenerationEmissionsStandards. Leanoperationhasbeenthepreferredmodeofoperationfornaturalgasfueled reciprocatingenginesasitallowslowNOxemissionsandhighoverallefficiency.Laser ignitionappearspromisingasitachievesignitionathighpressuresandunderlean conditionsrelativelyeasily.Lasersarebecominglessexpensiveandmorecompactthan beforeandareattractivemeansofignitionforengines. Initially,thebasicdesignrequirementsforlaserignitionundertypicalincylinderconditions (temperaturenear500degreesCelsius,pressureunder77bar)wereestablished.Through fundamentalignitionstudiesperformedinarapidcompressionmachine,thecharacteristics oflaserignitionandconventionalsparkignitiononmethaneairmixtureswerecompared. Therapidcompressionmachinestudiesdemonstratedsignificantdifferencesbetweenthe combustionprocessesassociatedwithlaserignitionandconventionalsparkignition. Subsequenttestsonalargeboresinglecylinderengineshowedthatlaserignitioncould potentiallyreduceNOxemissionsupto70percent.Alternately,foragivenNOxemissions level,laserignitioncanenhanceenginefuelconversionefficiencyby3percentagepoints. VariouscomponentsrequiredforALISweredeveloped.Afreespacelasertransmission designapproachwasusedduetononavailabilityofsuitablefiberoptics.Thesuccessfully developedcomponentswereintegratedandoptimizedforusewithamulticylinderengine. TheintegratedALISwastestedforanextendedperiodoftimeinthelaboratorytoprove systemreliability.AbriefenginetestwithALISwasattemptedinatestcellatCummins EngineCompanyandthesystemintegrationissueswereidentified.Futureworkisexpected tosuccessfullydemonstratetheperformanceandemissionsbenefitsofAdvancedLaser IgnitionSystemoperationinamulticylindernaturalgasfueledreciprocatingengine suitablefordistributedgenerationapplicationsinCalifornia. Keywords:Emissions,Engine,Ignition,Laser,Spark

xiii

xiv

Executive Summary Introduction


Withelectricgridinfrastructurecapabilitieslaggingbehindtheeverincreasingpower demandsinCalifornia,DistributedPowerGenerationhascomeintovogue.Mostofsuch installationsarenaturalgasfueledinternalcombustionengineswitheitherrichburn (equivalenceratio,~1.0)orleanburn(<1.0)operation.Astheseenginesareoperated roundtheclockthroughouttheyear,componentdurabilityisofprimeimportance.Both enginemanufacturersandfacilityoperatorshaveidentifiedignitiontobetheprimeconcern intheseengines.Thefocusofthisresearcheffortwastoevaluateoneofthealternatives, laserignition,inovercomingtheshortcomingsofconventionalignition.

Goals and Objectives


TheprimarygoalofthisprojectwastodevelopandtestanAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystem toimprovefuelconversionefficienciesandreduceengineoutemissionsofoxidesof nitrogen(NOx)fromnaturalgasfueledreciprocatingengines.Thespecificobjectivesofthe projectwere:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Experimentalstudiestodeterminecomponentdesignspecifications. Developmentofviablecomponentsforhighpowerlasertransmissionandtheir integrationintotheAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystem. IntegrationanddevelopmentofAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemthatmeets industrialspecifications. PerformanceevaluationofanintegratedAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemonamulti cylinderengine. DemonstrationoftheintegratedAdvancedLaserIgnitionSysteminmeetingor exceedingCaliforniasDistributedGenerationEmissionsStandards.

Rationale
Leanoperationhasbeenthepreferredmodeofoperationfornaturalgasfueled reciprocatingenginesasitallowslowemissionsofNOxandsimultaneoushighoverall efficiencies.Intheseengines,theoperatingconditionisoftenclosetothepointwherethe ignitionboundaryandtheknocklimitingboundarycrossover.Whileknockingistoalarge extentdeterminedbyenginedesign,ignitionofleanmixturesislimitedbythemodeof ignition.Inlightofsuchconcerns,laserignitionappearspromisingasitachievesignitionat highpressuresandunderleanconditionsrelativelyeasily.Withlasersbecomingless expensiveandmorecompactoverthelastdecade,thismodeofignitionisparticularly attractive.

Approach
Theprojectcommencedwithanexhaustivesurveyoftheignitionliterature.Followingthis literaturereview,fundamentalignitiontestswereperformedonaRapidCompression Machinetocompareconventionalsparkignitionandlaserignition. AninitialsurveyofpossibleAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemschemeswasperformedand twopromisingconfigurationswereidentified:(i)thelaserpercylinderconcept,and(ii)the multiplexedlaserconcept,whereintheoutputofasinglelaserisdistributedovervarious cylinders.Thelatterconceptwaschosenasitpromisedlowcostandsimplicityofthermal management.However,thisconceptrequiredthedevelopmentofthreemaincomponents, namely,laserplugs,multiplexersandfiberopticbeamdelivery.Forbreakdowntooccurin gases,therequiredlaserfluencyatthefocalpointisoftheorderof1012WattsperSquare Centimeter(W/cm2).Toachievesuchpeakfluencies,highpowerlaserpulseswithpeak powerofseveralmegawatts(MW)arerequired.Therefore,themaincomponentsofthe AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemmustbedesignedtowithstandsuchhighpowerlevels. Guidancewasderivedinthedevelopmentofthesecomponentsthrough(i)datafrom fundamentalignitionstudiesconductedontheRapidCompressionMachine,and(ii) requirementsoftheadvancedignitionsystemasspecifiedbyenginemanufacturers.Specific detailsofthehighpowercomponentsconsideredinthepresentprojectaredescribedbelow: LaserPlugs:Atwolensdesignthatsuccessfullymeetsthephysicalandfunctional requirementsofalaserplugwasdeveloped.Adaptationofthisdesignforvariousengine geometriesispossible. Multiplexers:Threeschemesthatdistributetheoutputofasinglelaseramongvarious cylinderswerepursued:(i)anelectroopticswitch,(ii)arotatingmirrorscheme,and(iii)a flipflopswitch.Thefirsttwoschemesfellshortoftherequirementseitherduetohighcost ortheinabilitytoprovideignitiontimingvariationsinindividualcylinders.Theflipflop scheme,however,provedeffectiveinallrespects. FiberOpticBeamDelivery:Throughtestsandanalysesitwasdeterminedthatthefiber opticdeliveryrequirementsare(i)lowdivergenceatdistalend,(ii)highpowerlaser transmission,and(iii)preservationofmodequality.Initialtestsperformedusingsolidcore fibersshowedthattheyarelimitedbythematerialdamagethreshold.Subsequenttests performedusingHollowGlassWaveguidesshowedthattheyarelimitedbymodeshifts introducedbybendingoftheopticalfibers.Whilephotonicbandgapfibersappear promising,theyarenotreadilyavailablefortestsandtheirdevelopmentisexpectedtobe expensive. ElectronicInterface:AnelectronicinterfaceisrequiredfortheAdvancedLaserIgnition SystemtocommunicatewiththeElectronicControlUnitofanengineforignitiontiming coordination.InconsultationwithArgonnesindustrialpartner,Altronic,Inc.,thetiming modulesfromexistingignitionsystemsweremodifiedforthepresentpurpose.

Inparallel,thebenefitsoflaserignitionweredemonstratedinasinglecylinderresearch engine.Forthispurpose,a9.5inchbore,11literdisplacementBombardiersinglecylinder engineatSouthwestResearchInstitutewasused.Testswereperformedcomparing conventionalcapacitancedischargesparkignition,freespacelaserignition,andfiber coupledlaserignition. Theenginewasoperatedat10barand15barBrakeMeanEffectivePressure(BMEP)at900 revolutionsperminute(rpm).Sweepsoffuelairequivalenceratio(from0.5to0.65)and ignitiontiming(from25degreesBeforeTopDeadCenter,to8degreesAfterTopDead Center)wereperformedwhileadjustingtheairboosttokeepthemeanpowerconstant.

Results
Reviewofpreviouslypublishedignitionliteratureshowedsignificantspreadindata concerningthecombustionbehaviorofnaturalgasairmixtureswithlaserignition. Subsequently,intheRapidCompressionMachinestudies,methaneairmixturesunder typicalincylinderconditions(temperature~500degreesCelsius,pressure<77bar)were establishedandthecharacteristicsoflaserignitionandconventionalsparkignitionwere compared.Itwasobservedthatlaserignitionextendstheleanoperatinglimitofmethane airmixturesallthewaytotheleanflammabilitylimit(ll=0.5),whereasconventional capacitancedischargeignitionislimited(onanaverage)tomixturesricherthan=0.6. Also,withlaserignitiontheflamespreadwasobservedtobeacceleratedwhichisavery desirabletrendwhenusingleanmixturesasitenhancescombustionefficiency.The observedtrendsofMinimumRequiredEnergy(MRE)forsuccessfullaserignitionshowed thatalaserignitionsystemdevelopedfor=0.65willsuccessfullyoperateunderallother possibleleanoperatingconditions.Additionally,designparametersrequiredforsomeof thecomponentsrequiredfortheAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemwerealsoobtained. Thefollowingbenefitswereobservedfromthesinglecylinderengineexperiments performedwithlaserignition:

Extensionoftheleanmisfirelimitbyabout10percentatBMEPsof10and15bar, Increaseoftheoverallburnrate,and Improvedcombustionstabilityatallcomparabletestpoints.

Thecombustionbehaviordescribedabove,combinedwithoptimizationofengine parameters,wasfoundtoresultin

AreductionofbrakespecificNOx(BSNOx)emissionsby~70percentatconstant engineefficiency,or Anincreaseinbrakethermalefficienciesupto3percentagepoints,while maintainingBSNOxemissionsconstant.

Inviewoftheaforementionedbenefitsoflaserignition,effortsweredirectedatdeveloping anintegratedAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystem.Previouslydevelopedcomponentswere integratedintoasinglesystemwhilerelyingonafreespacelaserbeamdelivery.Tests conductedinalaboratoryenvironmentshowedtheintegratedsystemtohavetherequired timeresponseandperformance.

Conclusions
Inconclusion,theprojecttitledAdvancedLaserIgnitionIntegratedARICESystemfor DistributedGenerationinCaliforniaproducedimportantresultsofpracticalsignificance towardthedevelopmentofanadvancedlaserignitionsystemforreciprocatingengines. FundamentalRapidCompressionMachinestudiesclearlyshowedthepotentialbenefitsof laserignitioncomparedtoconventionalsparkignition:(i)Laserignitionextendedthelean operatinglimitofmethaneairmixturestotheleanflammabilitylimit(ll=0.5),and(ii) Combustionrateswereacceleratedwithlaserignition. Singlecylinderengineexperimentsperformedwithlaserignitionrealizedthepotential benefitsevidencedintheRapidCompressionMachinestudies.Comparedtoconventional sparkignition,laserignitionextendedtheleanmisfirelimitbyabout10percentatBMEPsof 10and15bar,increasedoverallburnrates,andimprovedcombustionstabilityatalltest points.Mostimportantly,laserignitionshowedareductionofbrakespecificNOx(BSNOx) emissionsby~70percentatconstantengineefficiencyoralternately,anincreaseinbrake thermalefficienciesofupto3percentagepoints,whilemaintainingBSNOxemissions constant. Thisprojectwasasuccessattheresearchlevel,whereforthefirsttimeamulticylinder enginedesignoflaserignitionsystemwasshowntoworkeffectivelyinthelaboratory.Itis recommendedthataseparatematerialsresearchprojectbeundertakentodevelopfiber opticlaserenergydeliverysystemsuitableforengineconditions.Thefinalstep,toestablish thetechnicalviabilityoftheAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemconcept,isperformingaseries ofmulticylinderengineteststodocumenttheefficiencyandemissionsbenefitsofthelaser ignitionsystem.

1.0 Introduction
1.1. Background
ReciprocatingInternalCombustionEnginearecommonlyusedforDistributedGeneration (DG)andCombinedHeatandPower(CHP)applications.AsshowninTable1,accordingto theCaliforniaEnergyCommissionsAdvancedReciprocatingInternalCombustionEngine (ARICE)program,theperformanceandemissiontargetssetforstationaryreciprocating enginesbyyear2010arebrakethermalefficiencygreaterthan44%andbrakespecific nitrogenoxideemissionslessthan0.01gramsperbrakehorsepowerhour(g/bhphr).
Table 1. Performance Targets for Advanced Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines Parameter 2007 2008 Efficiency Brake Thermal Efficiency 35% 38% Fuel-to-Electric Efficiency*** 32% 34% Overall Efficiency (CHP) 85% 85% Emissions shaft power (g/bhp-hr) Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) <0.015 <0.015 Carbon Monoxide (CO) <0.02 <0.02 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) <0.006 <0.006 Particulate Matter (PM10) <0.01 <0.01 Emissions power generation (lb/MWehr) * Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) <0.07 <0.07 Carbon Monoxide (CO) <0.08 <0.08 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) <0.02 <0.02 Particulate Matter (PM10) <0.03 <0.03 Cost** FOB Cost ($/kWe)*** 700 700 CO&M Cost ($/kWeh) 0.06 0.05 Reliability Availability Maintainability and Durability (RAMD) Availability 88% 90% B10 Durability (hours) 8,000 9,000 Mean Time Between Major Overhauls 35,000 40,000 (hours) 2009 40% 38% 85% 0.015 0.02 0.006 0.01 <0.07 <0.08 <0.02 <0.03 700 0.05 92% 10,000 45,000 2010 44% 42% 85% 0.01 0.02 0.006 0.01 <0.07 <0.08 <0.02 <0.03 700 0.04 95% 12,000 50,000

*Distributedgeneration(DG)emissionsstandardsoftheCaliforniaAirResourcesBoard(ARB)willapply. Detailsavailableathttp://www.arb.ca.gov/energy/dg/dg.htm. **Costexpressedin2006$ ***Efficiencyandcapitalcosttargetsaresizedependent.Thetargetsgivenareaveragedindustryconsensus values.

Primarily,therearethreetechnicalapproachestomeetCaliforniasDGemissionsand performancetargetsspecifiedinTable1:Richburn(equivalenceration[]greaterthan1.0) operationwithexhaustgasrecirculation(EGR)anduseofthreewaycatalyst,Low temperaturecombustionstrategiessuchasHomogenousChargeCompressionIgnition (HCCI),andLeanburnoperation(~0.60.7). Richburnengineoperation(~1.0),usuallyentailstheuseofanexhaustgasoxygensensor alongwithanadvancedenginecontroller.Thecontrolleroscillatesthecombustion equivalenceratiobetween0.95and1.05therebyenablingtheoxidationandreduction processesinthethreewaycatalyst.EGRhelpskeepthecombustiontemperatureslowand theoverallefficiencyhigh.However,suchastrategyintroducescorrosivecombustion byproductsandothercontaminantsbackintotheenginewhichcompromiseshardwarelife andlubricantquality.Suchastrategycouldprovetobeverycompetitivewithefficienciesas highas38%andverylowemissions.However,asshowninFigure1,effortsbyGeneral ElectricJenbacherspreadover1.3millionrunninghourson17differentengineshave shownthatenginemaintenancecostsincreaseby42%.

Figure 1. Comparison of Maintenance Costs for Rich-Burn and Lean-Burn Engines.

HCCIandothersimilarstrategiesrelyonextremelyleanfuelairmixtures(<0.3).Insucha system,theinductedfuelairmixtureautoignitesuponcompressionusuallyatverylow combustiontemperatures.TheachievableNOxemissionsareanorderofmagnitudelower thanthoseachievedusingeitheroftheearlierstrategies,whileatthesametimeefficiencies areextremelyhigh.However,(i)lowspecificpowerfortheengine,(ii)difficultyinignition

timingcontroland(iii)startabilityarereportedtobeaproblem.Inlightofsuchissues,the leanburntechnologyappearsverypromising. Leanburnoperation(~0.60.7),hasremainedtheprimarychoiceofthegasengine industry.Inthisstrategy,air,farinexcessofthatrequiredforcompletecombustionofthe fuel,isinductedintothecylinderduringeachcombustioncycle.Tooffsettheenergy density,intakeairboostisemployedwiththeuseofaturbocharger.Theresultinglow combustiontemperaturesandhighincylinderpressuresensureverylowNOxemissions (~0.5gramsperkilowatthour[g/kWh]or0.37g/bhphr)whilesimultaneouslyachieving highfuelconversionefficiencies(~38%).Usuallyanaftertreatmentsystemisnotusedwith leanburnengines. Figure2showsthetypicaloperationofaleanburnengine.Theseenginesareoperatedat theintersectionofknock(autoignition)limitandmisfire(leanignition)limit,soastoattain maximumefficiencyandsimultaneouslylowNOxemissions.Boostlimitandpreturbine limitareimposedbytheturbochargerconstruction.Also,asthesparktimingisadvanced, combustionstartsearlyinthecompressionstrokeandtheknocklimitisencountered.On theotherhand,assparktimingisretarded,thegasdensityatthetimeofignitiontendstobe higherresultinginmisfire.Byextendingthemisfirelimitthroughjudiciouschoiceofan ignitionsystem,substantialbenefitsinefficiencyandemissionscanbeachieved.
60

50 Spark Timing (deg BTDC)

The shape of this window is combustion chamber & ignition system dependent
L im K n oc k it

Bo st o st

40

Lm Lim i tt

30

i b r a tio n re d C a l D esi M i s f ir e L i mi t

20

Max BTE

10

Pre-Turbine Limit
6.5 7 7.5 8

0 8.5 9 9.5 10 Dry Exhaust Gas Oxygen Mole Fraction (%)

Figure 2. Operational Region of a Typical Lean-Burn Engine. (Courtesy: SwRI)

Figure2,recastincombustionterminology,isshowninFigure3.Thisrepresentsthe ignitionlimitsofatypicalfuelairsystemfor0.51.0.Forrichmixtures,selfignition occursaboveacertainpressuretherebydefiningtheselfignitionlimit.Alsoforagiven modeofignition,aleanlimitexists(ll)formixturesleanerthanwhich(<ll)ignition 7

cannotbeachieved.Formethaneairmixturesllis5.01%.Forachievingmaximum combustionefficiencyandlowNOxemissions,leanburnenginesareoperatedatthe intersectionofleanignitionlimitandtheselfignitionlimit.Betterperformancecanbe achievedbyextendingtheleanignitionlimitbychoosinganadvancedignitionsystem.


4 Lean-burn engine Operation Self-ignition limit

Pressure (au.)

2 Ignitable Mixture 1

Lean Ignition Limit

Non Flamable Region

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

Equivalence Ratio,
Figure 3. Ignition Limits of a Typical Fuel-Air System.

1.2. Fundamentals of Ignition


Inatypicalsparkplug,successfulsparkingisachievedwhenthepotentialdropacrossthe sparkgapexceedsthedielectricbreakdownthresholdoftypicalgases.Thesparking potentialacrosstheelectrodesisgivenbyPaschenslaw:

Vb = f ( p, d )

(1)

where,pisthepressureofthegasanddisthesparkgap.Thebreakdownvoltage,Vb, exhibitsalineardependenceontheproductpd.Theelectrodeshapeandmaterialarealso foundtohavesignificantinfluenceonthesparkignitionprocess[1].Oncegasbreakdown occursandaplasmakernelisestablished,energytransferoccursmainlythroughdiffusion onthesurfacetothesurroundinggas.Whethersuchadiffusionprocessresultsina successfulcombustionflamefrontdependsuponthekernelenergyexceedingMinimum IgnitionEnergy(MIE),thekernelsizeexceedingacertainsize,turbulenceandgasspeed[2]. Inpractice,factorsinfluencingsuccessfulsparkcreationfaroutweighthoseinfluencingits transformationintoaflamefront,anditisnormallyassumedthatonceasparkiscreatedthe mixtureissuccessfullyburned.

1.3. Why Laser Ignition?


Inpresentturbochargedoftheleanburnnaturalgasengines,CapacitanceDischarge Ignition(CDI)systemsareusedasschematicallyshowninFigure4.Thoughthesesystems areratedat100150millijoules(mJ)perstrike,afterthermallossestypically4060mJis transmittedtothesparkkernelatratesofvoltageriseof500Voltspermillisecond(V/s).In CDIsystems,energystoredinahighvoltagecapacitor(at~175VoltsDirectCurrent(VDC) isdischargedthroughahighvoltagecoilresultinginvoltagesinexcessof28kilovoltsdirect current(kVDC)acrossthesparkpluggaps.

Capacitor Circuit

Electronic Distributor HV Coil Spark Plugs

DC Source

Figure 4. Schematic of a Capacitance Discharge Ignition (CDI) System.

Withapushtowardsleanengineoperation,withaconcomitantrequirementtomaintain enginespecificpower,theintakeairpressureisincreased.Leanoperationalongwithhigh intakeairpressureresultsinveryhighchargedensitiesatthetimeofignition.Suchhighgas densitiesnecessitatesparkgapvoltagesinexcessof40kilovolts(kV)thatcannotbe achievedusingcurrentCDIsystems.Thisoftenleadstoincreasedmisfiringwithsubsequent lossoffuelefficiencyandincreasedunburnedhydrocarbon(UHC)emissions.HigherUHC emissionsareessentiallyvolatileorganiccompounds(VOC),whicharecurrentlyregulated inCalifornia.Toaddresstheseproblems,variousresearchorganizationshavebeen exploringalternatewaystoachieveignition[36].Amongthesealternatemethods,laser ignitionprovesattractiveasitoffersthefollowingperformancebenefits:

Successfulignitionofmixturesathighpressuresensuresreducedoccurrenceof misfire,andconsequentlyimprovedfuelefficiencyandlowerUHCemissions, Potentiallylowermaintenanceastherequirementtomaintainareasonablesparkgap iseliminated, 9

Extensionofleanoperatinglimits,therebyenablinglowerNOxemissions, Shorterignitiondelaysandenhancedcombustionrates,whichallowretarded timingstherebyreducingNOxemissions,and Locationofignitionkernelawayfromthewalls,therebyenhancingoverallefficiency duetoreducedheatlosstothecylinderhead.

Withsuchpotentialbenefits,anattempttouselaserignitionforreciprocatingengineswas madebyDaleandSmyasearlyas1974[7].However,thesizeandcostoflasersystemsat thattimeweretoolargetoreducelaserignitiontopractice.Overthelasttwodecades,on accountofthedevelopmentsinelectroopticsystems,thereisarenewedinterestinlaser ignitionforreciprocatingengines.Thepresenteffortaimedto(i)determinethebenefitsthat accruewiththeuseoflaserignition,and(ii)developandintegratesystemstoreducelaser ignitiontopracticeoncommercialmulticylinderengines.Thiswascarriedoutintechnical tasks,Tasks2.12.6,asdescribedbelow. AspartofTask2.2,fundamentalignitionstudieswereperformedinaRapidCompression Machine(RCM)tocomparethecharacteristicsoflaserignitionandconventionalspark ignitiononmethaneairmixtures.TheRCMstudiesdemonstratedsignificantdifferences betweenthecombustionprocessesassociatedwithlaserignitionandconventionalspark ignition.InTask2.4,thepracticalimplicationsofthealteredcombustionbehaviorwithlaser ignitionweredeterminedthroughexperimentsonasinglecylinderresearchengine.Ina paralleltask(Task2.3),variouscomponentsrequiredforanAdvancedLaserIgnition System(ALIS)weredeveloped.InTask2.5,thesuccessfulcomponentsdevelopedinTask 2.3wereintegratedintoasinglesystemandoptimizedforusewithamulticylinderengine. Task2.6,fieldtestingforperformance,isstillanongoingeffort.AbrieftestingonaQSK 19G6cylinderengineatCumminsTechnicalCenterwascarriedout.Theprogressmadein individualtasksisgivenhenceforth.Thisisconcludedwithasummaryoftheoverall project.

1.4. ALIS Consortium


AttheinitiativeoftheUnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy(U.S.DOE)Advanced ReciprocatingEngineSystems(ARES)programmanager,Mr.RonaldFiskum,andthe EnergyCommissionsARICEprogrammanager,Dr.AvtarBining,anALISconsortiumwas formed.AsshowninFigure5,thisconsortiumcomprisedArgonneNationalLaboratory (ANL),ColoradoStateUniversity(CSU),NationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory(NETL) andSouthwestResearchInstitute(SwRI)astechnicalpartners.Oversightfortheprogram wasprovidedbyindustrialpartnersCaterpillar,Cummins,WaukeshaandAltronicInc. aswellasthefundingagenciesU.S.DOEDistributedEnergyProgramandCalifornia EnergyCommissionsARICEProgram.Researchideasandprogresswerediscussedand sharedthroughregulartechnicalmeetings.Additionally,therewasenoughinteraction amongparticipantsthroughsidebarmeetingsheldatvariousconferencesites.Asummary ofconsortiumactivitiesandalistofpublicationsareprovidedinAppendixA.

10

Figure 5. ALIS Development Consortium

1.5. Goals and Objectives


Laserignitioncanovercometheignitionproblemsinleanburnnaturalgasenginesand furtherhasthepotentialtoimproveengineefficiencyandloweremissions.Theoverall benefitsduetolaserignitioncanbesummarizedas:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Improvedoverallefficiency, Reducedfuelconsumption, LowerNOxandunburnedhydrocarbon(UHC)emissions, Enhancedpowerdensity,and Reducedoverallmaintenancerequirements.

Theseperformanceimprovementstranslatetoimprovingtheenergycost/valueofCalifornias electricity.Simultaneously,byloweringNOxandUHCemissions,theenvironmentalandpublic healthcosts/riskofCaliforniaselectricityarereduced. TheoverallgoalsoftheproposedALISsystemare:


1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

MeetorexceedthecurrentandfutureCaliforniaemissionsrequirementsandhave otherdesirableenvironmentalattributes. Improvefueltoelectricityconversionefficiency. Lowercapitalcosts,installationcosts,operationandmaintenancecost,andlifecycle costs. Enhancereliability,maintainability,durabilityandusability. Possessmultifuelusecapabilities,suchaswithsewergas,landfillgasetc. 11

Ingeneral,theproposedALISsystemisexpectedtoleadtotheadoptionanduseof improvedARICEtechnologieswithinCalifornia. Technical and economic/cost performance objectives TheoveralltechnicalgoalofthisprojectwastodevelopaCommercial/ProductionReady ALISintegratedARICEfordistributedgeneration(DG)inCaliforniabymeetingor exceedingYear2007PerformanceTargetsofARICE(cf.Table1.). Thespecifictechnicalobjectivesoftheprojectwere:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Completionofexperimentalstudiestodeterminecomponentdesignspecifications. Developmentofviablecomponentsforhighpowerlasertransmissionandtheir integrationintoanALIS. SuccessfulintegrationanddevelopmentofALISthatachievesthetechnical requirementsspecifiedbytheindustry. PerformanceevaluationofanintegratedALISARICEsystemonamulticylinder engine. DemonstrationoftheintegratedALISARICEsysteminmeetingorexceeding2007 ARICEperformancetargets.

12

2.0 (Task 2.2) Natural Gas-Air Ignition Experimental Study


2.1. Rationale for Task 2.2
Withtherenewedinterestinlaserignition,therehavebeenquiteafewpaststudies evaluatinglaserbasedignitioninstaticchambers[8,9].AsshowninFigure6,suchstudies haveshownthatlasersenableignitionofmixturesatpressureshigherthanthosethatcanbe ignitedbyconventionalcoilbasedCapacitanceDischargeIgnition(CDI)systems.However, nosignificantextensionofleanignitionlimitwasfoundwithlaserignition.Thelean ignitionlimitsforbothmodesofignitionappearedtocoincideatequalto0.67. Similarly,throughtestsperformedonRicardoProteussinglecylinderengineequivalent ration,McMillianetal.[10]reportextensionofleanignitiontoequivalentto0.51with Kopeceketal.[11]reportingthesametoequivalentto0.42(useablerangeequivalentto 0.46).Withmostoftheleanburnenginesoperatedclosetotheintersectionofleanignition limitandselfignitionlimit,suchaspreadindatawarrantsasystematicstudyunderin cylinderlikeconditions.Toattainthisgoal,oneneedstoperformignitiontestsinaRapid CompressionMachine(RCM)thatsimulatestypicalnaturalgasengineconditions.Asmost oftheleanburnenginesareoperatedclosetotheintersectionofignitionlimitandknock limit,theselfignitionlimitneedstobedeterminedaswell.Also,mappingoftheminimum laserenergiesrequiredforsuccessfulignitionunderdifferentmixtureconditionswould assistinthedevelopmentofALIS.

13

Figure 6. Ignition Limits of Methane-Air Mixtures Established in a Static Chamber (Initial Mixture Temperature ~ 22 C).

2.2.

Experimental Setup

2.2.1. Rapid Compression Machine


Asmostofthecurrentstationarypowergenerationenginesareoperatedatspeedslessthan 1800rpm,therapidcompressionmachine(RCM)wasdesignedwithcompressiontimeless than17milliseconds.Overallthesystemwasdesignedtowithstandconditionsattheendof combustionof362barand3,000Kelvin(K).Also,withthecompressionratio(CR)oftypical gasenginesbeing12.5,theRCMwasdesignedforaCR=12.

14

ThedesignconceptthatwasusedbyArgonneisanimprovementovertheonedeveloped byMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT)[12].AschematicoftheRCMisshownin Figure7.ApictureofthesystemisshowninFigure8.ThisRCMconsistsoftwopistons which,whenreleased,traveltowardseachotherwithextremelysmallresultantvibration. EachsideoftheRCMconsistsofthreeseparatechamberseachcarryingapiston.Allthe threepistonsaremountedontothesamecentralTitaniumshaftthatforcestheirmovement inunison.Theoutermostchamberisapneumaticchambercarryinga6inchdiameter aluminumpiston.Theinnermostisacompressionchamberwhereina2.5inchdiameter aluminumpistoncompressestheexperimentalgasesintothecentralignitionchamber.In themiddleisahydraulicchamberthatcontainshydraulicoilpressurizedto165bar.Special designfeatureswithinthehydraulicchamberallowedholdingthepistonintheretracted positioneventhoughpressurizedairat20.7barwaspresentinthepneumaticchamber.The samedesignfeaturesallowedreleaseofthepistonsynchronizedwithanexternalsparking event.Similaradditionalfeaturesinthehydraulicchamberallowedholdingthepistonin thecompressedpositiontherebyavoidingthepistonbounceatthecommencementof combustion.VariousportsonthecompressionchambersallowedfillingtheRCMwithdry compressedairand99.99%puremethane.Fineorificesinthegaslinesalongwithahigh resolutionpressuretransducerallowedestablishingmixturesoftherequiredpressuresand equivalenceratiosaccurately.Aportonthecombustionchamberallowedignitionwitha conventionalsparkplug(18mmthread,Jstyle)poweredbytheAltronicPM1(CDI) ignitionsystem.Asecondportalloweddirectingandfocusingalaser(focallength13mm) toachieveignition.AthirdportcarryingaKistler4073A500pressuretransducerallowed recordingthepressuretraces.Afourthportcarriedanexhaustvalve.Atotalof22 pneumaticallydrivensolenoidvalvesinterfacedtoacomputerallowedremoteoperationof theRCM.AcomputerprogramwritteninNationalInstruments(NI)LabviewdrivingNI FieldPointsystemallowedautomationoftheprocesses.

15

Figure 7. Schematic of the Rapid Compression Machine.

Figure 8. A Picture of Argonnes Rapid Compression Machine. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

16

2.2.2. Laser Ignition System


ThelaserignitionsystemisschematicallyshowninFigure9.Thebeamoutputofa frequencydoubledNeodymium:YttriumAluminumGarnet(Nd:YAG)laser(Spectra PhysicsGCR170)wasroutedthroughacombinationofhalfwaveplateandpolarizerto varythelaserpower.Abeamsplitterandapowermeterallowedmonitoringofthelaser power.Afastshutterwith3millisecondtimeresponseallowedincidenceofasinglepulse fromthelaserpulsetrain.AllofthetimingwascontrolledbytheNIFieldPointsystem.

1064 nm T70/R30 Mirror


Glan Taylor Polarizer

1/2 wavplate

Iris

Beam Dump 532 nm

GCR 170 Nd:YAG Laser

To RCM

Fast Shutter Beam Dump Laser power Head & Meter Protective Enclosure 2

Protective Enclosure 1

Figure 9. Schematic of the Optical Arrangement in the Laser Ignition System.

2.2.3. Conventional Ignition System


ACDIsystem,modifiedforthepresenttests,wassuppliedbyAltronic,Inc.Thissystem, whenactivatedremotelybya5volt(V)pulsesuppliesignitionenergytothesparkplug placedonthewallofthecombustionchamber.Thearrangementwassuchthatthespark wassupplied30msfollowingtheendofpistonstroke.Suchadelaywasnecessarytoallow thelockingmechanismtoengagecompletelybeforetheinitiationofcombustion.Figure10 showsapictureofthisignitionsystem.

17

Oscilloscope

Sparkplugs

Ignition coils Electronic control

24VDCpower

Figure 10. Conventional Ignition System Cart. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

2.2.4. Operational Procedure


Inatypicalexperiment,theRCMpistonswereretractedandheldintheretractedposition. Subsequently,agasmixtureoftherequiredequivalenceratioandinitialpressure,P1,was establishedinthecompressionchambers.Afterallowing5minutesforthegasestomix,the pneumaticchamberswerepressurizedwithcompressedairat20.7barsuppliedbya150 Literairtank.Thepistonswerereleasedbyactivatingtheappropriatevalvesequencing.A photodetectorsensingthepistonpositionprovidedthenecessarysignalforsequencingthe laserpulseortheconventionalignitionspark.Toallowforlockingofthepistonsinthe compressedpositionandtherebyavoidapistonbouncebackatthecommencementof combustion,ignitionwasinitiated30msfollowingtheendofcompressionstroke.Also,one secondfollowingtheendofcompressionstroke,theexhaustvalvewasopened. Subsequently,thepistonswereretractedandthecompressionandcombustionchambers werepurgedtoprepareforthenextexperimentalrun.Atypicaltestrunrequired20to30 minutesforexecution. 18

2.3.

Results and Discussion

2.3.1. Test Matrix


Withtheabovesetup,testswereperformedwhilevaryingtheinitialpressureofthe mixture,P1,andtheequivalenceratio,.ThemixturesestablishedintheRCMwerelimited to1.0>>0.4,3.0>P1>1.0barandinitialtemperature,T1=298K.Atypicalpressuretrace obtainedduringonesuchtestrunisshowninFigure11.AsshowninFigure11,whenthe pistonsarereleased,thegaseousmixtureisisentropicallycompressedtoP2.Astheignition (sparking)eventissequenced20to30msfollowingendofcompression,thereisasmall pressuredropresultingfromheattransfertothecombustionchamberwalls,(P2P2). Followinganignitiondelayaftertheincidenceofspark,thepressurerisessteeplytoP3due tocombustion.Subsequentpressuredropisprimarilyduetocondensationofwatervapor andheattransfertowallsofthechamber. Fromthermodynamics,onehastherelations and

P2 = P1 (CR )

(2)

T2 = T1 (CR )

( 1)

(3)

where,CRisthecompressionratioandistheratioofspecificheatatconstantpressure(Cp) tospecificheatatconstantvolume(Cv),whichequals1.4forair. AregressionanalysisperformedonthemeasuredvaluesofP2assumingas1.4showed thatthecompressionratioforthepresentRCMis10.0asopposedto12.0thatitwas originallydesignedfor.Withthisadjustedcompressionratio,calculationswereperformed assumingadiabaticcombustionbyusingNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration (NASA)ChemicalEquilibriumforApplications(CEA2)program.Fromsuchcalculations,as showninFigure12,itwasobservedthatthemeasuredP3valueswereonanaverage83%of thecalculatedP3values,withleanermixturesexhibitinglowervalues.Also,itoughttobe notedthatinthepresenttests,forallmixtureconditions,thetemperatureatthetimeof ignition,T2wasabout765K(perEquation3).

19

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -50 0
Pr. rise due to combustion

P3
Pr. drop due to water condensation and heat transfer

Pressure (Bar)

P2 P2'
Ignition

Isentropic Compression

Pr. drop due to heat transfer

trial 1 trial 2 trial 3

P1
50 100 150 200 250 300

Time (ms)
Figure 11. Typical Pressure Traces from RCM Operation; P1 = 1 bar, = 0.7

300 250

P3 Measured (Bar)

200 150 100 50 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

P3 Calculated (Bar)

Figure 12. Measured Versus Calculated Peak Combustion Pressures for Various Methane-Air Mixtures, 1.0 < P1 <3 bar and 0.5 < < 1.0

2.3.2. Ignition Limits


Withtheabovesetup,testswereconductedbyvaryingtheequivalenceratio,,between0.5 and1.0,andbyvaryingtheinitialpressureofthemixture,P1,between1.0and3.0bar.For eachcondition,typically5or6testrunswereexecutedwhilevaryingthelaserpulseenergy 20

betweenthemaximumpulseenergyofabout75mJandminimumpulseenergyof5mJ. Witheachtestthewindowwithinwhichthethresholdenergywaspresentwashalveduntil thefinalthresholdvaluewasdeterminedwithinanaccuracyof2.25mJ/pulse. Theignitionboundariesdeterminedthroughsuchtestsexpressedasafunctionofpressure atthetimeofignition,P2,areshowninFigure13.Itisprominentlynoticedthatselfignition dominatesformixtureswithP2greaterthan63bar.Also,itisnoticedthattheleanignition limitwhileusingtheCDIsystemisat0.6.Ontheotherhand,byusinglaserignitionthis couldbeextendedallthewaytotheflammabilitylimitofofabout0.5.Suchextensionsare ofsignificanceasthecurrentleanburnenginesareoperatedattheintersectionofself ignitionlimitsandleanignitionlimits. Followingsuchobservations,wearenotsureoftheclaimsmadebyresearchersatGE Jenbacherwhoreportextensionofleanignitiontoof0.417byusingalaser.

Figure 13. Ignition Boundaries Determined by Using an RCM.

2.3.3. Minimum Required Energy Scans


Fortheignitionboundariesestablishedabove,MinimumRequiredEnergy(MRE)valuesfor successfullaserignitionweredeterminedforvariousmixtureconditions.Values determinedforalensfocallength,fof13millimetersandlaserbeamqualityofM25are showninFigure14.Itisobservedthatexceptforof1.0,MREvaluesdecreasedwith increaseinpressurefinallyresultinginselfignition.ThevaluesalongacrosssectionofP2of 21

37.7barareshowninFigure15.Foravariationoftheequivalenceratio,itisnoticedthata minimaexistsatof0.85forthesemethaneairmixtures.Alsoitisnoticedthatthereisa sharpriseintheMREvaluesformixturesleanerthanof0.7.Suchatrendwasalsonoticed atotherpressures.

100
= 1.0 = 0.7 = 0.65 = 0.6 = 0.55 = 0.5

80 MRE (mJ/pulse)

60

40

20

0 20 30 40 50 60 70 P2 (Bar abs.)
Figure 14. Minimum Required Laser Energies (MRE) for a Lens Focal Length f = 13 mm and Laser Beam Quality of M2 5.

70

60

MRE (mJ/pulse)

50

40

30

20 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

Figure 15. Minimum Required Laser Energies for P2 37.7 bar.

22

2.3.4. Ignition Delays and Rates of Pressure Rise


Leannaturalgasairmixturesarecharacterizedbyslowflamevelocitiesandlongerignition delaysthatareofconcernforleanburnengineoperation.Previousstudiesin1cylinder engines[10,13]haveshownthatlaserignitionresultsinsmallerignitiondelaysandfaster combustion.AsshowninFigure16,similartestsperformedintheRCMshowedthat ignitiondelayincreasedwithleanoperationforbothCDIignitionaswellaslaserignition. However,thebenefitsintermsofsmallerignitiondelayswereonlypronouncedunderlean conditionsandatof1.0. SimilarcomparisonoftherateofpressureriseisshowninFigure17.Againitwasfound thatfastercombustionratesoccurforleanoperationandforof1.0bytheuseoflaser ignition.Thereversaloftrendsfor0.75<<0.95requiresfurtherinvestigation.
25 P2 = 37.7 Bar CDI ignition Laser Ignition

20

Ignition Delay, ms

15

10

0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

Equivalence Ratio,

Figure 16. Ignition Delays for CDI and Laser Ignition.

20000 P2 = 37.7 Bar

Rate of Pr. Rise (Bar/sec)

16000 CDI ignition Laser Ignition 12000

8000

4000

0 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

Equivalence Ratio,

Figure 17. Rates of Pressure Rise for CDI and Laser Ignition.

23

2.3.5. Conclusions for Task 2.2


ThroughignitiontestsconductedinaRapidCompressionMachinethatsimulatedin cylinderconditionsofaleanburnnaturalgasengine,itwasobservedthatlaserignition extendstheleanoperatinglimitofmethaneairmixturestotheflammabilitylimit(of0.5) whereasconventionalCDIignitiononanaverageislimitedtomixturesricherthanof0.6. MinimumRequiredEnergiesforsuccessfullaserignitionexhibitedasharpincrease followedbyaplateauregionformethaneairmixturesleanerthanof0.7.Suchatrend showsthatalaserignitionsystemdevelopedtooperateatof0.65willsuccessfullyoperate underallotherpossibleoperatingconditions. Toreapthetruebenefitsoflaserignition,therequiredhardwarecomponentsfortheALIS needtobedeveloped.ThiswaspursuednextinTask2.3.

24

3.0 (Task 2.3) Design of ALIS Components


Fromaninitialsurveyofpossibleconfigurationsforalaserbasedignitionsystem,two promisingconceptswereidentified:(i)Thelaserpercylinderconcept,and(ii)The multiplexedlaserconcept. InthelaserpercylinderconceptschematicallyshowninFigure18,aminiaturelaserisbuilt directlyoverthecylinderhead.Thecostofsuchaconfigurationislikelytobeveryhigh,as asinglelaserisrequiredforeachcylinder.Also,thermalmanagementinthelasersystem becomesanissueasthecylinderheadtemperaturescouldbeashighas130oCelsius(C). However,thisconfigurationdoesnotrequiretheuseofahighpowerdeliverysystem(e.g., afiber).AspartoftheALISconsortium,NationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory(NETL) haspursuedthedevelopmentofalaserpercylinderignitionsystem,detailsofwhichare providedinReference[14]. Alternately,asshowninFigure19,theoutputofasinglelasercanbedistributedamongthe variouscylindersofamulticylinderengine.ThiswasprimarilypursuedbyArgonne NationalLaboratory.Thisconfigurationbenefitsfromthecostsavingsthatresultfromthe useofasinglelaseraslasersarethemostexpensivecomponentsofALIS.Also,thelaser systemisisolatedfromtheheatandvibrationoftheengine.However,thissystemrequires thedevelopmentofassociatedhighpowercomponentsincludinglaserplugs,optical multiplexerandfiberdeliverysystem. OutsidetheconsortiumGEJenbacher,andAVLarepursuingbothlaserpercylinderand multiplexedlaserapproachesoracombinationapproachofthetwo[11].

3.1.

Goals and Objectives of Task 2.3

ThegoalofTask2.3wastodevelopvarioushardwarerequiredforALIS,accordingtothe specificationsdeterminedthroughtestsinearliertask,Task2.2.Thisentailsselectionof somecandidatetechnologiesandtestingthemforperformance.Thesuccessfulcandidates weresortedfurthertomeettheprojectobjectives.

25

Figure 18. Schematic of the Laser-Per-Cylinder Concept.

fiber optic delivery Laser


Multiplexer

Laser plugs
Electronic Interface

Engine ECU Natural Gas Multi-cylinder Engine

Figure 19. Schematic of the Multiplexed Laser Concept.

26

Thespecificobjectivesofthistaskaredescribedbelow:
1.

Designanddeveloplaserplugswiththefollowingspecifications. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Havethesamethreadsizeasaconventionalsparkplug,i.e.,M18x1.5, Providepressuresealingto3,000poundspersquareinch(psi). Withstandtemperaturesashighas2,400C. Minimizefirstandsecondsurfacereflections. Minimizeoveralllaserenergyrequirements. Providesufficientreliabilitywhiletransmittinglaserenergiesofabout60mJ perpulse. Beselfcleaningofanydeposits. Facilitatecouplingtofiberoptictransmission.

2.

Developfiberopticsystemsthatareabletotransmittherequiredlaserenergiesfor ALISoperation.Intheprocess,evaluatetheperformanceofthefollowing technologies,amongothers,fortransmissivity,flexibility,andeaseofconnectivity. i. ii. iii. Conventionalsilicacoreof1to2millimeter(s)diameterfiberswith appropriatecladding. Fiberswithtaperedends. Hollowfibersystems.

3.

Developanopticalmultiplexercapableofdistributingthelaseroutputamong variouscylindersofanaturalgasengine,whileminimizingtransmissionlossesand facilitatingtherequiredignitiontimingadvanceorretard.Thiscanbeperformedby evaluatingthefollowingcandidatetechnologiesamongothers. i. ii. Fiberoptictelecommunicationmultiplexer. Rotatinggratingtypeindexingsystem. Providetherequiredlaserenergies. Operatewithminimalmaintenance. Haveasmallfootprint. Providetheaforementionedfeaturesatalowcost.

4.

Developorselectalasersystemthatcan i. ii. iii. iv.

5.

DevelopanelectronicinterfaceincollaborationwithAltronic,Inc.,whichintegrates thefunctionsoflaserhead,ElectronicControlUnit(ECU),andindexerintoone singleunit.Thiselectronicinterfaceshouldenhanceeaseofinstallation,improve durability,satisfythesafetyrequirementsofnaturalgasengines,haveasmall footprint,belightweight,andfacilitatemanufacturinginlargequantities.

InadditiontothedatagatheredintheearlierTask2.2,guidanceindesignwasalsoderived fromperformancerequirementsoftheignitionsystemasspecifiedbyengine manufacturers,asgiveninTable2. 27


Table 2. Performance Requirements of an Advanced Ignition System (Courtesy: Caterpillar, Cummins and Waukesha ) 1 Cost (current dollars) Value Units - First Cost (add $1/kWe for CSA requirement) - Life Cycle Cost (including system replacement at major) 2 Performance -Maximum ignition pressure (peak cylinder pressure) -Minimum air/fuel ratio -Maximum air/fuel ratio (with swirl) -Minimum methane number (hydrogen capable) - Maximum methane number (landfill capable) - Ignition timing repeatability (non-mechanical) - Ignition timing accuracy (non-mechanical) - COV (ARES steady state, 0.5 g/bhp-hr NOx, 25 bar BMEP) - COV (ARICE steady state, 0.015 g/bhp-hr NOx, 25 bar BMEP) - RPM maximum (overspeed) - RPM minimum (cranking) - Full Load range (minimum maximum) 3 4 Ignition System Durability - Life to replacement for ignition module and harness Reliability (MTBF*) - Ignition System (continuous duty) 6000 h 80,000 h 220 0.9 2.5 0 140 0.08 0.08 <1.0 <1.0 125 50 10 25 bar CA CA % % % of rated Rpm bar 4.00 0.25 $ / kWe $ / MWe-h

*MTBFMinimumTimeBetweenFailure

3.2.

Laser System

Fromfundamentalphysics,itiswellknownthatwhenahighpowercoherentlaserbeamis focused,multiplephotonsareabsorbedresultinginthegenerationoffreeelectrons.These electronsarefurtheracceleratedbythefieldgradientsandgeneratemoreelectronsandions throughaninverseBremsstrahlungprocess.Theplasmasogeneratedservesastheignition kernelforthecombustiblemixturesurroundingit.Theenergytransfertothesurrounding gasmixtureisprimarilythroughdiffusion,anddependingonitsmagnitudemayormay notresultinsuccessfulcombustion.Overalltheprocessisnotwavelengthspecificandis termednonresonantmultiphotonionization. AninitialliteraturesurveyshowedthatNd:YAGlasersareideallysuitedforlaserignition applications.Basedontheconfigurationofthelaser,theoutputofanNd:YAGlasercan 28

havewavelengthsof1064nanometers(nm),532nmor266nm.Thefocalspotdiameterofa collimatedlaserbeamfocusedbyalensisgivenby[15] where, wo=focalspotdiameterforidealGaussianmodelaser(microns), Wo=focalspotdiameterforatypicalmultimodelaser(microns), M=isthemodequality, =laserwavelength(microns), f=lensfocallength(cm),and D=laserbeamdiameter(cm). AsevidentfromEquation4,smallerwavelengthsresultinsmallerfocalspotdiameters.Asa result,theuseofsmallerwavelengthsisdesirabletoachievealaserfluxdensityofabout 1012Wattspersquarecentimeter(W/cm2),whichisrequiredforsparking.Withtheharmonic generationprocessbeingatbest50%efficient,theoreticallyspeaking,afactoroftwo advantageisachievedbygoingtoahigherharmonic.However,acompromiseisnecessary asthesystemcomplexityincreases.Forthepresentpurpose,awavelengthof532nmwas chosen. Fromafunctionalstandpoint,itwasidentifiedthatthelaserneedstohavethefollowing operationalcharacteristics:

wo =

Wo 4 f = M D

(4)

Wavelength=532or1064nm, pulsewidth<7ns, repetitionrate=90Hz(equivalenttothefiringrequirementsofa6cylinder,4stroke engineoperatingat1800rpm), laserenergyperpulse=65mJ/pulse, Basequality,1.0<M2<5.0, Operatingenvironmenttemperature=1040C, Compactlaserheadwithlowpowerrequirement,and Lifetime>109shotsorapproximately3000hoursfora6cylinderengine.

Asurveyofcurrentlasertechnologyshowedfourpossiblecandidates:(i)Passivelyor activelyQswitchedNd:YAGlasers,(ii)Diodepumpedsolidstatelasers,(iii)Disklasers, and(iv)Fiberlasers.Whileallofthesecouldprovidetherequiredpeaklaserpowersto achievesparking,Nd:YAGlaserscannotmeetthemaintenancerequirementsbecausetheir flashlampshavelifetimesintherangeof1030106shots.Alsothermalmanagementof Nd:YAGlasersrequiresbulkyexternalcooling.Thecoolingrequirementsaresomewhat 29

mitigatedinthecaseofdisklasersandfiberslasersduetothelargesurfaceareatovolume ratioofthelasingmedia.Onaccountoftherapidadvancementsinfiberlasertechnology,it isexpectedthatdisklaserswouldbecomeobsoleteinthenearfuture[16].However,asof 2005,bothfiberlasersanddisklaserswerecostprohibitiveforthecurrentapplication.

Figure 20. A Commercially-Available Diode Pumped Solid State Laser (DPSSL) Model: Centurion, Manufacturer: Big Sky Laser, Inc., 100 Hz, 45 mJ/pulse. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

DiodePumpedSolidStateLasers(DPSSL),ontheotherhand,areideallysuitedforthe presentpurpose.Withthecostoflaserdiodescontinuallydecreasingandtheirpower continuallyincreasing,DPSSLareanticipatedtomakemanynewapplicationspossible. Mostattractivetothecurrentapplicationisthefactthattheonlycomponentthatrequires maintenance,thelaserdiode,hasalifetimegreaterthan109shots,whichforatypicalARICE enginecantranslateto2.5years.AnexampleofacommerciallyavailableDPSSLisshownin Figure20.TheperformancedataofDPSSLfromthreedifferentmanufacturersistabulated inTable3below.TheMK88lasersystemfromKigre,hasthesmallestfootprintandhas alreadybeenshowntoachievesparkinginthelabusinga13millimeter(mm)focallength lens.However,therepetitionrateofthislasermakesitsuitableonlyforthelaserper cylinderapplicationshowninFigure18.Ontheotherhand,thesystemsfromBigSkylaser andJMARaresuitableforthepresentapplication. Table3providesasnapshotoftheDPSSLtechnologyavailableasof2005.Thistechnologyis makingrapidprogresswithaveryfavorablecostandperformancetrajectoryamenableto thelaserignitionapplication.Basedontheseconsiderations,itwasdecidedtopostponethe selectionofaspecificlaserforthepresentapplication.Consequently,allofthe demonstrationsinthepresentprojectareperformedusingcompactNd:YAGlasersthatare alreadyavailableatArgonneNationalLaboratory.Exceptforlongevityofthepumpsource, theperformanceoftheselaserswillmimicthatofDPSSLinallotherrespects 30


Table 3. Performance Specifications of Some Commercially-Available Pulsed DPSSL Manufacturer Specification Kigre Model number Wavelength ( m) Energy/pulse (mJ/pulse) Pulse width (ns) Repetition rate (Hz) Beam quality (M2) Diode lifetime (number of pulses) Beam diameter (mm) Laser head size (W x D x L) Laser Power Supply size MK-88 1.54 3-5 7 0 20 1.1 * 0.8 0.85 2 3 10 5 3.5 Big Sky Laser Centurion 1.064 45 7 100 * >109 3 5 3 9 * JMAR Britelight-24 1.064 80 7 300 <1.5 >1010 8 18 30 12 19 rack 38 high

Informationnotavailable

3.3.

Laser Plugs

Laserplugsareelementsthatintroduceanopticalwindowsothatlaserradiationcanbe focusedtocreateasparkinsidethecylinder.Additionalrequirementsfortheirperformance aregivenbelow:Footprintsimilartothatofstandard18mmsparkplug[17],Pressure rating~300bar,Temperaturerating~3,000Konelementsexposedtocombustion,and shouldbeselfcleaningofcarbonandoildeposits. Afteracoupleofiterations,atwolensdesignwasfoundtobeappropriateforALIS.As showninFigure21,theoutputofafiberopticcableiscollimatedusingaplanoconvexlens. Thecollimatedoutputisrefocusedinsidethecylinderusingasapphirelensof13mmback focallength.Suchanarrangementallowedrefocusingtoaspotsizeof240micrometers (m).RaytracingiterationsperformedusingZEMAXsoftwareshowedthattheuseof multielementlensesdoesnotreducethefinalspotsizeanyfurther.

31

Figure 21. Ray Propagation Scheme Inside a Laser Plug.

InthearrangementshowninFigure21,thethicknessoftheplanoconvexsapphirelenswas chosentowithstandpressuresupto300bar.Withsuchathicklens,itisveryimportantthat thecurvedsideofthelensbepointedtowardsthelasersoastoavoidinternalreflections thatwillleadtointernalcrackingofthelens.Suchalenswasalsofoundtowithstand typicalincylindercombustiontemperatures. ThephysicalarrangementoftheaforementionedlensconfigurationisshowninFigure22. Asnoticedinthisarrangement,thelaserplugconsistedofatoppartandabottompart separatedbyanaluminumspacer.Thebottompartcarriedthenecessaryexternalthreadsto fastentheentirelaserplugassemblyintothecylinderhead.Acoppercrushgasketinthe bottompartprovidedthenecessarysealingtopreventleakageofcombustiongasesbeyond thesapphirelens.Thetoppartcarriedalenstube,whichinturn,housedthecollimating planoconvexlens.Afiberopticconnector(SMAtype)separatedfromthecollimatinglens allowedcouplingoftheincominglaserradiation. Throughtestsperformedbyincorporatingthislaserplugina4kilowatts(kW)naturalgas engine,itwasobservedthatthelaserfluxdensityontheexitfaceofthesapphirelenswas critical.Atlowlaserfluxdensitiesdistinctcarbondepositswerevisibleonthelens.Abovea certainthreshold,thelaserradiationablatedsuchdepositsandthelenswasfoundtobeself cleaning.Cautionneedstobeexercisedtokeepthelaserfluxdensitieswellbelowthe materialdamagethresholdof5gigawattspersquarecentimeter(GW/cm2).Similarlaser ignitiontestswereperformedbyGEJenbacherandtheydemonstratedsatisfactory performanceofthelensarrangementforover5000hoursofoperation[9].

32

Figure 22. Schematic of a Two-Lens Laser Plug.

33

3.4.

High-Power Optical Multiplexer

Theopticalmultiplexerperformsafunctionsimilartotheconventionalignitionsystem:It distributestheoutputofapulsedlaseramongvariouslaserplugsinstalledindifferent enginecylinders.Thefunctionalrequirementsofsuchahighpoweropticalmultiplexerare listedbelow:


Ignitiontimingvariationof048crankangle(CA)beforetopdeadcenter(BTDC). Lasertriggerpulsegeneration. Individualcylinderignitiontimingvariationof6CA.

Additionally,thesystemneedstobeoflowcostandmustconformtothedurabilitytargets oftheoverallsystemof80,000hours. Asurveywasperformedtoevaluatepotentialtechnologiesthatconformtothe aforementionedrequirementsandthefollowingthreewereidentified:(i)Electrooptic switches,(ii)Rotatingmirrorsystems,and(iii)Flipflopsystems.Theresultsfromthe performanceevaluationofprototypesofthesesystemsarediscussedbelow.Itoughttobe notedthatthesystemdesignsconsideredbelowconformtoa6cylinder,1800rpm,4stroke engine.Thesecanbeextendedtoengineswithmorenumberofcylinders,ifnecessary.

3.4.1. Electro-Optic Modulator (Pockels Cell)


APockelscellactsasanelectroopticswitchbecauseitrotatesthepolarizationofthelaser lightby90degreeswhenactivated.AsshowninFigure23,apolarizingbeamsplittercan directthebeamonewayortheotherbasedonthepolarizationstateofthelaserbeam incidentonitfromthePockelscell.AlineararrayofsuchPockelscellbeamsplitter combinationscanbeusedforthepresentmultiplexingpurpose.Forevaluation,atwo channelsystemwasfabricatedatANLanditdemonstratedtherequiredperformance(see Figure24).

Figure 23. Schematic of a Pockels Cell-Based Multiplexer [18].

34

Figure 24. Photograph of a Pockels Cell-Based Two-Channel Multiplexer. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

Thisschemefacilitatesmanipulationofthelaserbeamwithouthavinganymechanical movementofthecomponents.However,thenumberofrequiredopticalsurfacesincreases withthenumberofenginecylindersandeventuallybecomestoounwieldy.Additionally voltagesashighas5kVarerequiredforactivatingthePockelscell.Underthepresent marketconditions,itwasestimatedthatthecostassociatedwiththisschemeamountsto about$2,000percylinder,whichisconsideredtobetoohigh.

3.4.2. Rotating Mirror


Thisschemeisbasedonthetraditionalmechanicaldistributorsystemofthe1980s.As showninFigure25,amirror,placedat45degreestotheincominglaserbeam,isrotated synchronouslywiththecamshaft.Asaresult,thebeamisrotatedat90degreesaboutan axiscoincidentwiththeincominglaserbeam.Laserfiringattheappropriatecrankangleis facilitatedbyatimingdiskfittedontheshaft.Adifferentialgearsystemallowsignition timingvariationbyintroducingaphaseshiftbetweenthemirrorandthecamshaft.Allof thecomponentsrequiredforthissystemaresimple,costeffective,andoffertherequired durability.Therefore,aprototypesystemwasdesignedandassembled.Aphotographofthe systemisshowninFigure26.Testsperformedinthelabusingasmallelectricalmotorfor drivingthesystemshowedthatithastherequiredperformance.Throughsuchtrialsitalso becameevidentthatsignificantperformanceadvantagescanbegainedbyusingamirror inclinedatangles<45totheincominglaserbeam,oralternately,byusingasmallangle transmissiveprism. Whendetailsofthisconfigurationwerepresentedtoenginemanufacturers,theystressed therequirementofbeingabletovarytheignitiontimingofindividualcylindersinnatural 35

gasengines.Therotatingmirrorsystemdoesnotallowthisflexibility.Therefore, developmentoftheflipflopmultiplexingschemewaspursued.

Figure 25. Schematic of a Rotating Mirror Multiplexer.

Figure 26. Photograph of Argonnes Rotating Mirror Multiplexer. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

36

3.4.3. Flip-flop
Aflipflopmultiplexerconsistsofalineararrayofmirrors.Anindividualmirror,when activated,movesintothepathofthelaserbeamanddeflectsitintotherespectivefiber injectionport.Thissystem,schematicallyshowninFigure27,facilitatestimingvariationof individualcylinders.Totesttheperformanceoftheflipflopsystem,arotaryactuator (Model6EM)wasobtainedfromtheLedexDivisionofSaiaBurgess,anautomotiveparts supplier.Thisactuator,whenactivated,rotatesitsshaftby22.5andmovesthemirrorinto oroutofthepathofthebeam.Ina4stroke,1800rpm,6cylinderenginethetargetresponse timeforsuchasystemis11ms.Thetimeresponseofaonechannelsystemwasmeasured usingthearrangementshowninFigure28(a).AsnoticedinFigure28(b),thesystemshows verylittlebounceandinaddition,exhibitsatimeresponseoflessthan7ms.Subsequently, effortswereundertakentodevelopasixchannelsystemforusewitha6cylinderengine. Asmentionedpreviously,withadvancesinactuatorsandmicroelectromechanicalsystems (MEMS)technologymanyothermultiplexingschemes,otherthanthosediscussedabove, arepossible.SomeofthesearediscussedinAppendixB.Thefinalchoiceislikelytobe dictatedbydurabilityandthecostofthesesystems.

Fiber coupling assembly Laser beam

Mirror
Figure 27. Schematic of a Flip-Flop Multiplexer.

1.2

Normalized Detector Response

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 0 5 10 15 20

5 mm high Laser Sheet Activated

Lens

Diode Laser

Deactivated

Time (ms)

(a)

(b)

Figure 28. (a): Schematic of Setup to Measure the Time Response of the Flip-Flop (b): A Typical Detector Response Curve.

37

3.5.

Fiber-Optic Delivery

AspartofthecurrentALISscheme,itwasenvisionedthatthepulsedoutputofalaserwill betransmittedviaopticalfiberstolaserplugsinstalledinindividualcylinders.The functionalrequirementsspecifiedbyenginemanufacturersfortheopticalfiberstobeused inamulticylinderenginearegivenbelow:


Length>3m. Atleastone90obendwitharadiusofcurvature<9. Operatingtemperature>130C.

Additionally,toachievesparkingatthedistalendofthefiber,alaserfluxdensityof1012 W/cm2isnecessarywhenrefocused. ForagivenfiberandatwolenssystemshowninFigure29,theLagrangeinvariantyields

a NAe = s NAs
llaser s2

(5) (6)

Asaresult,thelaserfluxdensityatthefocalspot= where, a s NAe NAs Ilaser = corediameterofthefiber(microns) = focalspotsize(microns)

= numericalapertureatthefiberexithalfconeangleatfiberexit = numericalapertureatthefocalspot = intensityoflaser(Watts).

CombiningEquations5and6,thefollowingequationisobtained:

l Laserfluxdensityatthefocalspot laser 2 a

NAs NAe

(7)

InEquation7,thefirsttermisdeterminedbythefibercorematerialdamagethreshold.In thesecondterm,NAsisdeterminedbythespaceavailableforthelaserplug.Forfibersof shortlengths(~3m)thenumericalapertureatinjectionendisapproximatelyequaltothat atthefiberexit,i.e.,NAiNAe;inotherwords,theexitconeangleisdeterminedbythe injectionschemeused.Hencethelaserfluxdensitycanbemaximizedbymakingajudicious choiceofboththeopticalfiberandtheinjectionscheme. However,inderivingEquation7ithasbeenassumedthatthefiberismodepreserving.For thepresentcasewheretransmissionofhighlaserpowerisrequired,theuseofmultimode fibersisrequired.Asisusuallythecase,withtheintroductionofhigherordermodesthe energyisnotequallydistributedandisskewedtowardsthehigherordermodes.These 38

aspectsofactualphysicalbehaviorarenotcapturedbyEquation7.Nevertheless,this equationprovidesanacceptablebasisthatassistsinthechoiceoftheopticalfiberandthe injectionscheme. Withtheinsightprovidedintheaforementionedarguments,differenttypesoffiberswere obtainedandtestedforsparkinginthelaboratory.Theresultsofsucheffortsarediscussed below.

NAe

NAs

Figure 29. Schematic of Laser Refocusing Scheme at the Distal End of the Optical Fiber.

3.5.1. Solid Core Fibers


Largelydrivenbyadvancesinthetelecomindustry,therehavebeenrapiddevelopmentsin solidcorefibertechnologyoverthepasttwodecades.Currently,stepindex(seeFigure 31(a))solidcorefiberswith1mmcorediameterandadamagethresholdof5GW/cm2are readilyavailable.Initialeffortstoinjectsuchfiberslimitedthemaximumlaserenergy transmissionto8mJperpulse.Theprimarymodeoffailureinsuchfiberswasmaterial damageattheentranceendofthefiber.Analysisshowedthatsignificantgainsintermsof transmittedlaserenergycouldbeobtainedbyensuringthatthelaserbeamcrosssection profileisincidentonthefaceofthefiberasuniformlyaspossible.Forinstance,asshownin Figure30(a),thebeamcrosssectionincidentonthefiberfacewiththeuseofasimpleplano convexlenshadaPeaktoAverage(P/A)ratioof15.6.However,aprofilethatdistributed theenergymoreevenlyonthefiberfacewasachievedusinganappropriateaxiconlens combination(seeFigure30(b)).TheP/Aratioinsuchacasewas3.9andtransmittedlaser energywasashighas30mJ/pulse. Nevertheless,suchadvancedinjectionschemesintroducehigherordermodesandthe qualityofthebeamexitingthefiberdegrades.Despitethebesteffortstocounterthese effects,thetradeoffbetweenthemaximumtransmittablelaserenergyandthegenerationof higherordermodesproveddifficulttoovercomeandsparkingcouldnotbeachieved.In thisrespect,thegradientindexfibershowninFigure31(b)appearedpromisingasithad bettercapabilitytopreservebeamquality.Initialtrialsinthelabshowedthatthesefibers sufferfromlowmaterialdamagethreshold.Ultimately,itwasdecidedtodirectthepresent efforttowardstrategieswithhollowcorefibers.

39


Axicon

Simple Plano-convex lens (P/A) = 15.6 Max. Transmitted 8 mJ/p

With Axicon (P/A) = 3.9 Max. Transmitted 27 mJ/p

(a)

(b)

Figure 30. Fiber Face Laser Intensity Distribution Profiles for an Injection Scheme Using (a): Plano-Convex Lens, (b): Combination of Axicon and Plano-Convex Lens.

40

(a)

(b)

Figure 31. The Refractive Index Distribution in Two Solid Core Fibers: (a) Step-Index Fiber, and (b) Gradient-Index Fiber.

3.5.2. Hollow Glass Waveguides (HGWs)


HollowGlassWaveguides(HGW)havethestructureillustratedinFigure32(a).Theyare essentiallyglasscapillarytubescoatedontheinsidewithsilverandareflectivityenhancing dielectric.ThemodeoftransmissionthroughHGWsisfirstsurfacereflectionwhiletotal internalreflectionisthemodeoftransmissioninsolidcorefibers.Asaresultofthe transmissioninairthedamagethresholdofthesefibersis40timeslarger,i.e.,200 GW/cm2.Also,HGWstendtopreservethemodequalityandexitthebeamatalowcone angle,bothcharacteristicsrenderingthemideallysuitedforsparkgeneration.However, thesefiberstendtohavehighertransmissionlossescomparedtosolidcorefibers. Additionally,theyexhibitcertainuniquecharacteristics:

Transmissionlosses(corediameter)3. Bendinglosses(bendradius)1.

Initialevaluationsinthelabshowedthatthe700mcoreHGWswereideallysuitedasthey offeredthebestcompromisebetweenflexibilityandtransmission.Subsequently,700m coreHGWswereobtainedfromthreedifferentsourcesandtestedinthelaboratory.Their characteristicsareasgivenbelowinTable4.


Table 4. Hollow Glass Waveguides Tested for High-Power Laser Transmission Source Polymicro Technologies Rutgers University Tohoku University Coating Proprietary Ag/CdS Ag/ COP Optimized for Wavelength 3.2 m 0.532 m 0.532 m

41

Silver Air core

Dielectric Quartz

(a)

(b)

Figure 32. (a) Schematic of the Cross-Section of a Hollow Glass Waveguide (HGW), and (b) A Photograph Showing Spark Generation Using HGW in the Lab. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

SparkingwasachievedinthelaboratorywithallthreefibersshowninTable4.Inallthree cases,theinjectionwasperformedwithlensesoffocallengthgreaterthan250mminto fiberstypically12meterslong.However,thefibersfromTohokuUniversity[19]offeredthe lowesttransmissionlosses(seeFigure32(b)).Subsequently,afibercoupledlasersystem wasdevelopedusingthesefibersandtheoperationofasinglecylinderenginewas demonstrated[18,20].However,thedownsidewiththesefiberswasthattheywerevery bendsensitive;forbends>45,sparkingwasseverelyaffected[18,21].Consequently advancedfibersthatarerelativelybendinsensitivearedesirable,whileretainingthe favorablecharacteristicsoftheHGWfibersfromTohokuUniversity.

3.5.3. Advanced Air-Core Fibers


Forfutureonenginelaserignitionapplications,twokindsofadvancedfibertechnologies appearpromising:(i)multilayerhollowglasswaveguides,and(ii)hollowcorephotonic bandgapfibers.TheseareschematicallyshowninFigures33(a)and33(b).Bothrelyon multiplereflectionstoconfinelighttothecentralaircore,andmostimportantlybothfibers arebendinsensitive.Manufacturingprocessesofbothkindsoffibersareveryinvolvedand thosethatarecommerciallyavailablewithcorediameters<10marenotsuitableforthe presentpurpose.Itisexpectedthatfiberswithcorediameters~30mwillberequiredto achievesparking[2224].However,fibersofthissizearenotreadilyavailable.

42

Air core

Several layers of Dielectric coatings

(a)

(b)

Figure 33. (a) Schematic of the Cross-Section of a Multi-Layer Hollow Glass Waveguide, and (b) Photograph of an Air-Core Photonic Bandgap Fiber

3.6.

Electronic Interface

Innaturalgasfueledstationaryengines,theElectronicControlUnit(ECU)performstwo primaryfunctions:(i)providingignitionwithfeedbackfromatimingdisk,and(ii)speed controlwithfeedbackfromagovernor.Inmostofthegasfueledengines,thesefunctions areperformedbytwoseparateunits.Earlierinthereport,asshowninFigure19,itwas envisionedthatanelectronicinterfacewouldberequiredfortheALIStocommunicatewith theignitioncontrolpartofECUforignitiontimingcoordination.Inconsultationwith Argonnesindustrialpartner,Altronic,Inc.,anelectronicinterfacewasdevelopedthat utilizescommerciallyavailableconventionalignitionsystems. Onesuchsystemtodriveaflipflopmultiplexerandalaserisschematicallyshownin Figure34.Thepositionofatimingdiskmountedonthecrankshaftissensedbyamagnetic pickup.ThesignalfromthemagneticpickupisprocessedbytheECU/Conventional ignitionsystemtoprovidea165VDCpulsethatisusuallyfedtotheprimarysideofthe ignitioncoil.Inthepresentelectronicinterfacesuchasignalisusedtogeneratea24VDC pulseusingaresistorstepdowncircuit(representedasaboxinFigure34).The24VDC signal,inturn,isusedtodriveacorrespondingrotaryactuator.Theendofstrokeofthe rotaryactuatorissensedbyanopticalsensorandatriggersignalisprovidedtothelaser afterroutingitthroughanORgate.Insuchasystem,theindividualcylinderignitiontiming variationisprovidedbytheECU/conventionalignitionsystem.Onesuchsystemwas successfullysimulatedandtestedatArgonneusingAltronic,Inc.sCD200system. Howeverthebasicdesignofthesystemisnotspecifictoaparticularmodelor manufacturer. 43

Mag. Pickup ECU/ Conv. Ign Sys Timing Disk

165 VDC 7 ns pulse primary

24 VDC 8 s wide pulse

Laser
2 3 4 5 6

Rotary 1 Actuator optical sensor

Mirror OR Gate

5 VDC TTL

Electronic Interface

Figure 34. Schematic Diagram of the Electronic Interface

3.7.

Results and Conclusions for Task 2.3

FromaninitialsurveyofseveralpossibleALISschemes,twopromisingconfigurationswere identified:(i)thelaserpercylinderconcept,and(ii)themultiplexedlaserconcept,wherein theoutputofasinglelaserisdistributedovervariouscylinders.Thelatterconceptwas chosenasitpromisedlowcostandsimplicityofthermalmanagement.However,this conceptrequiredthedevelopmentofthreehighpowercomponents,namely,laserplugs, multiplexersandfiberopticbeamdelivery.Guidancewasderivedinthedevelopmentof suchcomponentsthrough(i)datafromfundamentalstudiesconductedinanearliertask (Task2.2),and(ii)requirementsoftheadvancedignitionsystemasspecifiedbyengine manufacturers.Specificdetailsofthehighpowercomponentsconsideredinthepresenttask aredescribedbelow: LaserPlugs:Atwolensdesignthatsuccessfullymeetsthephysicalandfunctional requirementsofalaserplugwaseasilyachieved.Adaptationofthisdesignforvarious enginegeometriescanbeeasilyachieved. Multiplexers:Threeschemesthatdistributetheoutputofasinglelaseramongvarious cylinderswerepursued:(i)anelectroopticswitch,(ii)arotatingmirrorscheme,and(iii)a flipflopswitch.Thefirsttwoschemesfellshortoftherequirementseitherduetohighcost ortheinabilitytoprovideignitiontimingvariationsinindividualcylinders.Theflipflop scheme,however,provedeffectiveinallrespects. HighPowerFiberOpticBeamDelivery:Throughtestsandanalysesitwasdeterminedthat thefiberopticdeliveryrequirementsare(i)lowdivergenceatdistalend,(ii)highpower lasertransmission,and(iii)preservationofmodequality.Initialtestsperformedusingsolid corefibersshowedthattheyarelimitedbythematerialdamagethreshold.Subsequenttests

44

performedusingHollowGlassWaveguidesshowedthattheyarelimitedbymodeshifts introducedbybendingoftheopticalfibers.Whilephotonicbandgapfibersappear promising,theyarenotreadilyavailablefortestsandtheirdevelopmentisexpectedtobe expensive. ElectronicInterface:AnelectronicinterfaceisrequiredfortheALIStocommunicatewith theECUofanengineforignitiontimingcoordination.InconsultationwithArgonnes industrialpartner,Altronic,Inc.,thetimingmodulesfromexistingignitionsystemswere adaptedforthepresentpurposeeasily.

45

46

4.0 (Task 2.4) Single-Cylinder Laser Ignition Studies


EarliertestsperformedinanRCM,inTask2.2,showedthatlaserignitionextendsthelean ignitionlimitallthewaytotheleanflammabilitylimit(=0.5)fornaturalgasairmixtures. Additionally,itwasfoundthatforleanoperationlaserignitionacceleratestherateof combustion.Theobjectiveofthepresenttask(Task2.4)istodeterminetheimpactofsuch alteredcombustionbehavioronthetradeoffbetweenbrakethermalefficiencyandNOx emissionsinanaturalgasfueledengine.

4.1.

Statement of Work for Task 2.4

Thegoalofthistaskwastoperformlaserignitiontestsonsinglecylindernaturalgas enginesoftwosizeclassessoastoevaluatetheeffectsofignitiontiming,equivalenceratio andintakeairpressureonemissionsandperformance.Thefollowingactionswereplanned tobeperformedinthistask:

Prepareatestplanforoptimizingignitiontiming,efficiencyandNOxemissions whileavoidingknockinordertodeterminetheperformancebenefitsbytheuseof laserignition.Also,advantagesbytheuseofmultipointignitioningasengines needstobedetermined.SuchtestsaretobeperformedbyNETLonaRicardo Proteusengine. PerformthetestsontheRicardoProteusenginepertheapprovedtestplan. Prepareasimilartestplanforimplementationonalargeboreenginetodetermine theperformancebenefitsbytheuseoflaserignition.Suchtestsaretobeperformed bySwRIonaCAT3401engine. PerformthetestsonCAT3401pertheapprovedtestplan.

Inatypicalreciprocatingenginechemicalenergyduringcombustionisconvertedto mechanicalworkonthepiston.Thenetshaftpowerisaresultofsuchworkperformedon thepistonslessthemechanicallosses.Whilethemechanicallossesoriginateatvarious pointsofaworkingengine,themostsignificantofthem(upto50%)isthefrictionloss betweenthepistonandcylinderliner.Theimpactofsuchlossesisdiminishedinalarge boreengineasthespecificsurfaceareaisreduced.Also,thereducedheatlossesleadto additionalefficiencyimprovementsasthecombustioncycleapproachestheidealOttocycle. Onaccountofsuchfactors,theimpactofusinglaserignitionvariesinenginesofdifferent boresizes.Fieldinstallationsofnaturalgasfueledengineshaveboresizesrangingbetween 130and380mm.Forlargeboreengineseitherflamejetignitionordieselpilotignitionare usedtoreducethecombustiontime.Openchambersparkignitionislimitedtoboresizes smallerthan250mm.Todeterminetheeffectivenessoflaserignitioninvarioussizeclasses, itwasproposedtoperformignitionstudiesinenginesoftwosizes. Bythetimeofexecutionofthepresenttask,underguidanceprovidedbyU.S.DOEsARES program,theenginemanufacturerssuchasCaterpillar,CumminsandWaukeshahad 47

demonstratedARESphaseIengines(42%Brakethermalefficiency,1g/bhphrNOx).Almost allofthemhaveboresizesofabout160mmwithsweptvolumesoftheorderof3liters. BothCumminsandWaukeshadidnothavesinglecylinderversionsoftheseengines. Caterpillarhada3501seriessinglecylinderengineinstalledinitsTechnicalCenterin Peoria,butitwasscheduledforinhousetests.Theonlyalternativewastouseresearch enginesof130mmbore,mostlysuppliedbyAVLorRicardo.NationalEnergyTechnology Laboratory(NETL),amemberofthepresentconsortiumtodevelopALIS,performedtests inaRicardoProteusengine,comparinglaserignitionandstandardsparkignition.Detailsof suchtestscanbeobtainedfromreferences[5,6].Thoughahighenergysparkignition systemwasusedforcomparativepurposes,ithadaperformancesimilartoaninductive ignitionsystem,whichissignificantlydifferentfromCapacitanceDischargeIgnition(CDI) systemstypicallyusedwithleanburngasengines.Also,duetothelimitationsimposedby theircontrolsystem,thetestshadtobelimitedtopowerlevelsbelow12barBrakeMean EffectivePressure(BMEP).Withtheindustrytryingtoachieve25barBMEPbytheyear 2010,suchalimitationcouldprovetoorestrictive.Detailsofsuchtestsarereportedin references[25]and[26]andarenotreproducedhere. Ontheotherhand,aBombardiersinglecylinderreciprocatingengine(BSCRE),with9.5 bore,wasreadilyavailableatSouthwestResearchInstitute(SwRI),andwasideallysuitedto determinetheperformancebenefitsinalargeboreengine.Sincetheenginewasequipped withaCDIsystemthatistypicalofmostfieldinstallednaturalgasengines,thisreadily providedabaselineforperformancecomparison.Additionally,thesystemiscontrolledbya fullyflexiblecontrolsystemRapidPrototypingEngineControlSystem(RPECS) developedbySwRI,whichenablesvaryingalloperationalparameterswithinthephysical limits.Thisflexibilityallowedtestingupto18barBMEP.Also,instrumentationtomonitor fuelqualityandperformemissionsmeasurementwasalreadyinplace.Onaccountofsuch benefits,thisenginewaschosentobethetestplatform.Usingthe9.5inchboreenginethree setsofignitiontestswereperformed:baselineteststodeterminetheperformance characteristicsofconventionalsparkignitionusingaCDIsystem,ignitiontestswithan openpathlaserignition,andignitiontestswithafibercoupledlaserignitionsystem. Inthefollowingsections,detailsoftheexperimentalsetuparepresentedfirst.Subsequently, experimentaltestresultsobtainedoverarangeofignitiontimingsandequivalenceratios arediscussedalongwiththenotedbenefitsoflaserignition.

4.2.

Experimental Setup

4.2.1. Single-Cylinder Engine


AlargeboresinglecylinderengineatSouthwestResearchInstitute(SwRI)waschosenas theexperimentalengineforthepresentignitiontests.Thespecificationsofthisengineare providedintheTable5.Theenginewascoupledtoaneddycurrentdynamometerand controlledbySwRIsproprietaryRPECS.Thedynamometerinturnwascoupledtoa

48

synchronousmotorthatassistedenginestartup.Thecontrolschemeandthedata acquisitionschemeareschematicallyshowninFigure35.

Figure 35. Schematic of the Control Scheme of the BSCRE Single-Cylinder Engine Using SwRIs RPECS. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

IncylinderpressuremeasurementwasperformedusingaKistlerpressuretransducerand combustionheatreleaseanalysiswasperformedsubsequently.Emissionsmeasurements wereperformedusingaHoribaemissionsbenchandthedatawasanalyzedfollowingthe standardproceduresuggestedbyHeywood[2].Naturalgaswasinjectedintotheintake manifoldusinganarrayoflowpressureinjectorsandtheair/fuelratiowasmonitoredusing aUniversalExhaustGasOxygen(UEGO)sensorlocatedontheexhaustmanifold.

49

Table 5. Specifications of SwRIs BSCRE Engine Feature Engine Make Engine Type Bore (inches) Stroke (inches) Swept volume (liters) Compression Ratio Rated Speed (RPM) Specification Bombardier BSCRE-04 Single-cylinder, 4-stroke 9 10.5 11.5 9.3:1 900

TheconventionalsparkignitionsystemincludedanAltronicCD200moduleandan18mm sparkplug.Thesparkplughad3groundelectrodesandwaslocatedatthesamepositionas thelaserplugidentifiedinFigure36.Withthisarrangementthefollowingoperating variableswereidentified:


Intakeboostpressure, Air/fuelratio,and Sparktiming.

4.2.2. Open-Path Laser Ignition Setup


Fortheopenpathlaserignitiontests,acompactfrequencydoubledNd:YAGlaserwas directlymountedoverthecylinderhead.Theoutputofthelasertraveledthroughthevalve coverintoalaserplug,fromwhereitwasfocusedintothecombustionchamberbya sapphirelens.Thesapphirelenswasmountedflushwiththefiredeckandwassubjectedto combustionpressureandtemperature.Withthislens,thepointoflaserignitionwas centrallylocatedinthecombustionchamberatabout13mmfromthelensface,andabout 30mmfromthepistonattopdeadcenter.Thepiston,cylinderhead,andlaserplugare identifiedinFigure36. Initialexperimentsshowedthattheenginecylinderheadvibratedsidewaysat15Hzand3 mmamplitude.Tominimizetheundesirableeffectsduetothesevibrations,thelaserwas mountedontheground.TheFigure37showsthemountingschemeandthesparklocation. Forthesetests,BigSkysfrequencydoubledUltraNd:YAGlaserwasused.TheBigSky Ultralaserwascapableofdelivering33.5mJofenergyperpulseat532nmwhenoperating at10Hz.ThepulsedurationfortheUltralaserwas8ns.Forthepresentenginetests,the laseroutputwasadjustedtoanenergysettingofabout29mJperpulse.Itshouldbenoted thatforanequivalenceratio(EQR;previouslyreferredas)of0.6andBMEPof15bar,a laseroutputofabout9mJperpulseissufficienttoensureconsistentignitionofthenatural gasairmixtureatnormalengineoperatingconditions.Thepresentapplicationrequiredan operatingfrequencyof3.75Hzduringenginestartupandtheabilitytotransitiontoa frequencyof7.5Hzatratedspeed(900rpm).TheexternaltriggeroftheUltralaserwas

50

utilizedinconjunctionwiththeRPECScontrolsystemtosynchronizethelaserpulsetothe enginecycleinanappropriatemanner.Synchronizationalsoprovidedtheflexibilityto adjustlaserignitiontimingduringengineoperation.

Fire Deck

Piston Bowl

Installed Laser Plug

Cylinder Liner

Figure 36. Photograph Showing the Installed Laser Plug in the Combustion Chamber. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

Laser Head & Mount

Laser Head
Valve Cover

Cylinder Head

Valve Cover

Cylinder Head

Laser Spark

Figure 37. Setup for the Open-Path Laser Ignition Tests on a Large-Bore, Single-Cylinder Bombardier BSCRE-04 Engine. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

51

4.2.3. Fiber-Coupled Laser Ignition Setup


FollowingtheeffortsundertakeninTask2.3,afibercoupledlaserignitionsystem,shownin Figure38,wasdevelopedforthepresentsubtask.Acompactlaser,ModelTempestfrom NewWaveResearch,thathadhighbeamqualityandmaximumpulseenergyof90mJwas usedforthispurpose.Theoutputofthislaserwasinjectedintoa28inchlong,700mcore silver/polymer(Ag/COP)hollowglasswaveguide(HGW)usinga250mmfocallengthlens. Atthedistalend,thelaseremissionwascollimatedandrefocusedusingacombinationof lenseswithfocallengthsof150mmand13mm.Topreventsparkingatthefiberinputa nitrogenpurgewasused.Achargecoupleddevice(CCD)mountedintheproximity allowedfinemechanicaladjustments.Alloftheseelementsweremountedonasingle 1/2thickplatefortestingontheBombardierBSCRE04engine.Priortotheactualengine tests,enginevibrationwassimulatedinthelabusingashakertableandlaserignitionwas observed.Thefibercoupledlaserignitionsystemexhibitedconsistentsparkingforover24 hours.Subsequently,thesystemwasmountedontheengineat15degreesfromthevertical, asshowninFigure39.Asmallportonthesideofthecylinderheadprovidedopticalaccess forobservingthesparkkernel.

Figure 38. Layout of the Fiber-Coupled Laser Ignition System. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

52

Figure 39. Fiber-Coupled Laser Ignition System as Mounted on the Bombardier BSCRE-04 Engine. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

53

4.3.

Test Matrix

Table6belowshowsthetestmatrixusedtocomparethelaserandconventionalspark ignitionsystemsataBMEPof15bar;thematrixwasduplicatedatthelowerloadof10bar BMEP(~873Newtonmeter[Nm]oftorque).Enginecoolanttemperaturewasmaintainedat 75Candlubeoiltemperaturewasmaintainedat85C.Theintakeairtemperaturewas maintainedat55Cforfullloadoperationandat28Cforpartloadoperationtosimulatea turbochargedandintercooledintakechargeinductionsystem.Thesimulatedturbocharger efficiencywassetat60percentbycontrollingthepressureratioacrosstheintakeand exhaustmanifolds.ThetestmatrixshowninTable6wasexpandedtoincludeacomparison betweenthetwoignitionsystemsataBMEPof10bar. Theenginewasallowed5minutestostabilizeatagiventestconditionbeforedatawas recorded.Ignitiontimingsweepswereperformedtosetabaselinevisvisitseffectson engineemissionsandperformance.Theleanoperatingenvelopewasdeterminedby advancingsparktimingfromtheonsetofmisfire(atveryretardedignitiontimings)toan advancedignitiontiming,whichentailedanexhaustNOxconcentrationgreaterthan2,000 partspermillion(ppm)(atypicalleanburnenginewouldoperatewellbelowthisNOx concentration).Engineknock,ratherthanhighexhaustNOxconcentration,oftenlimits ignitionadvancebuttheBombardierenginedidnotknockduringanyofthesetests.The onsetofthemisfireregimewasdefinedasanoperatingconditionwhereinthecoefficientof variance(COV)oftheindicatedmeaneffectivepressure(IMEP)over100consecutivecycles wasgreaterthan5percent.SinglecylinderengineswilloftenexhibithigherCOVofIMEP thantheirmulticylindercounterpartsbecausethechargeinductionprocessintheformeris notcontinuous.Therefore,aCOVofIMEPof5percentwasusedtoidentifytheonsetof misfireatretardedignitiontimings;however,completeleanmisfirewasdefinedasan operatingconditionwherein1percentofenginecyclesaredevoidofanyheatreleaseat MBTtiming.Indicatedparametersandcombustionmetricswerecalculatedbasedon cylinderpressuredataacquiredwithaKistlerpiezoelectricpressuretransducerthatwas flushmountedonthecombustionchamber. Withthetestmatrixdescribedabove,threesetsoftestswereperformed:
1. 2. 3.

BaselinetestsusingaconventionalCDIsparkignitionsystem, Testsusingopenpathlaserignition,and Testsusingfibercoupledlaserignition.

Resultsfromtestsarepresentedbelow.Itoughttobenotedthatalargepartofthe discussionthatfollowsfocusesonresultsobtainedwiththeopenpathlaserignitionsystem. Fibercoupledlaserignitiontestscouldnotbeperformedforasufficientlylongtimeto recordemissionsdata.However,basedonobservationsduringtheshorttimethatthetests wereactuallyperformed,itisexpectedthattheresultswithfibercoupledlaserignitionare likelytobesimilartothosefromopenpathlaserignition,solongassimilarlaserspark characteristicscanbemaintainedinbothcases.

54

Table 6. Test Matrix for Single-Cylinder Laser Ignition Studies


Note Load N-m EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP EQR Sweep @ 15 bar BMEP Lean Limit* 1,307 900 MBT from 0.6 1,307 900 0.6 +Knock** 1,307 900 0.6 +6 1,307 900 0.6 +3 1,307 900 0.6 PTT Limit*** 1,307 900 0.625 +Knock** 1,307 900 0.625 +6 1,307 900 0.625 +3 1,307 900 0.625 PTT Limit*** 1,307 900 0.65 +Knock** 1,307 900 0.65 +6 1,307 900 0.65 +3 1,307 Speed RPM 900 0.65 Phi Ign.Timing BTDC PTT Limit*** 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. 15 bar, 60% Comp. Eff. CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser CD200/Openpath laser Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal Boost/EBP Ignition System Piston

55

4.4.

Results and Discussion for Task 2.4

Commonmetricsforleanburnengineperformanceincludebrakethermalefficiency()and brakespecificNOXemissions(BSNOx).Macrooperationalsettingsthataffectthesemetrics, ceterisparibus,includefuelairequivalenceratio(EQR)andignitiontiming.TheEQR,also writtenas,wascontrolledgloballythroughafuelmeteringblockandUEGOsensor feedback,buttheEQRvaluesreportedherewerecalculatedwithacarbonbalancemethod basedonexhaustgasanalyses[2].Crankresolvedengineparametersareplottedversusthe crankangle(CA)aftertopdeadcenter(ATDC)atwhich50percentofthetotalincylinder masshadburned(MFB50).Thismannerofrepresentingthecrankresolvedparameters minimizedtheambiguitysurroundingactualignitiontiminginthetwoignitionsystems. Throughcombustionanalysisofaveragecylinderpressure(obtainedbyensemble averagingover100successiveenginecycles),fundamentaldifferencesbetweenthetwo modesofignitionwerealsocompared.Flamedevelopmentandpropagationwere quantifiedthroughaheatrelease(burnrate)analysis.Specificparametersofimportance includethecrankangledurationfor10percent,10to50percent,and50to90percentofthe trappedmasstoburn.TheseparametersareabbreviatedasMFB010,MFB1050,andMFB 5090,respectively.Estimatingtheseparametersrequiredanaccuratedeterminationofthe startofcombustion(SOC).Forthetestresultsdiscussedhere,SOCwasdefinedastheCA wheretheheatreleasebecomesnonzero.ThismethodofdeterminingSOCwasemployed herebecauseinthepresentlaserignitionsystemthedelaybetweentriggerandlaserpulse wasappreciable(225s100s).TheseparametersaredelineatedinFigure40.

56

Heat Release / Cylinder Pressure


Arbitrary Comparison

60

50 Cylinder Pressure [bar]

Cylinder Pressure (Laser) Cylinder Pressure (Spark) Heat Release (Laser) Heat Release Rate (Spark)

1.5 Heat Release Rate (J/deg)

40 1 30 0.5 20 MFB 10-50 MFB 50-90 0

10

MFB 0-10

MFB50 SOC 0 -0.5 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 Crank Angle (degrees)

Figure 40. Arbitrary Cylinder Pressure and Heat Release Comparison to Clarify Nomenclature of Combustion Parameters.

57

4.4.1. Full Load Comparison (15 bar BMEP)


TheenginewasoperatedataBMEPof15bar(or1307Nmoftorque)at900rpm,withboth aconventionalsparkignitionsystemandanopenpathlaserignitionsystemforidentifying thebenefitslaserignitioncouldhaveonleanburnnaturalgasengines.Laserignitionwas foundtoextendtheleanmisfirelimitfromanEQRof0.55withopenchamberspark ignitionto0.50.Laserignitionalsoimprovedcombustionstabilityatretardedignition timings.Thecombinedeffectofthesetwoimprovementswasa50percentdecreaseinNOx emissionswhilemaintainingefficiencyconstant.Figure41depictshowlaserignitionwas capableofextendingtheleanmisfirelimit.ThevariousdatapointsrepresentCOVofIMEP overarangeofEQRforbothlaserandsparkignitionatdifferentignitiontimings.Inthis plot,increasedCOVofIMEPcorrelatestomoreretardedignitiontimingsatagivenEQR.

Figure 41. COV of IMEP Versus Equivalence Ratio (EQR) at a BMEP of 15 bar.

WhentheenginewasoperatedatincreasinglyleanEQRvalueswithopenchamberspark ignition,completemisfireoccurredatanEQRof0.55andwasdetectedbyalargeCOVof IMEP(~15%).Evenwhenignitiontimingwasadvancedto40beforetopdeadcenter (BTDC),asteadytorquecouldnotbemaintained.Bycomparison,completemisfireoccurred atanEQRof0.50withlaserignition.AsignitiontimingwasretardedatagivenEQR,the COVofIMEPincreased(shownbymultiplepointsinadataset).Forbothignitionsystems, Figures42and43showcombustionstabilityasafunctionofMFB50atmultipleignition 58

timings.Evidently,laserignitionimprovedcombustionstabilityatanygivenMFB50for everyEQRtested.

Figure 42. Combustion Stability with Conventional Spark Ignition at a BMEP of 15 bar.

Figure 43. Combustion Stability with Laser Ignition at a BMEP of 15 bar.

59

Otherhigherenergyignitionsystemsfornaturalgasenginesarealsocapableofextending theleanmisfirelimit.Theseincludeprecombustionchambersandhighenergyspark ignitionsystems.However,theydonotnecessarilyimprovetheoverallperformanceofthe engine.Precombustionchamberignitionsystemscanigniteleanermixturesinthemain chamber,butthecombustionintheprecombustionchambermaycontributesignificantlyto theoverallNOxemission.Highenergysparkignitionsystemsoftenacceleratethe deteriorationofthesparkplug,therebyrequiringincreasedmaintenanceand/or replacement.Inaddition,theyalsoconstraintheflamekerneltothechamberwallwhere flamegrowthisoftenstuntedbyheattransfertothemetalsurroundings.Bycomparison, laserignitionextendedtheleanmisfirelimit,thusgainingtheemissionandperformance benefitswithoutanyundesirablesideeffectsorconstraints. LeanburnenginetechnologiesareutilizedtoimproveefficiencyanddecreaseNOx emissions.Figure44comparesthetradeoffbetweenbrakespecificNOx(BSNOx)emissions andbrakethermalefficiencyforthetwoignitionsystems.Thismethodofcomparingthe tradeoffbetweenengineperformanceandBSNOxemissionsisconsistentwithothersuch comparisonsofleanburntechnologies.Astheengineranleaner,thetradeoffleaned towardlowerBSNOxemissions.Laserignitionallowedtheenginetorunleanerand extendedthetrendtowardlowerBSNOx.Withopenchambersparkignition,abrake thermalefficiencyvalueof32percentcouldbeobtainedalongwith17.7g/kWh(13.2g/bhp hr)BSNOxemissionswhentheenginewasoperatedat90percentofthemisfirelimit(typical ofleanburnapplications).Maintainingthesamemisfiremarginandbrakethermal efficiency,theBSNOxemissionscouldbereducedto5.4g/kWh(4g/bhphr)usinglaser ignition;thisamountstoa69percentimprovement.Fromanalternateviewpoint,while maintainingtheNOxemissionslevelconstantat10g/kWh(7.5g/bhphr),efficiency improvementsupto3percentagepointsarelikelywithlaserignition. Combustioncharacteristicsofthetwoignitionsystemswereanalyzedtoexaminethe reasonsbehindthebenefitsobservedwithlaserignition.Figure45showscylinderpressure datafor100consecutivecyclesforbothopenchambersparkignition(showntotheleft)and laserignition(showntotheright).Sparkignitionexhibitedcompleteleanmisfirewhilelaser ignitionprovidedrelativelystablecombustionevenataleanerEQR. Withlaserignition,theCOVofIMEPwas5.2percentatanEQRof0.52comparedtoaCOV ofIMEPof16.5percentatanEQRof0.55forconventionalsparkignition.Figure46shows theensembleaveraged(overthe100consecutivecycles)pressurecurvesforbothignition systemsandtheircorrespondingheatreleaserateprofiles.Theinitialheatreleasewas acceleratedwithlaserignitionandconsequentlythetotalburndurationwasdecreased.Asa resultoftheseeffects,combustionwasmorestableandtheenginecouldoperateatalean EQRwithoutmisfiring.Forthesamereasons,goodbrakethermalefficiencyvalueswere alsosustainableatmoreretardedignitiontimingswithlaserignitioncomparedtospark ignition.ThisabilitytoemploymoreretardedignitiontimingsfurtherreducedNOx emissions.Theconsiderabledifferenceinpeakpressuresbetweenthepressuretracesfor 60

laserandsparkignitionmaybeattributedtothehigherboostpressurerequiredtoachieve thesameBMEPvalue(15bar)ataleanerequivalenceratiowithlaserignition.

Figure 44. BSNOX-Brake Thermal Efficiency Tradeoff at a BMEP of 15 bar.

Figure 45. Cylinder Pressure Comparison.

61

Heat Release / Cylinder Pressure


90 80 70 Cylinder Pressure [bar] 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -0.5 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 Crankangle (degrees) 0 1
Laser Ignition at EQR = 0.52 Spark Ignition at EQR = 0.55 Cylinder Pressure (Laser) Cylinder Pressure (Spark) Heat Release Rate (Laser) Heat Release Rate (Spark)

1.5 Heat Release Rate (J/deg)

0.5

Figure 46. Cylinder Pressure and Heat Release Comparison.

4.4.2. Part Load Comparison (10 bar BMEP)


Theperformanceandemissionsimprovementsshownatfullloadwerealsoobservedat partload.Also,laserignitionwasabletoextendtheleanmisfirelimitandimprove combustionstability;asshowninFigure47.ThesetestresultsataBMEPof10barare comparableandconsistentwithworkpublishedbyNationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory [14],inwhichlaserignitionextendedtheleanlimitanddecreasedignitiondelay.Using conventionalsparkignition,theengineexperiencedcompleteleanmisfire(COVofIMEPof 15percent)atanEQRof0.55.LaserignitionimprovedcombustionstabilityattheEQRof 0.55(COVofIMEPof2.5percent)andallowedtheenginetooperatedowntoanEQRof 0.50,beyondwhichmisfirewasobserved. Figure48showstheBSNOxbrakethermalefficiencytradeoffatpartloadillustrateshow laserignitionenabledtheenginetooperateatlowerBSNOxemissionswithout compromisingefficiency.TheBSNOxemissionswerereducedby65percentwhile maintainingthethermalefficiencyconstantat32percent.

62


Figure 47. COV of IMEP Versus Equivalence Ratio at a BMEP of 10 bar.

Figure 48. BSNOX-Brake Thermal Efficiency Trade-off at a BMEP of 10 bar.

63

4.4.3. Fiber-Coupled Laser Ignition Results


UsingthesetupshowninFigures38and39,100percentignitionprobabilitywasachieved withlaserignitionandwiththeengineoperatingatanEQRof0.6andaBMEPof10bar.A comparisonoftheburndurationsfordifferentmodesofignitionanddifferentpercentage massfractionburnsisshowninFigure49.Thisplotshowsthattheapparentadvantages withtheuseoffibercoupledlaserignitionaresimilartothoseobtainedusingfreespace laserignition,thatis,acceleratedburnratesduringallphasesofcombustion.Thisis consistentwiththeexplanationprovidedbyBradleyetal.[27]inthattheincreasedenergy contentintheplasmakernelgeneratedbylaserignitionresultsinoverlyreactivespecies. Thesespeciesresultinthedevelopmentofaflamefrontinoverdrive,withtheassociated flamevelocitiesmuchhigherthanthosetypicalofconventionalsparkignition.The overdrivenflamespeedsareadvantageoustoleanburnenginesasthereducedcombustion durationscanbeusedtoretardignition,therebyensuringimprovedefficienciesandlower NOxemissions.

Figure 49. A Comparison of Burn Durations for Different Modes of Ignition.

64

4.5.

Conclusions for Task 2.4

Experimentswereperformedonasinglecylinderresearchenginecomparingthreedifferent ignitionsystemsincluding:
i. ii. iii.

conventionalcapacitancedischargesparkignition, freespacelaserignition,and fibercoupledlaserignition.

Severalbenefitswereobservedwithlaserignitionincludingthefollowing:

Extensionoftheleanmisfirelimitbyabout10percentatBMEPSof10and15bar, Increaseoftheoverallburnrate,and Improvedcombustionstabilityatallcomparabletestpoints.

Theimprovedcombustion,combinedwithoptimizationofengineintakeairpressureand ignitiontiming,wasfoundtoresultin

AreductionofBSNOxemissionsbyabout70percentforagivenefficiency,or Anincreaseinbrakethermalefficienciesupto3percentagepoints,while maintainingBSNOxemissionsconstant.

Consideringalloftheperceivedbenefitsoflaserignition,theongoingeffortsaimedto developanALISforusewithamulticylinderengine,whichformtheessenceofTasks2.5 and2.6.

65

66

5.0 (Task 2.5) Integrate ALIS and Refine for Performance on a Multi-Cylinder Engine
ThegoalofthistaskwastointegrateaprototypeALISfromsuccessfulindividual componentsandtestforitsperformanceonamulticylindernaturalgasengine.Through thesetests,itisenvisionedthatthedesignoftheintegratedALISwillberefinedforsuperior performanceanddurability.Thefollowingactivitieswereplannedinthistable:

Installasmall4cylindernaturalgasgenerator(WaukeshaVSGseries)intheengine testcellsofArgonne.Also,naturalgasfuelingsystemwillbeprocuredandinstalled. IntegratethecomponentsdevelopedinTask2.4intoasingleALISandtestitfor repeatabilityandintegrityinalabenvironment. InstalltheintegratedALISontheVSGseriesengineandfurthercheckitfor integrity. FurtherstreamlinetheALISdesignforenhanceddurability,easeofconnectivityand operation.

5.1.

Engine and Natural Gas Fueling System Installation

5.1.1. Multi-Cylinder Engine


Originally,itwasproposedtoinstallaWaukeshaVSG4cylinderengineforthe experimentsassociatedwiththistask.However,thisenginewasfoundtohavea14mm sparkplugportandmuchhigherbaselineNOxemissionsthanthecurrentgoals.Inthe meantime,undertheU.S.DOEsARESprogram,theprimaryUSenginemanufacturers Caterpillar,CumminsandWaukeshadevelopedenginesthatmeetthePhaseIgoals(42% brakethermalefficiency,1g/bhphrNOx).Therefore,oneofthesmallestenginesinthis categorytheCumminsQSK19Gengine(inline6cylinder,4stroke,1,800rpm,leanburn naturalgasoperation)wasprocuredforthepresentpurpose.Thisenginehasaseparate headforeachcylinder,whichisveryconduciveforconductingenginetests.Aphotograph oftheCumminsQSK19GengineinoneofArgonnestestcellsisshowninFigure50.As showninthisfigure,thisengineusesanAltronicsparkignitionsystemwith18mmspark plugs.Furthermore,CumminsEngineCompanypromisedallthenecessarysupportfor installationandcommissioningofthisengine.This467horsepower(hp)enginerequiresa 600hpdynamometerforsuccessfuloperation.Theinstallationofadynamometermatching theenginepowerrequirementscouldnotbecompletedontime.Thisbeingthecase,itwas plannedtousethisenginetocheckthesystemintegrityduringdesigniterationsofALIS.It wasfurtherplannedtorunexperimentsonanoperatingengineinoneoftheenginetest cellsofCumminsTechnicalCenter,Columbus,IN.Cumminspromisedtoprovidesupport fortheaforementionedactivities.

67

Figure 50. A Photograph of the Cummins QSK-19G Engine in one of the Engine Test Cells at Argonne National Laboratory Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

5.1.2. Natural Gas Fueling system


Originally,theCumminsQSK19Genginewasexpectedtobeinstalledinthe362A102test cellatArgonne.Asthisenginerequired3,000standardcubicfeetperhourofnaturalgas fuelingrateatabout15poundspersquareinch(psig)underfullloadconditions, enhancementsweremadetotheexistingnaturalgassupplysystem.Therequiredflow meterandregulatorwereprocuredandinstalledonthenaturalgassupplysystemofthe building.Also,3inchdiametergaslineswereextendedallthewayfromthesupplysystem tothetestcell.Allotherutilitiescoolingwatersupply,exhaustandcompressedairwere alsoinstalled.However,duetolackoffundsandcertainotherunforeseendelays,the installationandcommissioningoftherequireddynamometerwasdelayed.Consequently, theexistingenginewasusedasamuleenginetochecktheintegrityoftheALISdesignand torefineitfurther.Asmentioned,ALISwasdemonstratedonanoperatingengineat CumminsTechnicalCenter.

68

5.2.

ALIS Integration

ThroughtheeffortsofTask2.3,successfuldesignsofthefollowingcomponentswere achieved: Laser:Followingabriefsurveyofavailablelasers,DiodePumpedSolidStateLasers (DPSSL)werefoundtohavetherequiredperformancecharacteristics.Theselasersare commerciallyavailablefrommanylaservendors.However,forthepresentdemonstration,a compactNd:YAGwhichisalreadyavailableinourlaboratorywasusedasasurrogate. ExceptforthefactthatthiscompactlaserdoesnothavethelonglifetimetypicalofDPSSL,it completelymimicstheperformanceofDPSSL. LaserPlug:Thelaserplugwasdesignedtohavethesamefootprintasastandard18mm sparkplug.Theplughasa13mmbackfocallengthsapphirelensthatfocusestheincoming laserradiationtoachieveaspark.Thesealingsystemwasdesignedinsuchawaythatthe laserplugisabletowithstandpressuresupto3,000psigandtemperaturesupto3,000K. Multiplexer:Outofthemanydesignsthatweretested,aflipflopmultiplexerwasfoundto besuitable.Inthissystem,rotaryactuatorswhenactivated,movemirrorsinandoutofthe laserbeampathtodistributethepulsedlaseroutputtoindividualcylinders.Thisdesign provedattractiveasitallowsignitiontimingvariationofindividualcylinders. ElectronicInterface:Asurveyshowedthatcommerciallyavailableelectronicinterface systemscanbeusedwithminormodificationsforthepresentpurpose. Despitetheaforementionedsuccesses,theuseofafiberopticdeliverytotransmitthelaser outputfromthelasertoindividualcylindersprovedtobeachallenge.Furthertechnical developmentsarenecessaryforfiberopticdeliverytobecomeviable.Therefore,inthe integrateddesignofALIS,transmissionoflaseremissioninenclosedtubeswasenvisioned. ThisisschematicallyshowninFigure51.Thisarrangementconsistsofarowofmirrors, whichmoveinandoutofalaserbeampath.Whenactivated,eachmirrordivertsthebeam intoacorrespondinglaserpluginstalledoneachcylinderinthecylinderhead.

69

Protective Enclosure Mirror (Activated)


Cyl. spacing

Mirrors (Deactivated) Laser

Laser Plug

Encoder

Figure 51. A Schematic of the Integrated ALIS

5.2.1. Mechanical Integration


FunctionalrequirementsfortheintegratedALISare:
i. ii. iii. iv.

Vibrationinsensitivity, Electromagneticinsensitivity, Operatingtemperaturesupto100C,and Completelyenclosedlaserbeam,therebyavoidinginadvertentexposureto operators.

Tomeettherequirementsmentionedabove,adesignshowninFigure52wasdeveloped.In thissystem,anarmplacedat22.5fromthehorizontalcarriesahalfinchdiametermirror. Thisarmiscoupledtoarotaryactuatorbyashaft.Whentherotaryactuatorisactivated,it turnstheshaftsothatthearmis45fromthehorizontal,therebymovingthemirrorintothe laserbeampath.Whentheactuatorisdeactivated,itreturnsthearmbacktoitsoriginal position.Forthisdesigntobeeasilyadaptabletotheenginesofdifferentmanufacturers,the overallsystemneedstobemodulartoaccommodatedifferencesincylindertocylinder spacing.Eachofthesemodulesisinterconnectedusingopaquegastighttubes.Besides providingadequatelasersafety,theyalsoprovideeasyinstallation.Thepresentsystemwas designedforinstallationandoperationontheCumminsQSK19Gwithoutmuch refinement.Figure53showsapictureoftheALISassemblymountedonCumminsQSK 19Gengine(topview)atArgonne.Laserheadontherightisoutofrange.

70

Cylinder Head Rotary Actuator

Coupling

Laser Input Tubing

Exit Tubing

Plan View
Arm

Laser

Valve Cover

Laser Plug

Fire-Deck

Elevation
Figure 52. A Schematic of the Integrated ALIS Shown Installed on One Cylinder of a Multi-Cylinder Engine.

71

Figure 53. Picture of the ALIS Assembly Mounted on Argonnes QSK-19G Engine (Top View) (Laser Head on the Right is not Shown). Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

5.2.2. Electronic Integration


Thedesignoftheelectronicinterfacewasidentifiedthroughtheeffortsofaprevioustask (Task2.3).Uponcompletionoftheseefforts,itwasdecidedtomodifyexisting, commerciallyavailableignitionsystemsforthepresentproofofprincipletests.The functionaldiagramoftheelectronicinterfaceisshowninFigure54(a).Inessence,this system(i)activatestherotaryactuators,and(ii)providesafiringsignaltothelaser, coordinatedwiththeactivationoftherotaryactuator.Forthesakeoftestingtheintegrated ALISonabenchscalerig,thetriggeringsignalsweresuppliedbyalaboratorydigitalpulse generator,Model565fromBerkeleyNucleonics.Suchasystemprovidedtheflexibilityto varythetimingaswellasthedurationofactuationofindividualchannels.Thisis schematicallyshowninFigure54(b). ThefunctionalrepresentationoftheelectronicinterfaceisshowninFigure55.Inthissystem thetriggeringpulsesfromadigitalpulsegeneratorareprovidedasinputsthrough16 connectors.Eachoftheseinputsgeneratesa24VDCpulsethatactuatesanindividualrotary actuatorthroughoutputsconnectors1116.Additionally,anotherTransistorTransistor Logic(TTL)pulseisgeneratedafteradelayandroutedthroughanOutputRegulator(OR) gatesoastotriggerthelaser.Thedelayisadjustedsothatthelaseroutputpulseisincident onthemirrorattheendofitstraverse.TwoORgatesareusedasthelaserhastwopower supplieseachprovidingamaximumoutputof45Hz.Figure56showstimingdiagramfor 1800rpmoperationwherecylinders1,3,and5aretriggeredbylaserpowersupply#1and cylinders2,4,and6aretriggeredbythepowersupply#2. 72

Mag. Pickup

Triggering Pulses

ECU/ Conv. Ign Sys

Electronic Interface

Laser

Timing Disk Rotary 1 Actuator


2 3 4 5 6

Mirror

(a)
Triggering Pulses BNC 565 Digital Pulse Generator

Electronic Interface

Laser

Rotary Actuator

Mirror
(b)

Figure 54. (a) Schematic Representation of the use of Electronic Interface in a 6-Cylinder Engine, (b) Schematic Representation of the use of Electronic Interface for LabScale Testing.

73

24 VDC +ve >5 VDC 8ms pulse in BNC 1 BNC 2 BNC 3 BNC 4 BNC 5 BNC 6
DDG DDG DDG DDG DDG DDG SSR SSR SSR SSR SSR SSR

-ve

24 VDC 8 ms wide pulse out BNC 11 BNC 12 BNC 13 BNC 14 BNC 15 BNC 16

+ve

5 VDC -ve

OR Gate1

OR Gate2

Box TTL 0.36 ms pulse out

Laser PS1

Laser PS2

Figure 55. Functional Representation of the Electronic Interface.

Timing diagram (1800 rpm) 4 CYL 1 CYL 5 CYL 3 CYL 6 CYL 2 CYL 4

Volts

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (ms)

Figure 56. Timing Diagram for 1800 rpm Operation - Red Pulses Trigger Laser Power Supply # 1 While Blue Pulses Trigger Laser Power Supply # 2.

74

5.2.3. ALIS Testing


Theobjectivesofthistestingwasto:ensureconsistentsparkingwasachievedonall6 channelsofthesystem,ensurestabilityofelectronicsignals,andchecklongtermdurability ofthesystem;minimum24hours.ContinuousoperationwasrecommendedbyCummins beforeinstallationontheengine. Withsuchobjectives,theintegratedALISdesignwastestedforitsperformanceinthe laboratoryusingatestrigthatsimulatesthephysicaldimensionsoftheCumminsQSK19G gasengine.ApictureofthisrigisshowninFigure57.TTLpulsesignalsgeneratedusingan 8channeldigitalpulsegenerator,BerkeleyNucleonics565,wereusedtosimulatethe signalsfrommagneticpickupontheengine.Thesewereusedtodrivethecontrolbox, whichinturn,providedthepoweranddrivingsignalstotheactuatorsandthelasers.The laserplugsusedweresimilartotheonesdesignedforinstallationontheQSK19Gengine. Tohelpinthedurabilitytestfor24hoursormore,amisfiredetectionsystemwasdeveloped (seeFigure58).Thisessentiallyconsistedofphotodetectors(ThorlabsFDS100)placedatthe endof8inchlongplastictubes.Signalsfromthephotodetectorswerescreenedusing voltagecomparatorsandsubsequentlyroutedtoacounter/timerboard(KeithleyKPCI 3140)placedinacomputer.Avisualbasicprogramhelpedindatalogging.

Figure 57. Picture of the 6-Channel ALIS Assembly on the Test Rig (Top View). Also Shown are the Laser, BNC 565 Pulser and the Electronic Interface. Laser Plugs are not Visible. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

75

Figure 58. Picture of Misfire Detection System. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory

Initialtrialsshowedthatthesignalsfromthecontrolboxdriftedovertime.Thiswas rectifiedbyusingelectroniccomponentswithhigherthermalratingsandtheelectronic drift/jitterwasreducedtobewithin3microseconds.However,consistentsparkingcould notbeachievedonallchannels.Subsequently,followingatroubleshootingsessionand analysis,thefollowingchangesweremade:


A2Xbeamexpanderwasplacedinfrontofthelaser(SpecialtyOpticsCompany model#52252X532), Theturningopticsinthelaserheadwerereplacedandthelaserwastunedforbetter performancebyBigSkyLaser,Inc.,and Provisionsweremadetomovethemechanicalblockagainstwhichthemirrorarm stopstohelpalignmentontheengine.

Subsequenttestsperformedinthelabshowedall6channelstobefiringconsistentlyoveran 8hourwindow.DatafromadurabilitytestisshowninFigure59.Asseen,thesystem operatedconsistentlyfor8hours,whileoperatingatanequivalentof1500rpmona6 cylinderengine.Thecouplingsusedbetweentherotaryactuatorsandmirrorarmsdidnot

76

provetohavetherequireddurability.Effortsarecurrentlybeingpursuedtoimprovethe longtermdurabilityofthesystemsoastomeettheCumminsrequirementof24hoursor moreofcontinuousoperation.

Figure 59. Data From One of the Long-Term Durability Tests.

77

78

6.0 (Task 2.6) Performance Testing of Integrated ALISARICE System


ThegoalofthistaskistoinstallthefinalALISdesignonamulticylinderengineand performteststoquantifythebenefitsintermsofemissionsandperformance.

6.1.

Statement of Work for Task 2.6

ThisTask2.6includedintheinstallationofthemostadvancedoftheconventionalignition systemsfromAltronic,Inc.(CPU95),onamulticylinderengineandconductteststo determinethebaselineperformance ThiswasperformedatCumminsEngineCompanystestfacilities,usingtheirproduction QSK19GenginewhichhasAltronicignitionsystem.SinceCumminsdonatedthetestcell timetotheproject,thespecificenginethatisontheteststandatthetimeofevaluationwas usedasbaseline.Besidesthestandardparameterssuchasenginetorque,speed,fuel consumption,temperaturesandpressures,thefollowingmeasurementsweremade:(i) Combustionpressuretraceandanalysis,and(ii)Emissionsdataofregulatedspecies (primarilyNOx). Atestplaninwhichtheengineparameterswerevaried,totheextentpossible,withinthe rangesmentionedbelow.

Load

(0100%) (1.02.5) (040BTDC) (045psig)

Air/fuelratio(i.e.) Ignitiontiming Intakeairpressure

Testswereconductedtoidentifythebenefitsintermsofperformanceimprovementsand reducedemissions.

6.2.

Multi-Cylinder Engine Tests

SincethecontractwiththeCaliforniaEnergyCommissionwasendingonMarch31,2007 andthefinancialsupportalsoended,thistaskcouldnotbecompletedinthiscontract period.PreliminarytestswerecompletedattheCumminsEngineCompanystechnical center.Inthattest,theALISworkedbriefly,firingontwocylinders,butthelaserbeam couldnotbefocusedinothercylinders,duetotolerancestackupissuesofthecomponents. AtthesuggestionofCumminsdesigners,aredesigneffortwillbecreatedtoproperly assembletheALIScomponentsintheengine.WhenandifthefinancialsupportfromU.S. DOEbecomesavailable.

79

80

7.0

(Task 2.7) Economic Evaluation for Feasibility

ThegoalofthistaskwastoperformaneconomicevaluationofthefeasibilityofALISinface ofitsincreasedinitialcosts,whicharetobeoffsetbytheperformanceandemissions benefitsdeterminedintask2.6.Thefollowingactivitieswereplanned:


EstimatethepriceofacommerciallyproducedALIS. Performthecostestimatesofbenefitsthataccountforincreasedfuelefficiency, higherengineoutput,lowermisfirerate,lowerfuelconsumption,andlower emissionsthatresultfromtheuseofALIS. EvaluatetheviabilityofALISoveranenginelifecycleonthebasisoftheabove estimates.

Thedetailedcostanalysisatthistimeisnotuseful,sinceallthecomponentshavenotbeen finalizedyet.Howeverthefollowingdiscussiongivesabriefideaoftheorderofmagnitude ofthecostsinvolved. Inatypicallaserignitionsystem,laserplugsandlasersystemaretheprimecontributorsto thecostoftheoverallsystem. Spark/laserPlugs:Toprovideenhanceddurabilityinleanburnengines,currentlyiridium tippedsparkplugscostingapproximately$200eacharebeingused.Dependingupon manufacturerandenginedesign,theseplugsneedsparkgapadjustmentevery1,000to 3,000hours.Thisbeingthecase,enginemanufacturershaveexpressedinterestinobtaining laserplugsupto$500providedtheyhavehigherdurability(upto6,000hours).Fromthe designsofthepresenteffort,itcanbesurmisedthatthecosttargetcanbeachieved, whereas,thedurabilityofthelaserplugisyettobetestedover500Hours. Lasersystems:Thedesiredfirstcostofanadvancedignitionsystem,asshowninTable2is $4perkilowattelectric(kWe).However,whenindividuallycontactedeachmanufacturer agreedtouseasystemupto$20/kWefirstcost,providedtheyhavebetterdurabilityand performance.ADPSSlasersystemthatcandrivea6cylinderengineiscurrently commerciallyavailableat~$60,000,whichtranslatesto$230/kWe.Technological developmentsandmassproductiontechniquesareanticipatedtoreducethiscostbyafactor oftentomeet$20/kWetargetwithinthenextfewyears.

81

82

8.0 Summary and Conclusions


Theprojecttitled:AdvancedLaserIgnitionIntegratedARICESystemforDistributed GenerationinCaliforniaproducedimportantresultsofpracticalsignificancetowardthe developmentofadvancedlaserignitionsystemsforreciprocatingengines. FundamentalRCMstudiesclearlyshowedthepotentialbenefitsoflaserignitioncompared toconventionalCDIsparkignition:(i)Laserignitionextendedtheleanoperatinglimitof methaneairmixturestotheleanflammabilitylimit(ll=0.5),i.e.,muchleanerthanthelean ignitionlimitofCDIsystems,(ii)Ignitiondelayswereshortened,(iii)Combustionrates wereacceleratedwithlaserignition. Singlecylinderengineexperimentsperformedwithlaserignitionrealizedthepotential benefitsevidencedintheRCMstudies.ComparedtoconventionalCDIsparkignition,laser ignitionextendedtheleanmisfirelimitbyabout10percentatBMEPsof10and15bar, increasedoverallburnrates,andimprovedcombustionstabilityatalltestpoints.Most importantly,laserignitionshowedareductionofbrakespecificNOx(BSNOx)emissionsbyabout70 percentatconstantengineefficiencyoralternately,anincreaseinbrakethermalefficienciesofupto3 percentagepoints,whilemaintainingBSNOxemissionsconstant. Whilemostoftherequiredcomponentsforasuccessfulfibercoupledlaserignitionsystem weredeveloped,suitableopticalfibersforreliablehighpowerlasertransmissionwerenot found.Asaresult,theALISthatwasfinallyintegratedprimarilyreliedonfreespacelaser transmission.Testsconductedonabenchscalesystemshowedthatthesystemhas sufficientlongtermdurability. Inconclusion,thisprojectwasasuccessattheresearchlevel,whereforthefirsttimea multicylinderenginedesignofanadvancedlaserignitionsystemwasshowntowork effectivelyinthelaboratory.Aseparatematerialsresearchprojectneedstobeundertakento developfiberopticlaserenergydeliverysystemsuitableforengineconditions.Thefinal steptoestablishthetechnicalviabilityoftheALISconceptistheperformanceofan exhaustiveseriesofmulticylinderengineteststodocumenttheefficiencyandemissions benefitsofthelaserignitionsystem.

83

84

9.0 References
1. Gupta,S.B.,Klett,G.M.,Biruduganti,M.S.,Sekar,R.R.,Saretto,S.R.,Pal,S.,and Santoro,R.J.,LaserIgnitionforNaturalgasReciprocatingEngines:Aliterature Review,paperNo.204,CIMACCongress,Kyoto,2004. 2. Heywood,J.B.,InternalCombustionEngineFundamentals,McGrawHill,Inc.,1988,p.149 150 3. USPatents5,587,630and5,568,801 4. Theiss,N.,Ronney,P.,Liu,J.,andGundersen,M.,CoronaDischargeIgnitionfor InternalCombustionEngines,ICEF2004891. 5. Freen,P.D.,Gingrich,J.,andChiu,J.,CombustionCharacteristicsandEngine PerformanceofaNewRadioFrequencyElectrostaticIgnitionSystemIgnitingLeanAir FuelMixturesICEF2004853. 6. Gao,H.,Matthews,R.,Hari,S.,andHall,M.,UseofRailplugstoExtendtheLeanLimit ofNaturalGasEngines,ICEF2004881. 7. DaleJ.D.,SmyP.R.,ClementsR.M.,LaserIgnitedInternalCombustionEngineAn ExperimentalStudy,SAEpaper780329,1978 8. KopecekH,WintnerE.,PischingerR.,HerdinG.R.,KlausnerJ.,BasicsforaFutureLaser IgnitionSystemforGasEngines,2000ICEFallTechnicalConference,ICEVol.352,2000, pp.19. 9. Gupta,S.B.,Sekar,R.,Xu,Z.,Leong,K.,Reed,C.B.,Pal,S.,Cramer,J.,Santoro,R.J., LaserBasedIgnitionofNaturalgasairMixtures,ASMEpaperICES2003656, Salzburg,Austria,May2003. 10. McMilllian,M.H.,Richardson,S.,Woodruff,S.D.,andMcIntyre,D.,LaserSpark IgnitionTestinginaNaturalGasFueledSingleCylinderEngine,SAEPaper200401 0980,March2004. 11. Kopecek,H.,Charareh,S.,Lackner,M.,Forsich,C.,Winter,F.,Klausner,J.,Herdin,G., Winter,E.,LaserIgnitionofMethaneairMixturesatHighPressuresandDiagnostics, ASMESTC20030614. 12. Kitsopanidis,I.,andCheng,W.K.,AutoignitionStudyofFuelRichNButane/Air MixtureUsingaRapidCompressionMachine,WesternStatesSection/Combustion Institute2003FallMeeting,October20&21,2003UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles SessionPaperno.03F31. 13. Biruduganti,M.S.,Gupta,S.B.,Bihari,B.,Klett,G.andSekar,R.R.,Performance AnalysisofaNaturalgasGeneratorUsingLaserIgnition,ICEF2004983,ASMEFall TechnicalConference,2004. 14. McMillian,M.,Richardson,S.,Woodruff,S.,McIntyre,D.,LaserSparkIgnitionfor NaturalGasFueledReciprocatingEngines,2005,GasMachineryConferenceGMC2005, Covington,KY,Oct.35,2005.

85

15. A.E.Siegman,NewDevelopmentsinLaserResonators,InOpticalResonators,SPIE, vol.1224,1990. 16. Galvanauskas,A.,HighPowerFiberLasers,OpticsandPhotonicsNews,pp.4247,July 2004. 17. SAEHandbook,2004. 18. Bihari,B.,Gupta,S.B.,Sekar,R.R.,Gingrich,J.andSmith,J.,Developmentof AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemforStationaryNaturalGasreciprocatingengines, ASMEICEnginesDivisionFallTechnicalConference,PaperICEF20051325,Ottawa, Canada,2005. 19. Matsuura,Y.,Takada,G.,Yamamoto,T.,Shi,Y.W.,Miyagi,M.,HollowFibersfor DeliveryofHarmonicPulsesofQSwitchedNd:YAGLasers,AppliedOptics,pp.442 445,2002. 20. Yalin,A.P.,DeFoort,M.,Sachin,J.,Oleson,D.,Willson,B.,Matsuura,Y.,andMiyagi,M., LaserIgnitionofNaturalGasEnginesUsingFiberDelivery,ASMEICEngines DivisionFallTechnicalConference,PaperICEF20051336,2005. 21. Yalin,A.P.,DeFoort,M.,Willson,B.,Matsuura,Y.,andMiyagi,M.,UseofHollowCore FiberstoDeliverNanosecondNd:YAGLaserPulsesforSparkFormation,OpticsLetters, Vol.30,Issue16,Page2083,August2005. 22. Konorov,S.O.,Fedotov,A.B.,Kolevatova,O.A.,Beloglazov,V.I.,Skibina,N.B., Shcherbakov,A.V.,Wintner,E.,Zheltikov,A.M.,LaserBreakdownofMillijouleTrains ofPicosecondPulsesTransmittedThroughaHollowCorePhotonicCrystalFiber, JournalofPhysicsD:AppliedPhysics,Vo.36,pp.13751381,2003. 23. Stakhiv,A.,Gilber,R.,Kopecek,H.,Zheltikov,A.M.,andWintner,E.,LaserIgnitionof EnginesviaOpticalFibers,LaserPhysics,Vol.14,pp.738747,2004. 24. AlJanabi,A.H.andWintner,E.,HighPowerLaserTransmissionThroughPhotonic BandgapFibers,LaserPhysicsLetters,Vol.2,No.3,pp.137140,2004. 25. Herdin,G.,Klausner,J.,Wintner,E.,Weinrotter.,M.,Graf,J.,LaserIgnitionANew ConcepttoUseandIncreasethePotentialsofGasEngines,ASMEICEnginesDivision FallTechnicalConference,PaperICEF20051352,2005. 26. Richardson,S.,McMillian,M.H.,Woodruff,S.D.,McIntyre,D.L.,Misfire,Knockand NOxMappingofaLaserSparkIgnited,SingleCylinder,LeanBurnNaturalGas Engine,2004011853,SAEFuels&LubricantsMeeting&Exhibition,Toulouse, FRANCE,June2004. 27. Bradley,D.,Sheppard,C.G.W.,Suardjaja,I.M.,andWoolley,R.,Fundamentalsof HighEnergySparkIgnitionwithLasers,CombustionandFlame,Vol.138,pp.5577, 2004. 28. Yalin,A.P.,CSUsMonthlyProgressReporttoALISconsortium,August,2005.

86

10.0 GLOSSARY

Acronym A m ALIS ANL ARB ARES ARICE ATDC BMEP BSNOx BTDC C CA CCD CDI CDI CEA2 CHP COV CR CSA CSU D DG DPSSL ECU EGR EQR f g/bhp-hr g/kWh Core diameter of the fiber Micrometers Advanced Laser Ignition System Argonne National Laboratory California Air Resources board Advanced Reciprocating Engine Systems Advanced Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine After Top Dead Center Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bar) Brake Specific NOx (g/kWh or g/bhp-hr) Before Top Dead Center Celsius Crank Angle Degrees Charge-Coupled Device Capacitance Discharge Ignition Capacitance Discharge Ignition Chemical Equilibrium for Applications (NASA) Combined Heat and Power Coefficient of Variance Compression Ratio Customer Service Agreement Colorado State University Laser beam Diameter as incident on lens Distributed Generation Diode Pumped Solid State Lasers Electronic Control Unit Exhaust Gas Recirculation Equivalence Ratio Focal Length Grams per Brake Horsepower-Hour Grams per Kilowatt Hour Definition

87

Acronym GW/cm HCCI HGW hp Hz Ilaser IMEP


2

Definition Gigawatts per Square Centimeter Brake Thermal Efficiency (Percent) Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition Hollow Glass Waveguide Horsepower Hertz (Frequency) Intensity of Laser (Watts) Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (bar) Equivalence Ratio Equivalence Ratio Corresponding to Lean Ignition Limit Kelvin Kilovolts kilovolts Direct Current Kilowatts Kilowatt-Electric Laser-Based Ignition Laser-Based Ignition System Laser Beam Mode Quality Microelectromechanical Systems Mass Fraction Burn (Percent) Minimum Ignition Energy Millijoules Millimeter Minimum Required Energy Mean Time Between Failures Megawatt Numerical Aperture; subscript: i = incidence, e = exit, and s = at focal spot Neodymium: Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet National Energy Technology Laboratory Nanometer Newton Meter Oxides of Nitrogen Output Regulator Peak-to-Average


K kV kVDC kW kWe LBI LBIS M MEMS MFB(#) MIE mJ mm MRE MTBF MW NAx=i, e, s Nd:YAG NETL nm N-M NOx OR P/A

88

Acronym ppm psig RCM RPECS rpm s SMA SOC SwRI TTL U.S. DOE UEGO UHC V V/s VDC VOC W/cm wo Wo
2

Definition Parts per Million Pounds Per Square Inch Rapid Compression Machine Rapid Prototyping Engine Control System Revolutions Per Minute Focal Spot Diameter Sub-Miniature Version A Start of Combustion Southwest Research Institute Transistor-Transistor Logic United States Department of Energy Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen Unburned Hydrocarbon Emissions Volt Volts per Millisecond Volts Direct Current Volatile Organic Compounds Watts per Square Centimeter Beam Waist Diameter for a Gaussian Beam Beam Waist Diameter for an Actual Beam

89

90

Appendix A Advanced Laser Ignition System (ALIS) Consortium


ArgonneNationalLaboratory(ANL)andNationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory(NETL) alreadyhadactiveprogramsfordevelopinglaserignitionforenginesapplicationspriorto year2002,whereasColoradoStateUniversity(CSU)proposedlaserignitioninresponsein responsetoacallforproposalsfromtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy(USDOE)to Universities.Inordertogetmaximumbenefitoutofallthreeindependentprogramsan IgnitionRoundtablewasheldinOctober2002atArgonneNationalLaboratoryanditwas decidedtopursueALISDevelopmentasaconsortiumasproposedbyprogrammanagers Mr.RonaldFiskumofUSDOEsARESprogram,andDr.AvtarBiningofCaliforniaEnergy CommissionsARICEprogram. Theconsortiumcomprisedoffourresearchinstitutions(ANL,NETL,CSUandSouthwest ResearchInstitute(SwRI)),majorenginemanufacturers(Caterpillar,Cumminsand Waukesha),anignitionsystemmanufacturer(Altronic,Inc.),andfundingagencies (USDOEDistributedEnergyProgramandCaliforniaEnergycommission).

A.1. Summary of Activities


Variousgroupsintheconsortiuminteractedthroughmonthlyconferencecalls,sitevisits, andregularmeetingsuntilJuly2006.Thenumberofsuchinteractionsislistedbelow: Monthlyteleconferencemeetings:19 Facetofacemeetings:5 Sitevisits:2(ArgonneNationalLaboratoryandColoradoStateUniversity)

Duringthesemeetings,researchideas,mutualprogress,andplansforfutureresearch activitieswerediscussedamongtheparticipants.UndertheALISconsortium,asession trackARESARICESymposiumonGasFiredReciprocatingEngineswasestablishedin theTechnicalConferencesoftheInternalCombustionEnginesDivisionoftheAmerican SocietyofMechanicalEngineers(ASME).

APA1

A.2. List of Papers and Presentations by Consortium Members


1. Bihari,B.,Gupta,S.B.,Sekar,R.R.,HighPeakPowerandFiberOpticsasAlternativeto SparkIgnition:IncreasingEfficiencies,ReducingNOx,andImprovingMaintenance schedule,inHighPeakPowerandAveragePowerLasers,SPIEGreatLakesPhotonics Symposium,June1216,2006,DaytonOH. 2. Bihari,B.,Gupta,S.B.,Sekar,R.R.,Gingrich,J.,andSmith,J.,Developmentof AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemforStationaryNaturalGasreciprocatingengines, ProceedingsofASMEICE2005,FallTechnicalConference,September11142005, Ottawa,Canada. 3. Bihari,B.,Gupta,S.B.,Sekar,R.R.,AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemDevelopment Consortium,2ndAnnualAdvancedStationaryReciprocatingEnginesConference, March1516,2005,DiamondBar,CA. 4. Klett,G.M.,Gupta,S.B.,Bihari,B.,andSekar,R.R.,IgnitionCharacteristicsof MethaneairMixturesatElevatedTemperaturesandPressures,ProceedingsofASME ICE2005,SpringTechnicalConference,April572005,ChicagoIL. 5. Gupta,S.B.,Klett,G.M.,Leong,K.,Bihari,B.,andSekar,R.R.,IgnitionCharacteristics ofMethaneairMixturesatElevatedTemperaturesandPressures,Aposterpresentation atNaturalGasTechnologiesconference,Jan30Feb2,2005,Orlando,Florida 6. Biruduganti,M.S.,Gupta,S.B.,Bihari,B.,Klett,G.M.,andSekar,R.R.,Performance AnalysisofaNaturalGasGeneratorusingLaserIgnition,ProceedingsofASMEICE 2004:FallTechnicalConference,Oct24272004,LongBeachCA 7. Gupta,S.B.,Klett,G.M.,Biruduganti,M.S.,Sekar,R.R.,Saretto,S.R.,Pal,S.,and Santoro,R.J.,LaserIgnitionforNaturalgasReciprocatingEngines:Aliterature Review,paperNo.204,CIMACCongress,Kyoto,2004. 8. Gupta,S.B.,Sekar,R.,Xu,Z.,Leong,K.,Reed,C.B.,Pal,S.,Cramer,J.,Santoro,R.J., LaserBasedIgnitionofNaturalgasairMixtures,ASMEpaperICES2003656, Salzburg,Austria,May2003. 9. Yalin,A.P.,Defoort,M.W.,Joshi,S.,Olsen,D.,Willson,B.,Matsuura,Y.,andMiyagi,M., Laserignitionofnaturalgasusingfiberdelivery,inProceedingsofICEF2005,ASME InternalCombustionEngineDivision2005FallTechnicalConference,PaperNo.ICEF 20051336. 10. Yalin,A.P.,Reynolds,A.R.,Joshi,S.,Defoort,M.W.,Willson,B.,Matsuura,Y.,and Miyagi,M.,Developmentofafiberdeliveredlaserignitionsystemfornaturalgas engines,inProceedingsofICEF2006,ASMEInternalCombustionEngineDivision2006 SpringTechnicalConference,PaperNo.ICEF20061370. 11. Yalin,A.P.,et.al.,FiberDeliveredSystemsforLaserIgnitionofNaturalGasEngines, ASME2006FallTechnicalConference,ICEF20061574.

APA2

12. Yalin,A.P.,Defoort,M.W.,Willson,B.,Matsuura,Y.,andMiyagi,M.,Useofhollow corefiberstodelivernanosecondNd:YAGlaserpulsesforsparkformation,Optics Letter,30,20832085(2005). 13. McMillian,M.,Richardson,S.,Woodruff,S.,McIntyre,D.,LaserSparkIgnitionfor NaturalGasFueledReciprocatingEngines,2005,GasMachineryConferenceGMC2005, Covington,KY,Oct.35,2005. 14. Richardson,S.,McMillian,M.,Woodruff,S.,McIntyre,D.,Misfire,knockandNO[x] mappingofalasersparkignitedsinglecylinderleanburnnaturalgasengine,SAE transactions113:44,858865,SocietyofAutomotiveEngineers,2004 15. McMillian,M.,Woodruff,S.,Richardson,S.,McIntyre,D.,LaserSparkIgnition:Laser Development,ProceedingsofASMEICE2004:FallTechnicalConference,Oct2427 2004,LongBeachCA 16. McMilllian,M.H.,Richardson,S.,Woodruff,S.D.,andMcIntyre,D.,Laserspark ignitiontestinginanaturalgasfueledsinglecylinderengine,SocietyofAutomotive EngineersPaper2004010980,2004

APA3

APA4

APPENDIX B Future High-Power Optical Multiplexing Technologies


Someadditionalcandidatetechnologiesforhighpoweropticalmultiplexingaregiven below.Theperformanceofthesesystemsisgovernedbythemethodofactuation,andhence theyareclassifiedaccordingly.

B.1. Galvanometer-Based Systems


AphotographofagalvanometerbasedsystemisshowninFigureB1.Thesesystemsare primarilyusedformachining,scanning,andinlasershowapplications.Inthesesystems, themovementofamagnetisdeterminedbyasuppliedvoltagesignal,usually05VDC.A closedloopcontrolaccuratelypositionsthemirror.Theopticaltraverseofsuchsystemsis typically40withamillisecondtimeresponse;however,theirlifetimeisunknown.

(a)

(b)

Figure B1. (a) Photograph of a Galvanometer-Based System. Courtesy: Cambridge Technology, Inc. (b) Use of Galvanometer for Laser Scanning [28].

B.2. Piezo-Based Systems


Thesesystems(seeFigureB2)operateaccordingtoaprinciplethatissomewhatsimilarto theoneshowninFigureB1(b),exceptthattheactuatorisdrivenbyapiezostack.Though thesesystemshavetherequiredtimeresponse,themaximumopticaltravelislessthan6. However,theyofferrelativelyhigherdurability.

APB1

Figure B2. Photograph of a Piezo-Based Laser Scanner. Courtesy: Physique Instrumente.

B.3. MEMS Technology-Based Systems


Thesesystemsexhibitseveralimprovementsoverthetwosystemsdiscussedabove.Using MEMStechnology,anarrayofsmallmirrorsasshowninFigureB3(a)ismanufactured directlyontoasmallelectronicchip.Eachofthesemirrorsrepositionsitselfwhenactivated. Theperformancecharacteristicsofareadilyavailablechip(seeFigureB3(b))fromTexas Instrumentsare:(i)arrayof2048x1152mirrors,(ii)responsetime=10s,(iii)positions= 12opticaltraverse.Theinabilityofthesesystemstooffermorethantwopositionsrestricts theiruseinthecaseofmulticylinderengineapplications.

(a)

(b)

Figure B3. (a) Photograph of a MEMS-Based Mirror Array, and (b) Texas Instruments Digital Mirror Device.

APB2

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen