Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Prepared by: Primary Author(s): Sreenath Gupta Raj Sekar Argonne National Laboratory Argonne, IL, 60439 Contract Number: 500-02-022
Mike Gravely
Office Manager Energy Systems Research Office
DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared as the result of work sponsored by the California Energy Commission. It does not necessarily represent the views of the Energy Commission, its employees or the State of California. The Energy Commission, the State of California, its employees, contractors and subcontractors make no warrant, express or implied, and assume no legal liability for the information in this report; nor does any party represent that the uses of this information will not infringe upon privately owned rights. This report has not been approved or disapproved by the California Energy Commission nor has the California Energy Commission passed upon the accuracy or adequacy of the information in this report.
Acknowledgments
TheauthorsthanktheCaliforniaEnergyCommissionforthefunding,supportandguidance forthisproject.TheauthorswouldalsoliketothankMr.RonFiskum,TechnologyManager oftheAdvancedReciprocatingEngineSystemsProgramattheUnitedStatesDepartmentof Energyforcofundingthisproject.Wealsorecordourappreciationfortheinteractionwith AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemConsortiumpartners. Pleasecitethisreportasfollows: Gupta,Sreenath,andRajSekar(ArgonneNationalLaboratory).2008.AdvancedLaserIgnition SystemIntegratedARICESystemforDistributedGenerationinCalifornia.CaliforniaEnergy Commission,PIEREnvironmentallyPreferredAdvancedGenerationProgram.CEC500 2012043.
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Preface
TheCaliforniaEnergyCommissionsPublicInterestEnergyResearch(PIER)Program supportspublicinterestenergyresearchanddevelopmentthatwillhelpimprovethe qualityoflifeinCaliforniabybringingenvironmentallysafe,affordable,andreliableenergy servicesandproductstothemarketplace. ThePIERProgramconductspublicinterestresearch,development,anddemonstration (RD&D)projectstobenefitCalifornia. ThePIERProgramstrivestoconductthemostpromisingpublicinterestenergyresearchby partneringwithRD&Dentities,includingindividuals,businesses,utilities,andpublicor privateresearchinstitutions. PIERfundingeffortsarefocusedonthefollowingRD&Dprogramareas:
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Table of Contents
Preface:................................................................................................................................................iii Abstract.............................................................................................................................................xiii ExecutiveSummary............................................................................................................................1 1.0 1.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................5 . Introduction............................................................................................................................5 . 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 2.0 Background................................................................................................................5 FundamentalsofIgnition.........................................................................................8 WhyLaserIgnition?..................................................................................................9 ALISConsortium ....................................................................................................10 . GoalsandObjectives...............................................................................................11
2.2.1. Rapidcompressionmachine..................................................................................14 2.2.2. Laserignitionsystem..............................................................................................17 2.2.3. Conventionalignitionsystem................................................................................17 . 2.2.4. Operationalprocedure...........................................................................................18 2.3. ResultsandDiscussion...........................................................................................19
2.3.1. TestMatrix...............................................................................................................19 . . 2.3.2. IgnitionLimits.........................................................................................................20 2.3.5. ConclusionsforTask2.2.........................................................................................24 3.0 (Task2.3)DesignofALISComponents............................................................................25 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. GoalsandObjectivesofTask2.3...........................................................................25 LaserSystem............................................................................................................28 LaserPlugs...............................................................................................................31 HighPowerOpticalMultiplexer..........................................................................34 v
3.5.1. Solidcorefibers........................................................................................................39 3.5.2. HollowGlassWaveguides(HGWs).....................................................................41 3.5.3. Advancedaircorefibers........................................................................................42 3.6. 3.7. 4.0 ElectronicInterface..................................................................................................43 ResultsandConclusionsforTask2.3...................................................................44
4.2.1. SingleCylinderEngine ..........................................................................................48 . 4.2.2. OpenPathLaserIgnitionSetup............................................................................50 4.2.3. Fibercoupledlaserignitionsetup........................................................................52 4.3. 4.4. TestMatrix...............................................................................................................54 . ResultsandDiscussionforTask2.4......................................................................56
5.2.3. ALIStesting..............................................................................................................75 6.0 (Task2.6)PerformanceTestingofIntegratedALISARICESystem.............................79 6.1. 6.2. 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 StatementofWorkforTask2.6.............................................................................79 MultiCylinderEngineTests..................................................................................79
APPENDIXA:AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystem(ALIS)Consortium APPENDIXB:FutureHighPowerOpticalMultiplexingTechnologies
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List of Figures
Page Figure1.ComparisonofMaintenanceCostsforRichBurnandLeanBurnEngines...............6 Figure2.OperationalRegionofaTypicalLeanBurnEngine.(Courtesy:SwRI)......................7 Figure3.IgnitionLimitsofaTypicalFuelairSystem...................................................................8 Figure4.SchematicofaCapacitanceDischargeIgnition(CDI)System.....................................9 Figure5.ALISDevelopmentConsortium.....................................................................................11 Figure6.IgnitionLimitsofMethaneairMixturesEstablishedinaStaticChamber.Initial MixtureTemperature~22C..............................................................................................14 Figure7.SchematicoftheRapidCompressionMachine............................................................16 Figure8.APictureofArgonnesRapidCompressionMachine................................................16 . Figure9.SchematicoftheOpticalArrangementintheLaserIgnitionSystem. ......................17 . Figure10.ConventionalIgnitionSystemCart..............................................................................18 Figure11.TypicalPressureTracesfromRCMOperation;P1=1bar,=0.7...........................20 Figure12.MeasuredversusCalculatedPeakCombustionPressuresforVariousMethaneair . Mixtures,1.0<P1<3barand0.5<<1.0.........................................................................20 Figure13.IgnitionBoundariesDeterminedbyUsinganRCM..................................................21 Figure14.MinimumRequiredLaserEnergies(MRE)foraLensFocalLengthf=13mmand . LaserBeamQualityofM25.............................................................................................22 Figure15.MinimumRequiredLaserEnergiesforP237.7bar................................................22 Figure16.IgnitionDelaysforCDIandLaserIgnition.................................................................23 Figure17.RatesofPressureRiseforCDIandLaserIgnition.....................................................23 Figure18.SchematicoftheLaserPerCylinderConcept............................................................26 Figure19.SchematicoftheMultiplexedLaserConcept. ............................................................26 . Figure20.ACommerciallyAvailableDiodePumpedSolidStateLaser(DPSSL)Model: Centurion,Manufacturer:BigSkyLaser,Inc.,100Hz,45mJ/pulse.............................30 Figure21.RayPropagationSchemeinsideaLaserPlug.............................................................32 Figure22.SchematicofaTwoLensLaserPlug............................................................................33 Figure23.SchematicofaPockelsCellBasedMultiplexer[18]..................................................34 . viii
Figure24.PhotographofaPockelsCellBasedTwoChannelMultiplexer..............................35 Figure25.SchematicofaRotatingMirrorMultiplexer...............................................................36 Figure26.PhotographofArgonnesRotatingMirrorMultiplexer............................................36 Figure27.SchematicofaFlipFlopMultiplexer...........................................................................37 Figure28.(a)SchematicofSetuptoMeasuretheTimeResponseoftheFlipFlop(b)A TypicalDetectorResponseCurve......................................................................................37 Figure29.SchematicofLaserRefocusingSchemeattheDistalEndoftheOpticalFiber......39 Figure30.FiberFaceLaserIntensityDistributionProfilesforanInjectionSchemeUsing(a) PlanoConvexLens,(b)CombinationofAxiconandPlanoConvexLens...................40 Figure31.TheRefractiveIndexDistributioninTwoSolidCoreFibers:(a)StepIndexFiber, and(b)GradientIndexFiber..............................................................................................41 Figure32.(a)SchematicoftheCrossSectionofaHollowGlassWaveguide(HGW),and(b) APhotographShowingSparkGenerationUsingHGWintheLab..............................42 Figure33.(a)SchematicoftheCrossSectionofaMultiLayerHollowGlassWaveguide,and (b)PhotographofanAirCorePhotonicBandgapFiber................................................43 Figure34.SchematicDiagramoftheElectronicInterface...........................................................44 Figure35.SchematicoftheControlSchemeoftheBSCRESingleCylinderEngineUsing SwRIsRPECS......................................................................................................................49 Figure36.PhotographShowingtheInstalledLaserPlugintheCombustionChamber........51 Figure37.SetupfortheOpenPathLaserIgnitionTestsonaLargeBore,SingleCylinder BombardierBSCRE04Engine............................................................................................51 Figure38.LayoutoftheFiberCoupledLaserIgnitionSystem..................................................52 Figure39.FiberCoupledLaserIgnitionSystemasMountedontheBombardierBSCRE04 Engine.....................................................................................................................................53 Figure40.ArbitraryCylinderPressureandHeatReleaseComparisontoClarify NomenclatureofCombustionParameters.......................................................................57 Figure41.COVofIMEPversusEquivalenceRatio(EQR)ataBMEPof15bar......................58 Figure42.CombustionStabilitywithConventionalSparkIgnitionataBMEPof15bar......59 Figure43.CombustionStabilitywithLaserIgnitionataBMEPof15bar................................59 Figure44.BSNOXBrakeThermalEfficiencyTradeoffataBMEPof15bar.............................61 Figure45.CylinderPressureComparison.....................................................................................61 ix
Figure46.CylinderPressureandHeatReleaseComparison.....................................................62 Figure47.COVofIMEPversusEquivalenceRatioataBMEPof10bar..................................63 Figure48.BSNOXBrakeThermalEfficiencyTradeoffataBMEPof10bar............................63 Figure49.AComparisonofBurnDurationsforDifferentModesofIgnition.........................64 Figure50.APhotographoftheCumminsQSK19GEngineinoneoftheEngineTestCellsat ArgonneNationalLaboratory............................................................................................68 Figure51.ASchematicoftheIntegratedALIS.............................................................................70 Figure52.AschematicoftheIntegratedALISShownInstalledonOneCylinderofaMulti CylinderEngine....................................................................................................................71 Figure53.PictureoftheALISAssemblyMountedonArgonnesQSK19GEngine(Top View).LaserHeadontheRightisnotShown.................................................................72 Figure54.(a)SchematicRepresentationoftheuseofElectronicInterfaceina6cylinder Engine,(b)SchematicRepresentationoftheuseofElectronicInterfaceforLabScale Testing....................................................................................................................................73 Figure55.FunctionalRepresentationoftheElectronicInterface...............................................74 Figure56.TimingDiagramfor1800rpmOperation,redPulsesTriggerLaserPowerSupply #1WhileBluePulsesTriggerLaserPowerSupply#2. .................................................74 . Figure57.Pictureofthe6ChannelALISAssemblyontheTestrig(TopView).AlsoShown aretheLaser,BNC565PulserandtheElectronicInterface.LaserPlugsarenot Visible. ...................................................................................................................................75 . Figure58.PictureofMisfireDetectionSystem.............................................................................76 Figure59.DataFromoneoftheLongTermDurabilityTests....................................................77 FigureB1.(a)PhotographofaGalvanometerBasedSystem.Courtesy:Cambridge Technology,Inc.(b)UseofGalvanometerforLaserScanning[28]................................1 FigureB2.PhotographofaPiezoBasedLaserScanner.Courtesy:PhysiqueInstrumente. ....2 . FigureB3.(a)PhotographofaMEMSBasedMirrorArray,and(b)TexasInstruments DigitalMirrorDevice.............................................................................................................2
List of Tables
Page Table1.Performancetargetsforadvancedreciprocatinginternalcombustionengines..........5 Table2.PerformanceRequirementsofanAdvancedIgnitionSystem(Courtesy:Caterpillar, CumminsandWaukesha)..................................................................................................28 Table3.PerformanceSpecificationsofSomeCommerciallyAvailablePulsedDPSSL..........31 Table4.HollowGlassWaveguidesTestedforHighPowerLaserTransmission...................41 . Table5.SpecificationsofSwRIsBSCREEngine..........................................................................50 Table6.TestMatrixforSingleCylinderLaserIgnitionStudies................................................55 .
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Abstract
TheprimarygoalofthisprojectwastodevelopandtestanAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystem (ALIS)forimprovingefficiencyandreducingengineoutemissionsofoxidesofnitrogen (NOx)fromnaturalgasfueledreciprocatingenginescommonlyusedfordistributed generationinCalifornia.Thespecificobjectiveoftheprojectwastodesign,developand demonstrateanintegratedALISonamulticylindernaturalgasfueledreciprocatingengine meetingorexceedingCaliforniasDistributedGenerationEmissionsStandards. Leanoperationhasbeenthepreferredmodeofoperationfornaturalgasfueled reciprocatingenginesasitallowslowNOxemissionsandhighoverallefficiency.Laser ignitionappearspromisingasitachievesignitionathighpressuresandunderlean conditionsrelativelyeasily.Lasersarebecominglessexpensiveandmorecompactthan beforeandareattractivemeansofignitionforengines. Initially,thebasicdesignrequirementsforlaserignitionundertypicalincylinderconditions (temperaturenear500degreesCelsius,pressureunder77bar)wereestablished.Through fundamentalignitionstudiesperformedinarapidcompressionmachine,thecharacteristics oflaserignitionandconventionalsparkignitiononmethaneairmixtureswerecompared. Therapidcompressionmachinestudiesdemonstratedsignificantdifferencesbetweenthe combustionprocessesassociatedwithlaserignitionandconventionalsparkignition. Subsequenttestsonalargeboresinglecylinderengineshowedthatlaserignitioncould potentiallyreduceNOxemissionsupto70percent.Alternately,foragivenNOxemissions level,laserignitioncanenhanceenginefuelconversionefficiencyby3percentagepoints. VariouscomponentsrequiredforALISweredeveloped.Afreespacelasertransmission designapproachwasusedduetononavailabilityofsuitablefiberoptics.Thesuccessfully developedcomponentswereintegratedandoptimizedforusewithamulticylinderengine. TheintegratedALISwastestedforanextendedperiodoftimeinthelaboratorytoprove systemreliability.AbriefenginetestwithALISwasattemptedinatestcellatCummins EngineCompanyandthesystemintegrationissueswereidentified.Futureworkisexpected tosuccessfullydemonstratetheperformanceandemissionsbenefitsofAdvancedLaser IgnitionSystemoperationinamulticylindernaturalgasfueledreciprocatingengine suitablefordistributedgenerationapplicationsinCalifornia. Keywords:Emissions,Engine,Ignition,Laser,Spark
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Rationale
Leanoperationhasbeenthepreferredmodeofoperationfornaturalgasfueled reciprocatingenginesasitallowslowemissionsofNOxandsimultaneoushighoverall efficiencies.Intheseengines,theoperatingconditionisoftenclosetothepointwherethe ignitionboundaryandtheknocklimitingboundarycrossover.Whileknockingistoalarge extentdeterminedbyenginedesign,ignitionofleanmixturesislimitedbythemodeof ignition.Inlightofsuchconcerns,laserignitionappearspromisingasitachievesignitionat highpressuresandunderleanconditionsrelativelyeasily.Withlasersbecomingless expensiveandmorecompactoverthelastdecade,thismodeofignitionisparticularly attractive.
Approach
Theprojectcommencedwithanexhaustivesurveyoftheignitionliterature.Followingthis literaturereview,fundamentalignitiontestswereperformedonaRapidCompression Machinetocompareconventionalsparkignitionandlaserignition. AninitialsurveyofpossibleAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemschemeswasperformedand twopromisingconfigurationswereidentified:(i)thelaserpercylinderconcept,and(ii)the multiplexedlaserconcept,whereintheoutputofasinglelaserisdistributedovervarious cylinders.Thelatterconceptwaschosenasitpromisedlowcostandsimplicityofthermal management.However,thisconceptrequiredthedevelopmentofthreemaincomponents, namely,laserplugs,multiplexersandfiberopticbeamdelivery.Forbreakdowntooccurin gases,therequiredlaserfluencyatthefocalpointisoftheorderof1012WattsperSquare Centimeter(W/cm2).Toachievesuchpeakfluencies,highpowerlaserpulseswithpeak powerofseveralmegawatts(MW)arerequired.Therefore,themaincomponentsofthe AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemmustbedesignedtowithstandsuchhighpowerlevels. Guidancewasderivedinthedevelopmentofthesecomponentsthrough(i)datafrom fundamentalignitionstudiesconductedontheRapidCompressionMachine,and(ii) requirementsoftheadvancedignitionsystemasspecifiedbyenginemanufacturers.Specific detailsofthehighpowercomponentsconsideredinthepresentprojectaredescribedbelow: LaserPlugs:Atwolensdesignthatsuccessfullymeetsthephysicalandfunctional requirementsofalaserplugwasdeveloped.Adaptationofthisdesignforvariousengine geometriesispossible. Multiplexers:Threeschemesthatdistributetheoutputofasinglelaseramongvarious cylinderswerepursued:(i)anelectroopticswitch,(ii)arotatingmirrorscheme,and(iii)a flipflopswitch.Thefirsttwoschemesfellshortoftherequirementseitherduetohighcost ortheinabilitytoprovideignitiontimingvariationsinindividualcylinders.Theflipflop scheme,however,provedeffectiveinallrespects. FiberOpticBeamDelivery:Throughtestsandanalysesitwasdeterminedthatthefiber opticdeliveryrequirementsare(i)lowdivergenceatdistalend,(ii)highpowerlaser transmission,and(iii)preservationofmodequality.Initialtestsperformedusingsolidcore fibersshowedthattheyarelimitedbythematerialdamagethreshold.Subsequenttests performedusingHollowGlassWaveguidesshowedthattheyarelimitedbymodeshifts introducedbybendingoftheopticalfibers.Whilephotonicbandgapfibersappear promising,theyarenotreadilyavailablefortestsandtheirdevelopmentisexpectedtobe expensive. ElectronicInterface:AnelectronicinterfaceisrequiredfortheAdvancedLaserIgnition SystemtocommunicatewiththeElectronicControlUnitofanengineforignitiontiming coordination.InconsultationwithArgonnesindustrialpartner,Altronic,Inc.,thetiming modulesfromexistingignitionsystemsweremodifiedforthepresentpurpose.
Results
Reviewofpreviouslypublishedignitionliteratureshowedsignificantspreadindata concerningthecombustionbehaviorofnaturalgasairmixtureswithlaserignition. Subsequently,intheRapidCompressionMachinestudies,methaneairmixturesunder typicalincylinderconditions(temperature~500degreesCelsius,pressure<77bar)were establishedandthecharacteristicsoflaserignitionandconventionalsparkignitionwere compared.Itwasobservedthatlaserignitionextendstheleanoperatinglimitofmethane airmixturesallthewaytotheleanflammabilitylimit(ll=0.5),whereasconventional capacitancedischargeignitionislimited(onanaverage)tomixturesricherthan=0.6. Also,withlaserignitiontheflamespreadwasobservedtobeacceleratedwhichisavery desirabletrendwhenusingleanmixturesasitenhancescombustionefficiency.The observedtrendsofMinimumRequiredEnergy(MRE)forsuccessfullaserignitionshowed thatalaserignitionsystemdevelopedfor=0.65willsuccessfullyoperateunderallother possibleleanoperatingconditions.Additionally,designparametersrequiredforsomeof thecomponentsrequiredfortheAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemwerealsoobtained. Thefollowingbenefitswereobservedfromthesinglecylinderengineexperiments performedwithlaserignition:
Thecombustionbehaviordescribedabove,combinedwithoptimizationofengine parameters,wasfoundtoresultin
Conclusions
Inconclusion,theprojecttitledAdvancedLaserIgnitionIntegratedARICESystemfor DistributedGenerationinCaliforniaproducedimportantresultsofpracticalsignificance towardthedevelopmentofanadvancedlaserignitionsystemforreciprocatingengines. FundamentalRapidCompressionMachinestudiesclearlyshowedthepotentialbenefitsof laserignitioncomparedtoconventionalsparkignition:(i)Laserignitionextendedthelean operatinglimitofmethaneairmixturestotheleanflammabilitylimit(ll=0.5),and(ii) Combustionrateswereacceleratedwithlaserignition. Singlecylinderengineexperimentsperformedwithlaserignitionrealizedthepotential benefitsevidencedintheRapidCompressionMachinestudies.Comparedtoconventional sparkignition,laserignitionextendedtheleanmisfirelimitbyabout10percentatBMEPsof 10and15bar,increasedoverallburnrates,andimprovedcombustionstabilityatalltest points.Mostimportantly,laserignitionshowedareductionofbrakespecificNOx(BSNOx) emissionsby~70percentatconstantengineefficiencyoralternately,anincreaseinbrake thermalefficienciesofupto3percentagepoints,whilemaintainingBSNOxemissions constant. Thisprojectwasasuccessattheresearchlevel,whereforthefirsttimeamulticylinder enginedesignoflaserignitionsystemwasshowntoworkeffectivelyinthelaboratory.Itis recommendedthataseparatematerialsresearchprojectbeundertakentodevelopfiber opticlaserenergydeliverysystemsuitableforengineconditions.Thefinalstep,toestablish thetechnicalviabilityoftheAdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemconcept,isperformingaseries ofmulticylinderengineteststodocumenttheefficiencyandemissionsbenefitsofthelaser ignitionsystem.
1.0 Introduction
1.1. Background
ReciprocatingInternalCombustionEnginearecommonlyusedforDistributedGeneration (DG)andCombinedHeatandPower(CHP)applications.AsshowninTable1,accordingto theCaliforniaEnergyCommissionsAdvancedReciprocatingInternalCombustionEngine (ARICE)program,theperformanceandemissiontargetssetforstationaryreciprocating enginesbyyear2010arebrakethermalefficiencygreaterthan44%andbrakespecific nitrogenoxideemissionslessthan0.01gramsperbrakehorsepowerhour(g/bhphr).
Table 1. Performance Targets for Advanced Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines Parameter 2007 2008 Efficiency Brake Thermal Efficiency 35% 38% Fuel-to-Electric Efficiency*** 32% 34% Overall Efficiency (CHP) 85% 85% Emissions shaft power (g/bhp-hr) Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) <0.015 <0.015 Carbon Monoxide (CO) <0.02 <0.02 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) <0.006 <0.006 Particulate Matter (PM10) <0.01 <0.01 Emissions power generation (lb/MWehr) * Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) <0.07 <0.07 Carbon Monoxide (CO) <0.08 <0.08 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) <0.02 <0.02 Particulate Matter (PM10) <0.03 <0.03 Cost** FOB Cost ($/kWe)*** 700 700 CO&M Cost ($/kWeh) 0.06 0.05 Reliability Availability Maintainability and Durability (RAMD) Availability 88% 90% B10 Durability (hours) 8,000 9,000 Mean Time Between Major Overhauls 35,000 40,000 (hours) 2009 40% 38% 85% 0.015 0.02 0.006 0.01 <0.07 <0.08 <0.02 <0.03 700 0.05 92% 10,000 45,000 2010 44% 42% 85% 0.01 0.02 0.006 0.01 <0.07 <0.08 <0.02 <0.03 700 0.04 95% 12,000 50,000
Primarily,therearethreetechnicalapproachestomeetCaliforniasDGemissionsand performancetargetsspecifiedinTable1:Richburn(equivalenceration[]greaterthan1.0) operationwithexhaustgasrecirculation(EGR)anduseofthreewaycatalyst,Low temperaturecombustionstrategiessuchasHomogenousChargeCompressionIgnition (HCCI),andLeanburnoperation(~0.60.7). Richburnengineoperation(~1.0),usuallyentailstheuseofanexhaustgasoxygensensor alongwithanadvancedenginecontroller.Thecontrolleroscillatesthecombustion equivalenceratiobetween0.95and1.05therebyenablingtheoxidationandreduction processesinthethreewaycatalyst.EGRhelpskeepthecombustiontemperatureslowand theoverallefficiencyhigh.However,suchastrategyintroducescorrosivecombustion byproductsandothercontaminantsbackintotheenginewhichcompromiseshardwarelife andlubricantquality.Suchastrategycouldprovetobeverycompetitivewithefficienciesas highas38%andverylowemissions.However,asshowninFigure1,effortsbyGeneral ElectricJenbacherspreadover1.3millionrunninghourson17differentengineshave shownthatenginemaintenancecostsincreaseby42%.
timingcontroland(iii)startabilityarereportedtobeaproblem.Inlightofsuchissues,the leanburntechnologyappearsverypromising. Leanburnoperation(~0.60.7),hasremainedtheprimarychoiceofthegasengine industry.Inthisstrategy,air,farinexcessofthatrequiredforcompletecombustionofthe fuel,isinductedintothecylinderduringeachcombustioncycle.Tooffsettheenergy density,intakeairboostisemployedwiththeuseofaturbocharger.Theresultinglow combustiontemperaturesandhighincylinderpressuresensureverylowNOxemissions (~0.5gramsperkilowatthour[g/kWh]or0.37g/bhphr)whilesimultaneouslyachieving highfuelconversionefficiencies(~38%).Usuallyanaftertreatmentsystemisnotusedwith leanburnengines. Figure2showsthetypicaloperationofaleanburnengine.Theseenginesareoperatedat theintersectionofknock(autoignition)limitandmisfire(leanignition)limit,soastoattain maximumefficiencyandsimultaneouslylowNOxemissions.Boostlimitandpreturbine limitareimposedbytheturbochargerconstruction.Also,asthesparktimingisadvanced, combustionstartsearlyinthecompressionstrokeandtheknocklimitisencountered.On theotherhand,assparktimingisretarded,thegasdensityatthetimeofignitiontendstobe higherresultinginmisfire.Byextendingthemisfirelimitthroughjudiciouschoiceofan ignitionsystem,substantialbenefitsinefficiencyandemissionscanbeachieved.
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The shape of this window is combustion chamber & ignition system dependent
L im K n oc k it
Bo st o st
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Lm Lim i tt
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i b r a tio n re d C a l D esi M i s f ir e L i mi t
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Max BTE
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Pre-Turbine Limit
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Pressure (au.)
2 Ignitable Mixture 1
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Equivalence Ratio,
Figure 3. Ignition Limits of a Typical Fuel-Air System.
Vb = f ( p, d )
(1)
where,pisthepressureofthegasanddisthesparkgap.Thebreakdownvoltage,Vb, exhibitsalineardependenceontheproductpd.Theelectrodeshapeandmaterialarealso foundtohavesignificantinfluenceonthesparkignitionprocess[1].Oncegasbreakdown occursandaplasmakernelisestablished,energytransferoccursmainlythroughdiffusion onthesurfacetothesurroundinggas.Whethersuchadiffusionprocessresultsina successfulcombustionflamefrontdependsuponthekernelenergyexceedingMinimum IgnitionEnergy(MIE),thekernelsizeexceedingacertainsize,turbulenceandgasspeed[2]. Inpractice,factorsinfluencingsuccessfulsparkcreationfaroutweighthoseinfluencingits transformationintoaflamefront,anditisnormallyassumedthatonceasparkiscreatedthe mixtureissuccessfullyburned.
Capacitor Circuit
DC Source
Withapushtowardsleanengineoperation,withaconcomitantrequirementtomaintain enginespecificpower,theintakeairpressureisincreased.Leanoperationalongwithhigh intakeairpressureresultsinveryhighchargedensitiesatthetimeofignition.Suchhighgas densitiesnecessitatesparkgapvoltagesinexcessof40kilovolts(kV)thatcannotbe achievedusingcurrentCDIsystems.Thisoftenleadstoincreasedmisfiringwithsubsequent lossoffuelefficiencyandincreasedunburnedhydrocarbon(UHC)emissions.HigherUHC emissionsareessentiallyvolatileorganiccompounds(VOC),whicharecurrentlyregulated inCalifornia.Toaddresstheseproblems,variousresearchorganizationshavebeen exploringalternatewaystoachieveignition[36].Amongthesealternatemethods,laser ignitionprovesattractiveasitoffersthefollowingperformancebenefits:
Withsuchpotentialbenefits,anattempttouselaserignitionforreciprocatingengineswas madebyDaleandSmyasearlyas1974[7].However,thesizeandcostoflasersystemsat thattimeweretoolargetoreducelaserignitiontopractice.Overthelasttwodecades,on accountofthedevelopmentsinelectroopticsystems,thereisarenewedinterestinlaser ignitionforreciprocatingengines.Thepresenteffortaimedto(i)determinethebenefitsthat accruewiththeuseoflaserignition,and(ii)developandintegratesystemstoreducelaser ignitiontopracticeoncommercialmulticylinderengines.Thiswascarriedoutintechnical tasks,Tasks2.12.6,asdescribedbelow. AspartofTask2.2,fundamentalignitionstudieswereperformedinaRapidCompression Machine(RCM)tocomparethecharacteristicsoflaserignitionandconventionalspark ignitiononmethaneairmixtures.TheRCMstudiesdemonstratedsignificantdifferences betweenthecombustionprocessesassociatedwithlaserignitionandconventionalspark ignition.InTask2.4,thepracticalimplicationsofthealteredcombustionbehaviorwithlaser ignitionweredeterminedthroughexperimentsonasinglecylinderresearchengine.Ina paralleltask(Task2.3),variouscomponentsrequiredforanAdvancedLaserIgnition System(ALIS)weredeveloped.InTask2.5,thesuccessfulcomponentsdevelopedinTask 2.3wereintegratedintoasinglesystemandoptimizedforusewithamulticylinderengine. Task2.6,fieldtestingforperformance,isstillanongoingeffort.AbrieftestingonaQSK 19G6cylinderengineatCumminsTechnicalCenterwascarriedout.Theprogressmadein individualtasksisgivenhenceforth.Thisisconcludedwithasummaryoftheoverall project.
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Ingeneral,theproposedALISsystemisexpectedtoleadtotheadoptionanduseof improvedARICEtechnologieswithinCalifornia. Technical and economic/cost performance objectives TheoveralltechnicalgoalofthisprojectwastodevelopaCommercial/ProductionReady ALISintegratedARICEfordistributedgeneration(DG)inCaliforniabymeetingor exceedingYear2007PerformanceTargetsofARICE(cf.Table1.). Thespecifictechnicalobjectivesoftheprojectwere:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
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Figure 6. Ignition Limits of Methane-Air Mixtures Established in a Static Chamber (Initial Mixture Temperature ~ 22 C).
2.2.
Experimental Setup
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ThedesignconceptthatwasusedbyArgonneisanimprovementovertheonedeveloped byMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT)[12].AschematicoftheRCMisshownin Figure7.ApictureofthesystemisshowninFigure8.ThisRCMconsistsoftwopistons which,whenreleased,traveltowardseachotherwithextremelysmallresultantvibration. EachsideoftheRCMconsistsofthreeseparatechamberseachcarryingapiston.Allthe threepistonsaremountedontothesamecentralTitaniumshaftthatforcestheirmovement inunison.Theoutermostchamberisapneumaticchambercarryinga6inchdiameter aluminumpiston.Theinnermostisacompressionchamberwhereina2.5inchdiameter aluminumpistoncompressestheexperimentalgasesintothecentralignitionchamber.In themiddleisahydraulicchamberthatcontainshydraulicoilpressurizedto165bar.Special designfeatureswithinthehydraulicchamberallowedholdingthepistonintheretracted positioneventhoughpressurizedairat20.7barwaspresentinthepneumaticchamber.The samedesignfeaturesallowedreleaseofthepistonsynchronizedwithanexternalsparking event.Similaradditionalfeaturesinthehydraulicchamberallowedholdingthepistonin thecompressedpositiontherebyavoidingthepistonbounceatthecommencementof combustion.VariousportsonthecompressionchambersallowedfillingtheRCMwithdry compressedairand99.99%puremethane.Fineorificesinthegaslinesalongwithahigh resolutionpressuretransducerallowedestablishingmixturesoftherequiredpressuresand equivalenceratiosaccurately.Aportonthecombustionchamberallowedignitionwitha conventionalsparkplug(18mmthread,Jstyle)poweredbytheAltronicPM1(CDI) ignitionsystem.Asecondportalloweddirectingandfocusingalaser(focallength13mm) toachieveignition.AthirdportcarryingaKistler4073A500pressuretransducerallowed recordingthepressuretraces.Afourthportcarriedanexhaustvalve.Atotalof22 pneumaticallydrivensolenoidvalvesinterfacedtoacomputerallowedremoteoperationof theRCM.AcomputerprogramwritteninNationalInstruments(NI)LabviewdrivingNI FieldPointsystemallowedautomationoftheprocesses.
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Figure 8. A Picture of Argonnes Rapid Compression Machine. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
16
1/2 wavplate
Iris
To RCM
Fast Shutter Beam Dump Laser power Head & Meter Protective Enclosure 2
Protective Enclosure 1
17
Oscilloscope
Sparkplugs
24VDCpower
Figure 10. Conventional Ignition System Cart. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
2.3.
P2 = P1 (CR )
(2)
T2 = T1 (CR )
( 1)
(3)
where,CRisthecompressionratioandistheratioofspecificheatatconstantpressure(Cp) tospecificheatatconstantvolume(Cv),whichequals1.4forair. AregressionanalysisperformedonthemeasuredvaluesofP2assumingas1.4showed thatthecompressionratioforthepresentRCMis10.0asopposedto12.0thatitwas originallydesignedfor.Withthisadjustedcompressionratio,calculationswereperformed assumingadiabaticcombustionbyusingNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration (NASA)ChemicalEquilibriumforApplications(CEA2)program.Fromsuchcalculations,as showninFigure12,itwasobservedthatthemeasuredP3valueswereonanaverage83%of thecalculatedP3values,withleanermixturesexhibitinglowervalues.Also,itoughttobe notedthatinthepresenttests,forallmixtureconditions,thetemperatureatthetimeof ignition,T2wasabout765K(perEquation3).
19
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -50 0
Pr. rise due to combustion
P3
Pr. drop due to water condensation and heat transfer
Pressure (Bar)
P2 P2'
Ignition
Isentropic Compression
P1
50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (ms)
Figure 11. Typical Pressure Traces from RCM Operation; P1 = 1 bar, = 0.7
300 250
P3 Measured (Bar)
P3 Calculated (Bar)
Figure 12. Measured Versus Calculated Peak Combustion Pressures for Various Methane-Air Mixtures, 1.0 < P1 <3 bar and 0.5 < < 1.0
betweenthemaximumpulseenergyofabout75mJandminimumpulseenergyof5mJ. Witheachtestthewindowwithinwhichthethresholdenergywaspresentwashalveduntil thefinalthresholdvaluewasdeterminedwithinanaccuracyof2.25mJ/pulse. Theignitionboundariesdeterminedthroughsuchtestsexpressedasafunctionofpressure atthetimeofignition,P2,areshowninFigure13.Itisprominentlynoticedthatselfignition dominatesformixtureswithP2greaterthan63bar.Also,itisnoticedthattheleanignition limitwhileusingtheCDIsystemisat0.6.Ontheotherhand,byusinglaserignitionthis couldbeextendedallthewaytotheflammabilitylimitofofabout0.5.Suchextensionsare ofsignificanceasthecurrentleanburnenginesareoperatedattheintersectionofself ignitionlimitsandleanignitionlimits. Followingsuchobservations,wearenotsureoftheclaimsmadebyresearchersatGE Jenbacherwhoreportextensionofleanignitiontoof0.417byusingalaser.
100
= 1.0 = 0.7 = 0.65 = 0.6 = 0.55 = 0.5
80 MRE (mJ/pulse)
60
40
20
0 20 30 40 50 60 70 P2 (Bar abs.)
Figure 14. Minimum Required Laser Energies (MRE) for a Lens Focal Length f = 13 mm and Laser Beam Quality of M2 5.
70
60
MRE (mJ/pulse)
50
40
30
22
20
Ignition Delay, ms
15
10
Equivalence Ratio,
8000
4000
Equivalence Ratio,
Figure 17. Rates of Pressure Rise for CDI and Laser Ignition.
23
24
3.1.
25
Laser plugs
Electronic Interface
26
Thespecificobjectivesofthistaskaredescribedbelow:
1.
Designanddeveloplaserplugswiththefollowingspecifications. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Havethesamethreadsizeasaconventionalsparkplug,i.e.,M18x1.5, Providepressuresealingto3,000poundspersquareinch(psi). Withstandtemperaturesashighas2,400C. Minimizefirstandsecondsurfacereflections. Minimizeoveralllaserenergyrequirements. Providesufficientreliabilitywhiletransmittinglaserenergiesofabout60mJ perpulse. Beselfcleaningofanydeposits. Facilitatecouplingtofiberoptictransmission.
2.
3.
Developanopticalmultiplexercapableofdistributingthelaseroutputamong variouscylindersofanaturalgasengine,whileminimizingtransmissionlossesand facilitatingtherequiredignitiontimingadvanceorretard.Thiscanbeperformedby evaluatingthefollowingcandidatetechnologiesamongothers. i. ii. Fiberoptictelecommunicationmultiplexer. Rotatinggratingtypeindexingsystem. Providetherequiredlaserenergies. Operatewithminimalmaintenance. Haveasmallfootprint. Providetheaforementionedfeaturesatalowcost.
4.
5.
Table 2. Performance Requirements of an Advanced Ignition System (Courtesy: Caterpillar, Cummins and Waukesha ) 1 Cost (current dollars) Value Units - First Cost (add $1/kWe for CSA requirement) - Life Cycle Cost (including system replacement at major) 2 Performance -Maximum ignition pressure (peak cylinder pressure) -Minimum air/fuel ratio -Maximum air/fuel ratio (with swirl) -Minimum methane number (hydrogen capable) - Maximum methane number (landfill capable) - Ignition timing repeatability (non-mechanical) - Ignition timing accuracy (non-mechanical) - COV (ARES steady state, 0.5 g/bhp-hr NOx, 25 bar BMEP) - COV (ARICE steady state, 0.015 g/bhp-hr NOx, 25 bar BMEP) - RPM maximum (overspeed) - RPM minimum (cranking) - Full Load range (minimum maximum) 3 4 Ignition System Durability - Life to replacement for ignition module and harness Reliability (MTBF*) - Ignition System (continuous duty) 6000 h 80,000 h 220 0.9 2.5 0 140 0.08 0.08 <1.0 <1.0 125 50 10 25 bar CA CA % % % of rated Rpm bar 4.00 0.25 $ / kWe $ / MWe-h
*MTBFMinimumTimeBetweenFailure
3.2.
Laser System
Fromfundamentalphysics,itiswellknownthatwhenahighpowercoherentlaserbeamis focused,multiplephotonsareabsorbedresultinginthegenerationoffreeelectrons.These electronsarefurtheracceleratedbythefieldgradientsandgeneratemoreelectronsandions throughaninverseBremsstrahlungprocess.Theplasmasogeneratedservesastheignition kernelforthecombustiblemixturesurroundingit.Theenergytransfertothesurrounding gasmixtureisprimarilythroughdiffusion,anddependingonitsmagnitudemayormay notresultinsuccessfulcombustion.Overalltheprocessisnotwavelengthspecificandis termednonresonantmultiphotonionization. AninitialliteraturesurveyshowedthatNd:YAGlasersareideallysuitedforlaserignition applications.Basedontheconfigurationofthelaser,theoutputofanNd:YAGlasercan 28
havewavelengthsof1064nanometers(nm),532nmor266nm.Thefocalspotdiameterofa collimatedlaserbeamfocusedbyalensisgivenby[15] where, wo=focalspotdiameterforidealGaussianmodelaser(microns), Wo=focalspotdiameterforatypicalmultimodelaser(microns), M=isthemodequality, =laserwavelength(microns), f=lensfocallength(cm),and D=laserbeamdiameter(cm). AsevidentfromEquation4,smallerwavelengthsresultinsmallerfocalspotdiameters.Asa result,theuseofsmallerwavelengthsisdesirabletoachievealaserfluxdensityofabout 1012Wattspersquarecentimeter(W/cm2),whichisrequiredforsparking.Withtheharmonic generationprocessbeingatbest50%efficient,theoreticallyspeaking,afactoroftwo advantageisachievedbygoingtoahigherharmonic.However,acompromiseisnecessary asthesystemcomplexityincreases.Forthepresentpurpose,awavelengthof532nmwas chosen. Fromafunctionalstandpoint,itwasidentifiedthatthelaserneedstohavethefollowing operationalcharacteristics:
wo =
Wo 4 f = M D
(4)
Figure 20. A Commercially-Available Diode Pumped Solid State Laser (DPSSL) Model: Centurion, Manufacturer: Big Sky Laser, Inc., 100 Hz, 45 mJ/pulse. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
DiodePumpedSolidStateLasers(DPSSL),ontheotherhand,areideallysuitedforthe presentpurpose.Withthecostoflaserdiodescontinuallydecreasingandtheirpower continuallyincreasing,DPSSLareanticipatedtomakemanynewapplicationspossible. Mostattractivetothecurrentapplicationisthefactthattheonlycomponentthatrequires maintenance,thelaserdiode,hasalifetimegreaterthan109shots,whichforatypicalARICE enginecantranslateto2.5years.AnexampleofacommerciallyavailableDPSSLisshownin Figure20.TheperformancedataofDPSSLfromthreedifferentmanufacturersistabulated inTable3below.TheMK88lasersystemfromKigre,hasthesmallestfootprintandhas alreadybeenshowntoachievesparkinginthelabusinga13millimeter(mm)focallength lens.However,therepetitionrateofthislasermakesitsuitableonlyforthelaserper cylinderapplicationshowninFigure18.Ontheotherhand,thesystemsfromBigSkylaser andJMARaresuitableforthepresentapplication. Table3providesasnapshotoftheDPSSLtechnologyavailableasof2005.Thistechnologyis makingrapidprogresswithaveryfavorablecostandperformancetrajectoryamenableto thelaserignitionapplication.Basedontheseconsiderations,itwasdecidedtopostponethe selectionofaspecificlaserforthepresentapplication.Consequently,allofthe demonstrationsinthepresentprojectareperformedusingcompactNd:YAGlasersthatare alreadyavailableatArgonneNationalLaboratory.Exceptforlongevityofthepumpsource, theperformanceoftheselaserswillmimicthatofDPSSLinallotherrespects 30
Table 3. Performance Specifications of Some Commercially-Available Pulsed DPSSL Manufacturer Specification Kigre Model number Wavelength ( m) Energy/pulse (mJ/pulse) Pulse width (ns) Repetition rate (Hz) Beam quality (M2) Diode lifetime (number of pulses) Beam diameter (mm) Laser head size (W x D x L) Laser Power Supply size MK-88 1.54 3-5 7 0 20 1.1 * 0.8 0.85 2 3 10 5 3.5 Big Sky Laser Centurion 1.064 45 7 100 * >109 3 5 3 9 * JMAR Britelight-24 1.064 80 7 300 <1.5 >1010 8 18 30 12 19 rack 38 high
Informationnotavailable
3.3.
Laser Plugs
Laserplugsareelementsthatintroduceanopticalwindowsothatlaserradiationcanbe focusedtocreateasparkinsidethecylinder.Additionalrequirementsfortheirperformance aregivenbelow:Footprintsimilartothatofstandard18mmsparkplug[17],Pressure rating~300bar,Temperaturerating~3,000Konelementsexposedtocombustion,and shouldbeselfcleaningofcarbonandoildeposits. Afteracoupleofiterations,atwolensdesignwasfoundtobeappropriateforALIS.As showninFigure21,theoutputofafiberopticcableiscollimatedusingaplanoconvexlens. Thecollimatedoutputisrefocusedinsidethecylinderusingasapphirelensof13mmback focallength.Suchanarrangementallowedrefocusingtoaspotsizeof240micrometers (m).RaytracingiterationsperformedusingZEMAXsoftwareshowedthattheuseof multielementlensesdoesnotreducethefinalspotsizeanyfurther.
31
InthearrangementshowninFigure21,thethicknessoftheplanoconvexsapphirelenswas chosentowithstandpressuresupto300bar.Withsuchathicklens,itisveryimportantthat thecurvedsideofthelensbepointedtowardsthelasersoastoavoidinternalreflections thatwillleadtointernalcrackingofthelens.Suchalenswasalsofoundtowithstand typicalincylindercombustiontemperatures. ThephysicalarrangementoftheaforementionedlensconfigurationisshowninFigure22. Asnoticedinthisarrangement,thelaserplugconsistedofatoppartandabottompart separatedbyanaluminumspacer.Thebottompartcarriedthenecessaryexternalthreadsto fastentheentirelaserplugassemblyintothecylinderhead.Acoppercrushgasketinthe bottompartprovidedthenecessarysealingtopreventleakageofcombustiongasesbeyond thesapphirelens.Thetoppartcarriedalenstube,whichinturn,housedthecollimating planoconvexlens.Afiberopticconnector(SMAtype)separatedfromthecollimatinglens allowedcouplingoftheincominglaserradiation. Throughtestsperformedbyincorporatingthislaserplugina4kilowatts(kW)naturalgas engine,itwasobservedthatthelaserfluxdensityontheexitfaceofthesapphirelenswas critical.Atlowlaserfluxdensitiesdistinctcarbondepositswerevisibleonthelens.Abovea certainthreshold,thelaserradiationablatedsuchdepositsandthelenswasfoundtobeself cleaning.Cautionneedstobeexercisedtokeepthelaserfluxdensitieswellbelowthe materialdamagethresholdof5gigawattspersquarecentimeter(GW/cm2).Similarlaser ignitiontestswereperformedbyGEJenbacherandtheydemonstratedsatisfactory performanceofthelensarrangementforover5000hoursofoperation[9].
32
33
3.4.
34
Figure 24. Photograph of a Pockels Cell-Based Two-Channel Multiplexer. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
gasengines.Therotatingmirrorsystemdoesnotallowthisflexibility.Therefore, developmentoftheflipflopmultiplexingschemewaspursued.
Figure 26. Photograph of Argonnes Rotating Mirror Multiplexer. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
36
3.4.3. Flip-flop
Aflipflopmultiplexerconsistsofalineararrayofmirrors.Anindividualmirror,when activated,movesintothepathofthelaserbeamanddeflectsitintotherespectivefiber injectionport.Thissystem,schematicallyshowninFigure27,facilitatestimingvariationof individualcylinders.Totesttheperformanceoftheflipflopsystem,arotaryactuator (Model6EM)wasobtainedfromtheLedexDivisionofSaiaBurgess,anautomotiveparts supplier.Thisactuator,whenactivated,rotatesitsshaftby22.5andmovesthemirrorinto oroutofthepathofthebeam.Ina4stroke,1800rpm,6cylinderenginethetargetresponse timeforsuchasystemis11ms.Thetimeresponseofaonechannelsystemwasmeasured usingthearrangementshowninFigure28(a).AsnoticedinFigure28(b),thesystemshows verylittlebounceandinaddition,exhibitsatimeresponseoflessthan7ms.Subsequently, effortswereundertakentodevelopasixchannelsystemforusewitha6cylinderengine. Asmentionedpreviously,withadvancesinactuatorsandmicroelectromechanicalsystems (MEMS)technologymanyothermultiplexingschemes,otherthanthosediscussedabove, arepossible.SomeofthesearediscussedinAppendixB.Thefinalchoiceislikelytobe dictatedbydurabilityandthecostofthesesystems.
Mirror
Figure 27. Schematic of a Flip-Flop Multiplexer.
1.2
Lens
Diode Laser
Deactivated
Time (ms)
(a)
(b)
Figure 28. (a): Schematic of Setup to Measure the Time Response of the Flip-Flop (b): A Typical Detector Response Curve.
37
3.5.
Fiber-Optic Delivery
a NAe = s NAs
llaser s2
(5) (6)
CombiningEquations5and6,thefollowingequationisobtained:
l Laserfluxdensityatthefocalspot laser 2 a
NAs NAe
(7)
InEquation7,thefirsttermisdeterminedbythefibercorematerialdamagethreshold.In thesecondterm,NAsisdeterminedbythespaceavailableforthelaserplug.Forfibersof shortlengths(~3m)thenumericalapertureatinjectionendisapproximatelyequaltothat atthefiberexit,i.e.,NAiNAe;inotherwords,theexitconeangleisdeterminedbythe injectionschemeused.Hencethelaserfluxdensitycanbemaximizedbymakingajudicious choiceofboththeopticalfiberandtheinjectionscheme. However,inderivingEquation7ithasbeenassumedthatthefiberismodepreserving.For thepresentcasewheretransmissionofhighlaserpowerisrequired,theuseofmultimode fibersisrequired.Asisusuallythecase,withtheintroductionofhigherordermodesthe energyisnotequallydistributedandisskewedtowardsthehigherordermodes.These 38
NAe
NAs
Figure 29. Schematic of Laser Refocusing Scheme at the Distal End of the Optical Fiber.
39
Axicon
(a)
(b)
Figure 30. Fiber Face Laser Intensity Distribution Profiles for an Injection Scheme Using (a): Plano-Convex Lens, (b): Combination of Axicon and Plano-Convex Lens.
40
(a)
(b)
Figure 31. The Refractive Index Distribution in Two Solid Core Fibers: (a) Step-Index Fiber, and (b) Gradient-Index Fiber.
Transmissionlosses(corediameter)3. Bendinglosses(bendradius)1.
41
Dielectric Quartz
(a)
(b)
Figure 32. (a) Schematic of the Cross-Section of a Hollow Glass Waveguide (HGW), and (b) A Photograph Showing Spark Generation Using HGW in the Lab. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
42
Air core
(a)
(b)
Figure 33. (a) Schematic of the Cross-Section of a Multi-Layer Hollow Glass Waveguide, and (b) Photograph of an Air-Core Photonic Bandgap Fiber
3.6.
Electronic Interface
Innaturalgasfueledstationaryengines,theElectronicControlUnit(ECU)performstwo primaryfunctions:(i)providingignitionwithfeedbackfromatimingdisk,and(ii)speed controlwithfeedbackfromagovernor.Inmostofthegasfueledengines,thesefunctions areperformedbytwoseparateunits.Earlierinthereport,asshowninFigure19,itwas envisionedthatanelectronicinterfacewouldberequiredfortheALIStocommunicatewith theignitioncontrolpartofECUforignitiontimingcoordination.Inconsultationwith Argonnesindustrialpartner,Altronic,Inc.,anelectronicinterfacewasdevelopedthat utilizescommerciallyavailableconventionalignitionsystems. Onesuchsystemtodriveaflipflopmultiplexerandalaserisschematicallyshownin Figure34.Thepositionofatimingdiskmountedonthecrankshaftissensedbyamagnetic pickup.ThesignalfromthemagneticpickupisprocessedbytheECU/Conventional ignitionsystemtoprovidea165VDCpulsethatisusuallyfedtotheprimarysideofthe ignitioncoil.Inthepresentelectronicinterfacesuchasignalisusedtogeneratea24VDC pulseusingaresistorstepdowncircuit(representedasaboxinFigure34).The24VDC signal,inturn,isusedtodriveacorrespondingrotaryactuator.Theendofstrokeofthe rotaryactuatorissensedbyanopticalsensorandatriggersignalisprovidedtothelaser afterroutingitthroughanORgate.Insuchasystem,theindividualcylinderignitiontiming variationisprovidedbytheECU/conventionalignitionsystem.Onesuchsystemwas successfullysimulatedandtestedatArgonneusingAltronic,Inc.sCD200system. Howeverthebasicdesignofthesystemisnotspecifictoaparticularmodelor manufacturer. 43
Laser
2 3 4 5 6
Mirror OR Gate
5 VDC TTL
Electronic Interface
3.7.
FromaninitialsurveyofseveralpossibleALISschemes,twopromisingconfigurationswere identified:(i)thelaserpercylinderconcept,and(ii)themultiplexedlaserconcept,wherein theoutputofasinglelaserisdistributedovervariouscylinders.Thelatterconceptwas chosenasitpromisedlowcostandsimplicityofthermalmanagement.However,this conceptrequiredthedevelopmentofthreehighpowercomponents,namely,laserplugs, multiplexersandfiberopticbeamdelivery.Guidancewasderivedinthedevelopmentof suchcomponentsthrough(i)datafromfundamentalstudiesconductedinanearliertask (Task2.2),and(ii)requirementsoftheadvancedignitionsystemasspecifiedbyengine manufacturers.Specificdetailsofthehighpowercomponentsconsideredinthepresenttask aredescribedbelow: LaserPlugs:Atwolensdesignthatsuccessfullymeetsthephysicalandfunctional requirementsofalaserplugwaseasilyachieved.Adaptationofthisdesignforvarious enginegeometriescanbeeasilyachieved. Multiplexers:Threeschemesthatdistributetheoutputofasinglelaseramongvarious cylinderswerepursued:(i)anelectroopticswitch,(ii)arotatingmirrorscheme,and(iii)a flipflopswitch.Thefirsttwoschemesfellshortoftherequirementseitherduetohighcost ortheinabilitytoprovideignitiontimingvariationsinindividualcylinders.Theflipflop scheme,however,provedeffectiveinallrespects. HighPowerFiberOpticBeamDelivery:Throughtestsandanalysesitwasdeterminedthat thefiberopticdeliveryrequirementsare(i)lowdivergenceatdistalend,(ii)highpower lasertransmission,and(iii)preservationofmodequality.Initialtestsperformedusingsolid corefibersshowedthattheyarelimitedbythematerialdamagethreshold.Subsequenttests
44
45
46
4.1.
Prepareatestplanforoptimizingignitiontiming,efficiencyandNOxemissions whileavoidingknockinordertodeterminetheperformancebenefitsbytheuseof laserignition.Also,advantagesbytheuseofmultipointignitioningasengines needstobedetermined.SuchtestsaretobeperformedbyNETLonaRicardo Proteusengine. PerformthetestsontheRicardoProteusenginepertheapprovedtestplan. Prepareasimilartestplanforimplementationonalargeboreenginetodetermine theperformancebenefitsbytheuseoflaserignition.Suchtestsaretobeperformed bySwRIonaCAT3401engine. PerformthetestsonCAT3401pertheapprovedtestplan.
Inatypicalreciprocatingenginechemicalenergyduringcombustionisconvertedto mechanicalworkonthepiston.Thenetshaftpowerisaresultofsuchworkperformedon thepistonslessthemechanicallosses.Whilethemechanicallossesoriginateatvarious pointsofaworkingengine,themostsignificantofthem(upto50%)isthefrictionloss betweenthepistonandcylinderliner.Theimpactofsuchlossesisdiminishedinalarge boreengineasthespecificsurfaceareaisreduced.Also,thereducedheatlossesleadto additionalefficiencyimprovementsasthecombustioncycleapproachestheidealOttocycle. Onaccountofsuchfactors,theimpactofusinglaserignitionvariesinenginesofdifferent boresizes.Fieldinstallationsofnaturalgasfueledengineshaveboresizesrangingbetween 130and380mm.Forlargeboreengineseitherflamejetignitionordieselpilotignitionare usedtoreducethecombustiontime.Openchambersparkignitionislimitedtoboresizes smallerthan250mm.Todeterminetheeffectivenessoflaserignitioninvarioussizeclasses, itwasproposedtoperformignitionstudiesinenginesoftwosizes. Bythetimeofexecutionofthepresenttask,underguidanceprovidedbyU.S.DOEsARES program,theenginemanufacturerssuchasCaterpillar,CumminsandWaukeshahad 47
demonstratedARESphaseIengines(42%Brakethermalefficiency,1g/bhphrNOx).Almost allofthemhaveboresizesofabout160mmwithsweptvolumesoftheorderof3liters. BothCumminsandWaukeshadidnothavesinglecylinderversionsoftheseengines. Caterpillarhada3501seriessinglecylinderengineinstalledinitsTechnicalCenterin Peoria,butitwasscheduledforinhousetests.Theonlyalternativewastouseresearch enginesof130mmbore,mostlysuppliedbyAVLorRicardo.NationalEnergyTechnology Laboratory(NETL),amemberofthepresentconsortiumtodevelopALIS,performedtests inaRicardoProteusengine,comparinglaserignitionandstandardsparkignition.Detailsof suchtestscanbeobtainedfromreferences[5,6].Thoughahighenergysparkignition systemwasusedforcomparativepurposes,ithadaperformancesimilartoaninductive ignitionsystem,whichissignificantlydifferentfromCapacitanceDischargeIgnition(CDI) systemstypicallyusedwithleanburngasengines.Also,duetothelimitationsimposedby theircontrolsystem,thetestshadtobelimitedtopowerlevelsbelow12barBrakeMean EffectivePressure(BMEP).Withtheindustrytryingtoachieve25barBMEPbytheyear 2010,suchalimitationcouldprovetoorestrictive.Detailsofsuchtestsarereportedin references[25]and[26]andarenotreproducedhere. Ontheotherhand,aBombardiersinglecylinderreciprocatingengine(BSCRE),with9.5 bore,wasreadilyavailableatSouthwestResearchInstitute(SwRI),andwasideallysuitedto determinetheperformancebenefitsinalargeboreengine.Sincetheenginewasequipped withaCDIsystemthatistypicalofmostfieldinstallednaturalgasengines,thisreadily providedabaselineforperformancecomparison.Additionally,thesystemiscontrolledbya fullyflexiblecontrolsystemRapidPrototypingEngineControlSystem(RPECS) developedbySwRI,whichenablesvaryingalloperationalparameterswithinthephysical limits.Thisflexibilityallowedtestingupto18barBMEP.Also,instrumentationtomonitor fuelqualityandperformemissionsmeasurementwasalreadyinplace.Onaccountofsuch benefits,thisenginewaschosentobethetestplatform.Usingthe9.5inchboreenginethree setsofignitiontestswereperformed:baselineteststodeterminetheperformance characteristicsofconventionalsparkignitionusingaCDIsystem,ignitiontestswithan openpathlaserignition,andignitiontestswithafibercoupledlaserignitionsystem. Inthefollowingsections,detailsoftheexperimentalsetuparepresentedfirst.Subsequently, experimentaltestresultsobtainedoverarangeofignitiontimingsandequivalenceratios arediscussedalongwiththenotedbenefitsoflaserignition.
4.2.
Experimental Setup
48
synchronousmotorthatassistedenginestartup.Thecontrolschemeandthedata acquisitionschemeareschematicallyshowninFigure35.
Figure 35. Schematic of the Control Scheme of the BSCRE Single-Cylinder Engine Using SwRIs RPECS. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
49
Table 5. Specifications of SwRIs BSCRE Engine Feature Engine Make Engine Type Bore (inches) Stroke (inches) Swept volume (liters) Compression Ratio Rated Speed (RPM) Specification Bombardier BSCRE-04 Single-cylinder, 4-stroke 9 10.5 11.5 9.3:1 900
50
Fire Deck
Piston Bowl
Cylinder Liner
Figure 36. Photograph Showing the Installed Laser Plug in the Combustion Chamber. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
Laser Head
Valve Cover
Cylinder Head
Valve Cover
Cylinder Head
Laser Spark
Figure 37. Setup for the Open-Path Laser Ignition Tests on a Large-Bore, Single-Cylinder Bombardier BSCRE-04 Engine. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
51
Figure 38. Layout of the Fiber-Coupled Laser Ignition System. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
52
Figure 39. Fiber-Coupled Laser Ignition System as Mounted on the Bombardier BSCRE-04 Engine. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
53
4.3.
Test Matrix
Table6belowshowsthetestmatrixusedtocomparethelaserandconventionalspark ignitionsystemsataBMEPof15bar;thematrixwasduplicatedatthelowerloadof10bar BMEP(~873Newtonmeter[Nm]oftorque).Enginecoolanttemperaturewasmaintainedat 75Candlubeoiltemperaturewasmaintainedat85C.Theintakeairtemperaturewas maintainedat55Cforfullloadoperationandat28Cforpartloadoperationtosimulatea turbochargedandintercooledintakechargeinductionsystem.Thesimulatedturbocharger efficiencywassetat60percentbycontrollingthepressureratioacrosstheintakeand exhaustmanifolds.ThetestmatrixshowninTable6wasexpandedtoincludeacomparison betweenthetwoignitionsystemsataBMEPof10bar. Theenginewasallowed5minutestostabilizeatagiventestconditionbeforedatawas recorded.Ignitiontimingsweepswereperformedtosetabaselinevisvisitseffectson engineemissionsandperformance.Theleanoperatingenvelopewasdeterminedby advancingsparktimingfromtheonsetofmisfire(atveryretardedignitiontimings)toan advancedignitiontiming,whichentailedanexhaustNOxconcentrationgreaterthan2,000 partspermillion(ppm)(atypicalleanburnenginewouldoperatewellbelowthisNOx concentration).Engineknock,ratherthanhighexhaustNOxconcentration,oftenlimits ignitionadvancebuttheBombardierenginedidnotknockduringanyofthesetests.The onsetofthemisfireregimewasdefinedasanoperatingconditionwhereinthecoefficientof variance(COV)oftheindicatedmeaneffectivepressure(IMEP)over100consecutivecycles wasgreaterthan5percent.SinglecylinderengineswilloftenexhibithigherCOVofIMEP thantheirmulticylindercounterpartsbecausethechargeinductionprocessintheformeris notcontinuous.Therefore,aCOVofIMEPof5percentwasusedtoidentifytheonsetof misfireatretardedignitiontimings;however,completeleanmisfirewasdefinedasan operatingconditionwherein1percentofenginecyclesaredevoidofanyheatreleaseat MBTtiming.Indicatedparametersandcombustionmetricswerecalculatedbasedon cylinderpressuredataacquiredwithaKistlerpiezoelectricpressuretransducerthatwas flushmountedonthecombustionchamber. Withthetestmatrixdescribedabove,threesetsoftestswereperformed:
1. 2. 3.
54
55
4.4.
Commonmetricsforleanburnengineperformanceincludebrakethermalefficiency()and brakespecificNOXemissions(BSNOx).Macrooperationalsettingsthataffectthesemetrics, ceterisparibus,includefuelairequivalenceratio(EQR)andignitiontiming.TheEQR,also writtenas,wascontrolledgloballythroughafuelmeteringblockandUEGOsensor feedback,buttheEQRvaluesreportedherewerecalculatedwithacarbonbalancemethod basedonexhaustgasanalyses[2].Crankresolvedengineparametersareplottedversusthe crankangle(CA)aftertopdeadcenter(ATDC)atwhich50percentofthetotalincylinder masshadburned(MFB50).Thismannerofrepresentingthecrankresolvedparameters minimizedtheambiguitysurroundingactualignitiontiminginthetwoignitionsystems. Throughcombustionanalysisofaveragecylinderpressure(obtainedbyensemble averagingover100successiveenginecycles),fundamentaldifferencesbetweenthetwo modesofignitionwerealsocompared.Flamedevelopmentandpropagationwere quantifiedthroughaheatrelease(burnrate)analysis.Specificparametersofimportance includethecrankangledurationfor10percent,10to50percent,and50to90percentofthe trappedmasstoburn.TheseparametersareabbreviatedasMFB010,MFB1050,andMFB 5090,respectively.Estimatingtheseparametersrequiredanaccuratedeterminationofthe startofcombustion(SOC).Forthetestresultsdiscussedhere,SOCwasdefinedastheCA wheretheheatreleasebecomesnonzero.ThismethodofdeterminingSOCwasemployed herebecauseinthepresentlaserignitionsystemthedelaybetweentriggerandlaserpulse wasappreciable(225s100s).TheseparametersaredelineatedinFigure40.
56
60
Cylinder Pressure (Laser) Cylinder Pressure (Spark) Heat Release (Laser) Heat Release Rate (Spark)
10
MFB 0-10
MFB50 SOC 0 -0.5 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 Crank Angle (degrees)
Figure 40. Arbitrary Cylinder Pressure and Heat Release Comparison to Clarify Nomenclature of Combustion Parameters.
57
Figure 41. COV of IMEP Versus Equivalence Ratio (EQR) at a BMEP of 15 bar.
timings.Evidently,laserignitionimprovedcombustionstabilityatanygivenMFB50for everyEQRtested.
Figure 42. Combustion Stability with Conventional Spark Ignition at a BMEP of 15 bar.
59
Otherhigherenergyignitionsystemsfornaturalgasenginesarealsocapableofextending theleanmisfirelimit.Theseincludeprecombustionchambersandhighenergyspark ignitionsystems.However,theydonotnecessarilyimprovetheoverallperformanceofthe engine.Precombustionchamberignitionsystemscanigniteleanermixturesinthemain chamber,butthecombustionintheprecombustionchambermaycontributesignificantlyto theoverallNOxemission.Highenergysparkignitionsystemsoftenacceleratethe deteriorationofthesparkplug,therebyrequiringincreasedmaintenanceand/or replacement.Inaddition,theyalsoconstraintheflamekerneltothechamberwallwhere flamegrowthisoftenstuntedbyheattransfertothemetalsurroundings.Bycomparison, laserignitionextendedtheleanmisfirelimit,thusgainingtheemissionandperformance benefitswithoutanyundesirablesideeffectsorconstraints. LeanburnenginetechnologiesareutilizedtoimproveefficiencyanddecreaseNOx emissions.Figure44comparesthetradeoffbetweenbrakespecificNOx(BSNOx)emissions andbrakethermalefficiencyforthetwoignitionsystems.Thismethodofcomparingthe tradeoffbetweenengineperformanceandBSNOxemissionsisconsistentwithothersuch comparisonsofleanburntechnologies.Astheengineranleaner,thetradeoffleaned towardlowerBSNOxemissions.Laserignitionallowedtheenginetorunleanerand extendedthetrendtowardlowerBSNOx.Withopenchambersparkignition,abrake thermalefficiencyvalueof32percentcouldbeobtainedalongwith17.7g/kWh(13.2g/bhp hr)BSNOxemissionswhentheenginewasoperatedat90percentofthemisfirelimit(typical ofleanburnapplications).Maintainingthesamemisfiremarginandbrakethermal efficiency,theBSNOxemissionscouldbereducedto5.4g/kWh(4g/bhphr)usinglaser ignition;thisamountstoa69percentimprovement.Fromanalternateviewpoint,while maintainingtheNOxemissionslevelconstantat10g/kWh(7.5g/bhphr),efficiency improvementsupto3percentagepointsarelikelywithlaserignition. Combustioncharacteristicsofthetwoignitionsystemswereanalyzedtoexaminethe reasonsbehindthebenefitsobservedwithlaserignition.Figure45showscylinderpressure datafor100consecutivecyclesforbothopenchambersparkignition(showntotheleft)and laserignition(showntotheright).Sparkignitionexhibitedcompleteleanmisfirewhilelaser ignitionprovidedrelativelystablecombustionevenataleanerEQR. Withlaserignition,theCOVofIMEPwas5.2percentatanEQRof0.52comparedtoaCOV ofIMEPof16.5percentatanEQRof0.55forconventionalsparkignition.Figure46shows theensembleaveraged(overthe100consecutivecycles)pressurecurvesforbothignition systemsandtheircorrespondingheatreleaserateprofiles.Theinitialheatreleasewas acceleratedwithlaserignitionandconsequentlythetotalburndurationwasdecreased.Asa resultoftheseeffects,combustionwasmorestableandtheenginecouldoperateatalean EQRwithoutmisfiring.Forthesamereasons,goodbrakethermalefficiencyvalueswere alsosustainableatmoreretardedignitiontimingswithlaserignitioncomparedtospark ignition.ThisabilitytoemploymoreretardedignitiontimingsfurtherreducedNOx emissions.Theconsiderabledifferenceinpeakpressuresbetweenthepressuretracesfor 60
laserandsparkignitionmaybeattributedtothehigherboostpressurerequiredtoachieve thesameBMEPvalue(15bar)ataleanerequivalenceratiowithlaserignition.
61
0.5
62
Figure 47. COV of IMEP Versus Equivalence Ratio at a BMEP of 10 bar.
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64
4.5.
Experimentswereperformedonasinglecylinderresearchenginecomparingthreedifferent ignitionsystemsincluding:
i. ii. iii.
Severalbenefitswereobservedwithlaserignitionincludingthefollowing:
Theimprovedcombustion,combinedwithoptimizationofengineintakeairpressureand ignitiontiming,wasfoundtoresultin
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5.0 (Task 2.5) Integrate ALIS and Refine for Performance on a Multi-Cylinder Engine
ThegoalofthistaskwastointegrateaprototypeALISfromsuccessfulindividual componentsandtestforitsperformanceonamulticylindernaturalgasengine.Through thesetests,itisenvisionedthatthedesignoftheintegratedALISwillberefinedforsuperior performanceanddurability.Thefollowingactivitieswereplannedinthistable:
5.1.
67
Figure 50. A Photograph of the Cummins QSK-19G Engine in one of the Engine Test Cells at Argonne National Laboratory Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
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5.2.
ALIS Integration
ThroughtheeffortsofTask2.3,successfuldesignsofthefollowingcomponentswere achieved: Laser:Followingabriefsurveyofavailablelasers,DiodePumpedSolidStateLasers (DPSSL)werefoundtohavetherequiredperformancecharacteristics.Theselasersare commerciallyavailablefrommanylaservendors.However,forthepresentdemonstration,a compactNd:YAGwhichisalreadyavailableinourlaboratorywasusedasasurrogate. ExceptforthefactthatthiscompactlaserdoesnothavethelonglifetimetypicalofDPSSL,it completelymimicstheperformanceofDPSSL. LaserPlug:Thelaserplugwasdesignedtohavethesamefootprintasastandard18mm sparkplug.Theplughasa13mmbackfocallengthsapphirelensthatfocusestheincoming laserradiationtoachieveaspark.Thesealingsystemwasdesignedinsuchawaythatthe laserplugisabletowithstandpressuresupto3,000psigandtemperaturesupto3,000K. Multiplexer:Outofthemanydesignsthatweretested,aflipflopmultiplexerwasfoundto besuitable.Inthissystem,rotaryactuatorswhenactivated,movemirrorsinandoutofthe laserbeampathtodistributethepulsedlaseroutputtoindividualcylinders.Thisdesign provedattractiveasitallowsignitiontimingvariationofindividualcylinders. ElectronicInterface:Asurveyshowedthatcommerciallyavailableelectronicinterface systemscanbeusedwithminormodificationsforthepresentpurpose. Despitetheaforementionedsuccesses,theuseofafiberopticdeliverytotransmitthelaser outputfromthelasertoindividualcylindersprovedtobeachallenge.Furthertechnical developmentsarenecessaryforfiberopticdeliverytobecomeviable.Therefore,inthe integrateddesignofALIS,transmissionoflaseremissioninenclosedtubeswasenvisioned. ThisisschematicallyshowninFigure51.Thisarrangementconsistsofarowofmirrors, whichmoveinandoutofalaserbeampath.Whenactivated,eachmirrordivertsthebeam intoacorrespondinglaserpluginstalledoneachcylinderinthecylinderhead.
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Laser Plug
Encoder
Tomeettherequirementsmentionedabove,adesignshowninFigure52wasdeveloped.In thissystem,anarmplacedat22.5fromthehorizontalcarriesahalfinchdiametermirror. Thisarmiscoupledtoarotaryactuatorbyashaft.Whentherotaryactuatorisactivated,it turnstheshaftsothatthearmis45fromthehorizontal,therebymovingthemirrorintothe laserbeampath.Whentheactuatorisdeactivated,itreturnsthearmbacktoitsoriginal position.Forthisdesigntobeeasilyadaptabletotheenginesofdifferentmanufacturers,the overallsystemneedstobemodulartoaccommodatedifferencesincylindertocylinder spacing.Eachofthesemodulesisinterconnectedusingopaquegastighttubes.Besides providingadequatelasersafety,theyalsoprovideeasyinstallation.Thepresentsystemwas designedforinstallationandoperationontheCumminsQSK19Gwithoutmuch refinement.Figure53showsapictureoftheALISassemblymountedonCumminsQSK 19Gengine(topview)atArgonne.Laserheadontherightisoutofrange.
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Coupling
Exit Tubing
Plan View
Arm
Laser
Valve Cover
Laser Plug
Fire-Deck
Elevation
Figure 52. A Schematic of the Integrated ALIS Shown Installed on One Cylinder of a Multi-Cylinder Engine.
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Figure 53. Picture of the ALIS Assembly Mounted on Argonnes QSK-19G Engine (Top View) (Laser Head on the Right is not Shown). Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
Mag. Pickup
Triggering Pulses
Electronic Interface
Laser
Mirror
(a)
Triggering Pulses BNC 565 Digital Pulse Generator
Electronic Interface
Laser
Rotary Actuator
Mirror
(b)
Figure 54. (a) Schematic Representation of the use of Electronic Interface in a 6-Cylinder Engine, (b) Schematic Representation of the use of Electronic Interface for LabScale Testing.
73
24 VDC +ve >5 VDC 8ms pulse in BNC 1 BNC 2 BNC 3 BNC 4 BNC 5 BNC 6
DDG DDG DDG DDG DDG DDG SSR SSR SSR SSR SSR SSR
-ve
24 VDC 8 ms wide pulse out BNC 11 BNC 12 BNC 13 BNC 14 BNC 15 BNC 16
+ve
5 VDC -ve
OR Gate1
OR Gate2
Laser PS1
Laser PS2
Timing diagram (1800 rpm) 4 CYL 1 CYL 5 CYL 3 CYL 6 CYL 2 CYL 4
Volts
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (ms)
Figure 56. Timing Diagram for 1800 rpm Operation - Red Pulses Trigger Laser Power Supply # 1 While Blue Pulses Trigger Laser Power Supply # 2.
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Figure 57. Picture of the 6-Channel ALIS Assembly on the Test Rig (Top View). Also Shown are the Laser, BNC 565 Pulser and the Electronic Interface. Laser Plugs are not Visible. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
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Figure 58. Picture of Misfire Detection System. Photo Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
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6.1.
ThisTask2.6includedintheinstallationofthemostadvancedoftheconventionalignition systemsfromAltronic,Inc.(CPU95),onamulticylinderengineandconductteststo determinethebaselineperformance ThiswasperformedatCumminsEngineCompanystestfacilities,usingtheirproduction QSK19GenginewhichhasAltronicignitionsystem.SinceCumminsdonatedthetestcell timetotheproject,thespecificenginethatisontheteststandatthetimeofevaluationwas usedasbaseline.Besidesthestandardparameterssuchasenginetorque,speed,fuel consumption,temperaturesandpressures,thefollowingmeasurementsweremade:(i) Combustionpressuretraceandanalysis,and(ii)Emissionsdataofregulatedspecies (primarilyNOx). Atestplaninwhichtheengineparameterswerevaried,totheextentpossible,withinthe rangesmentionedbelow.
Load
Testswereconductedtoidentifythebenefitsintermsofperformanceimprovementsand reducedemissions.
6.2.
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7.0
Thedetailedcostanalysisatthistimeisnotuseful,sinceallthecomponentshavenotbeen finalizedyet.Howeverthefollowingdiscussiongivesabriefideaoftheorderofmagnitude ofthecostsinvolved. Inatypicallaserignitionsystem,laserplugsandlasersystemaretheprimecontributorsto thecostoftheoverallsystem. Spark/laserPlugs:Toprovideenhanceddurabilityinleanburnengines,currentlyiridium tippedsparkplugscostingapproximately$200eacharebeingused.Dependingupon manufacturerandenginedesign,theseplugsneedsparkgapadjustmentevery1,000to 3,000hours.Thisbeingthecase,enginemanufacturershaveexpressedinterestinobtaining laserplugsupto$500providedtheyhavehigherdurability(upto6,000hours).Fromthe designsofthepresenteffort,itcanbesurmisedthatthecosttargetcanbeachieved, whereas,thedurabilityofthelaserplugisyettobetestedover500Hours. Lasersystems:Thedesiredfirstcostofanadvancedignitionsystem,asshowninTable2is $4perkilowattelectric(kWe).However,whenindividuallycontactedeachmanufacturer agreedtouseasystemupto$20/kWefirstcost,providedtheyhavebetterdurabilityand performance.ADPSSlasersystemthatcandrivea6cylinderengineiscurrently commerciallyavailableat~$60,000,whichtranslatesto$230/kWe.Technological developmentsandmassproductiontechniquesareanticipatedtoreducethiscostbyafactor oftentomeet$20/kWetargetwithinthenextfewyears.
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9.0 References
1. Gupta,S.B.,Klett,G.M.,Biruduganti,M.S.,Sekar,R.R.,Saretto,S.R.,Pal,S.,and Santoro,R.J.,LaserIgnitionforNaturalgasReciprocatingEngines:Aliterature Review,paperNo.204,CIMACCongress,Kyoto,2004. 2. Heywood,J.B.,InternalCombustionEngineFundamentals,McGrawHill,Inc.,1988,p.149 150 3. USPatents5,587,630and5,568,801 4. Theiss,N.,Ronney,P.,Liu,J.,andGundersen,M.,CoronaDischargeIgnitionfor InternalCombustionEngines,ICEF2004891. 5. Freen,P.D.,Gingrich,J.,andChiu,J.,CombustionCharacteristicsandEngine PerformanceofaNewRadioFrequencyElectrostaticIgnitionSystemIgnitingLeanAir FuelMixturesICEF2004853. 6. Gao,H.,Matthews,R.,Hari,S.,andHall,M.,UseofRailplugstoExtendtheLeanLimit ofNaturalGasEngines,ICEF2004881. 7. DaleJ.D.,SmyP.R.,ClementsR.M.,LaserIgnitedInternalCombustionEngineAn ExperimentalStudy,SAEpaper780329,1978 8. KopecekH,WintnerE.,PischingerR.,HerdinG.R.,KlausnerJ.,BasicsforaFutureLaser IgnitionSystemforGasEngines,2000ICEFallTechnicalConference,ICEVol.352,2000, pp.19. 9. Gupta,S.B.,Sekar,R.,Xu,Z.,Leong,K.,Reed,C.B.,Pal,S.,Cramer,J.,Santoro,R.J., LaserBasedIgnitionofNaturalgasairMixtures,ASMEpaperICES2003656, Salzburg,Austria,May2003. 10. McMilllian,M.H.,Richardson,S.,Woodruff,S.D.,andMcIntyre,D.,LaserSpark IgnitionTestinginaNaturalGasFueledSingleCylinderEngine,SAEPaper200401 0980,March2004. 11. Kopecek,H.,Charareh,S.,Lackner,M.,Forsich,C.,Winter,F.,Klausner,J.,Herdin,G., Winter,E.,LaserIgnitionofMethaneairMixturesatHighPressuresandDiagnostics, ASMESTC20030614. 12. Kitsopanidis,I.,andCheng,W.K.,AutoignitionStudyofFuelRichNButane/Air MixtureUsingaRapidCompressionMachine,WesternStatesSection/Combustion Institute2003FallMeeting,October20&21,2003UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles SessionPaperno.03F31. 13. Biruduganti,M.S.,Gupta,S.B.,Bihari,B.,Klett,G.andSekar,R.R.,Performance AnalysisofaNaturalgasGeneratorUsingLaserIgnition,ICEF2004983,ASMEFall TechnicalConference,2004. 14. McMillian,M.,Richardson,S.,Woodruff,S.,McIntyre,D.,LaserSparkIgnitionfor NaturalGasFueledReciprocatingEngines,2005,GasMachineryConferenceGMC2005, Covington,KY,Oct.35,2005.
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15. A.E.Siegman,NewDevelopmentsinLaserResonators,InOpticalResonators,SPIE, vol.1224,1990. 16. Galvanauskas,A.,HighPowerFiberLasers,OpticsandPhotonicsNews,pp.4247,July 2004. 17. SAEHandbook,2004. 18. Bihari,B.,Gupta,S.B.,Sekar,R.R.,Gingrich,J.andSmith,J.,Developmentof AdvancedLaserIgnitionSystemforStationaryNaturalGasreciprocatingengines, ASMEICEnginesDivisionFallTechnicalConference,PaperICEF20051325,Ottawa, Canada,2005. 19. Matsuura,Y.,Takada,G.,Yamamoto,T.,Shi,Y.W.,Miyagi,M.,HollowFibersfor DeliveryofHarmonicPulsesofQSwitchedNd:YAGLasers,AppliedOptics,pp.442 445,2002. 20. Yalin,A.P.,DeFoort,M.,Sachin,J.,Oleson,D.,Willson,B.,Matsuura,Y.,andMiyagi,M., LaserIgnitionofNaturalGasEnginesUsingFiberDelivery,ASMEICEngines DivisionFallTechnicalConference,PaperICEF20051336,2005. 21. Yalin,A.P.,DeFoort,M.,Willson,B.,Matsuura,Y.,andMiyagi,M.,UseofHollowCore FiberstoDeliverNanosecondNd:YAGLaserPulsesforSparkFormation,OpticsLetters, Vol.30,Issue16,Page2083,August2005. 22. Konorov,S.O.,Fedotov,A.B.,Kolevatova,O.A.,Beloglazov,V.I.,Skibina,N.B., Shcherbakov,A.V.,Wintner,E.,Zheltikov,A.M.,LaserBreakdownofMillijouleTrains ofPicosecondPulsesTransmittedThroughaHollowCorePhotonicCrystalFiber, JournalofPhysicsD:AppliedPhysics,Vo.36,pp.13751381,2003. 23. Stakhiv,A.,Gilber,R.,Kopecek,H.,Zheltikov,A.M.,andWintner,E.,LaserIgnitionof EnginesviaOpticalFibers,LaserPhysics,Vol.14,pp.738747,2004. 24. AlJanabi,A.H.andWintner,E.,HighPowerLaserTransmissionThroughPhotonic BandgapFibers,LaserPhysicsLetters,Vol.2,No.3,pp.137140,2004. 25. Herdin,G.,Klausner,J.,Wintner,E.,Weinrotter.,M.,Graf,J.,LaserIgnitionANew ConcepttoUseandIncreasethePotentialsofGasEngines,ASMEICEnginesDivision FallTechnicalConference,PaperICEF20051352,2005. 26. Richardson,S.,McMillian,M.H.,Woodruff,S.D.,McIntyre,D.L.,Misfire,Knockand NOxMappingofaLaserSparkIgnited,SingleCylinder,LeanBurnNaturalGas Engine,2004011853,SAEFuels&LubricantsMeeting&Exhibition,Toulouse, FRANCE,June2004. 27. Bradley,D.,Sheppard,C.G.W.,Suardjaja,I.M.,andWoolley,R.,Fundamentalsof HighEnergySparkIgnitionwithLasers,CombustionandFlame,Vol.138,pp.5577, 2004. 28. Yalin,A.P.,CSUsMonthlyProgressReporttoALISconsortium,August,2005.
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10.0 GLOSSARY
Acronym A m ALIS ANL ARB ARES ARICE ATDC BMEP BSNOx BTDC C CA CCD CDI CDI CEA2 CHP COV CR CSA CSU D DG DPSSL ECU EGR EQR f g/bhp-hr g/kWh Core diameter of the fiber Micrometers Advanced Laser Ignition System Argonne National Laboratory California Air Resources board Advanced Reciprocating Engine Systems Advanced Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine After Top Dead Center Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bar) Brake Specific NOx (g/kWh or g/bhp-hr) Before Top Dead Center Celsius Crank Angle Degrees Charge-Coupled Device Capacitance Discharge Ignition Capacitance Discharge Ignition Chemical Equilibrium for Applications (NASA) Combined Heat and Power Coefficient of Variance Compression Ratio Customer Service Agreement Colorado State University Laser beam Diameter as incident on lens Distributed Generation Diode Pumped Solid State Lasers Electronic Control Unit Exhaust Gas Recirculation Equivalence Ratio Focal Length Grams per Brake Horsepower-Hour Grams per Kilowatt Hour Definition
87
Definition Gigawatts per Square Centimeter Brake Thermal Efficiency (Percent) Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition Hollow Glass Waveguide Horsepower Hertz (Frequency) Intensity of Laser (Watts) Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (bar) Equivalence Ratio Equivalence Ratio Corresponding to Lean Ignition Limit Kelvin Kilovolts kilovolts Direct Current Kilowatts Kilowatt-Electric Laser-Based Ignition Laser-Based Ignition System Laser Beam Mode Quality Microelectromechanical Systems Mass Fraction Burn (Percent) Minimum Ignition Energy Millijoules Millimeter Minimum Required Energy Mean Time Between Failures Megawatt Numerical Aperture; subscript: i = incidence, e = exit, and s = at focal spot Neodymium: Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet National Energy Technology Laboratory Nanometer Newton Meter Oxides of Nitrogen Output Regulator Peak-to-Average
K kV kVDC kW kWe LBI LBIS M MEMS MFB(#) MIE mJ mm MRE MTBF MW NAx=i, e, s Nd:YAG NETL nm N-M NOx OR P/A
88
Acronym ppm psig RCM RPECS rpm s SMA SOC SwRI TTL U.S. DOE UEGO UHC V V/s VDC VOC W/cm wo Wo
2
Definition Parts per Million Pounds Per Square Inch Rapid Compression Machine Rapid Prototyping Engine Control System Revolutions Per Minute Focal Spot Diameter Sub-Miniature Version A Start of Combustion Southwest Research Institute Transistor-Transistor Logic United States Department of Energy Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen Unburned Hydrocarbon Emissions Volt Volts per Millisecond Volts Direct Current Volatile Organic Compounds Watts per Square Centimeter Beam Waist Diameter for a Gaussian Beam Beam Waist Diameter for an Actual Beam
89
90
APA1
APA2
12. Yalin,A.P.,Defoort,M.W.,Willson,B.,Matsuura,Y.,andMiyagi,M.,Useofhollow corefiberstodelivernanosecondNd:YAGlaserpulsesforsparkformation,Optics Letter,30,20832085(2005). 13. McMillian,M.,Richardson,S.,Woodruff,S.,McIntyre,D.,LaserSparkIgnitionfor NaturalGasFueledReciprocatingEngines,2005,GasMachineryConferenceGMC2005, Covington,KY,Oct.35,2005. 14. Richardson,S.,McMillian,M.,Woodruff,S.,McIntyre,D.,Misfire,knockandNO[x] mappingofalasersparkignitedsinglecylinderleanburnnaturalgasengine,SAE transactions113:44,858865,SocietyofAutomotiveEngineers,2004 15. McMillian,M.,Woodruff,S.,Richardson,S.,McIntyre,D.,LaserSparkIgnition:Laser Development,ProceedingsofASMEICE2004:FallTechnicalConference,Oct2427 2004,LongBeachCA 16. McMilllian,M.H.,Richardson,S.,Woodruff,S.D.,andMcIntyre,D.,Laserspark ignitiontestinginanaturalgasfueledsinglecylinderengine,SocietyofAutomotive EngineersPaper2004010980,2004
APA3
APA4
(a)
(b)
Figure B1. (a) Photograph of a Galvanometer-Based System. Courtesy: Cambridge Technology, Inc. (b) Use of Galvanometer for Laser Scanning [28].
APB1
(a)
(b)
Figure B3. (a) Photograph of a MEMS-Based Mirror Array, and (b) Texas Instruments Digital Mirror Device.
APB2