Load Flow Studies

Electricity power transmission
Load flow studies
Analysis of transmission networks

calculation of the load flow of a network transmission losses voltage conditions loading of the lines network behaviour in fault situations demand for rotating backup power demand for reactive power fault current calculation maximum and minimum values of fault currents determination of dynamic stability stability of transient phenomena
J.Partanen www.ee.lut.fi/fi/lab/sahkomarkkina/
state estimation correctness of the measurement data Load flow studies optimization minimization of production costs minimization of transmission losses optimization of the voltage level control transient calculation electromagnetic phenomena reliability calculation assessment of the system reliability
Load flow studies
Basic task supporting network planning and operation

loading of the network components voltage level transmission losses
Tasks
network reinforcements reactive power compensation analysis planning of an operation interruption symmetric fault analysis calculation of dynamic stability
Load flow studies

1. 2.
What is already known / What has to be calculated

Network electric values for components and the equivalent circuits are known Loads known: active and reactive power (P,Q) calculated: absolute value and angle of voltage (U,) Generators known: active power and terminal voltage (P,U) calculated: reactive power and voltage angle (Q, ) Balance between generation and consumption Losses are not known information required Reference point (e.g. connection to the transmission grid of North Sweden) known: absolute value and angle of voltage (U, ) calculated: active and reactive power (P, Q) (may change freely) Boundary conditions Reactive power limits of the generator Qmin and Qmax
3.
4.
5.
Load flow studies

P,Q U,
U, P,Q
Q, P,U
G
P,U Q,
P,Q U,
P,Q U,
5
Initial data in load flow studies
Power plants
Supplied active power Pg Terminal voltage U, to be maintained at the plant Reactive power generation and consumption capacity (Qmax, Qmin)
Lines
Impedances of the equivalent circuit (R, jX, G, jB)
Transformers
Short-circuit impedance (Rk, jXk)
Compensation devices (compensators)

Impedance (R, jX)
Loads
Active and reactive power (P, jQ)
Initial data in load flow studies

Varying amount of controller data: On-load tap-changer data (position, number and size of the steps)
is stepping automatic; if so, on what criterion?
Control principles of compensators Power of interconnectors between subsystems

Regulating power plants
Control principles for DC links (Finland-Sweden, FinlandRussia) Control parameters in calculation: method, convergency criterion, number of iterations, blockings (tap changers, compensators)
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Effect of the on-load tap changer of the transformer on the equivalent circuit
When operating by the rated transformation ratio, the transformer is presented as a series impedance when the transformation ratio deviates from the nominal value, two parallel impedances are added to the transformer circuit
Yt t
1 t Yt 2 t
t 1 Yt t
t = transformation ratio
We obtain the effect of the tap changer position on the admittance matrix elements Yii, Yij and Yjj
Calculation result
Reference bus
PKR4, 406/ 60.0
559 167 559/-167 Active & reactive power of AJV4, 408/ the line and the direction 52.9
of active power
319/2
ULV4, 299/ 49.4 496/207
133/-21 ULV1, 114/ 41.9
100 50
Load node
KLA1 119/ U/kV 42.6 / 200 70
name
KLA4, 400/ 206/ 95 46.6
365/83 OLK4, 402/ 51.2
500 150
load
HYV, 398/
Generator node
LIE4,396/ INK4, 405/ 40.8 107/55 400 200 500 82 393/27 500 100 47.7
45.0
660 110
296/27
generation
Methods for load flow studies 1. Voltages are solved

iterative methods
2. Load flows are solved

Ui Si Zij Iij Uj Sj
I ij =
U i U j Z ij
S i = U i I ij
Sh = I
2 ij
S j = U j I ij
Z ij
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Methods for load flow studies Voltage calculation

Yi1 Ii i Yi2 Yin n Un 2 U2 1 U1
Ui Yi0
Based on the figure and Kirchhoffs 1st Law
I i = Y i 0 U i + Y ij (U i U j )
j
By grouping the equation we obtain
I i = Y i 0 + Y ij U i Y ij U j j j
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Methods for load flow studies

For all nodes:
I 1 y11 ... y1n U 1 I = ... = ... ... ... ... = YU U n I n y n1 ... y nn

Y = bus admittance matrix yii = diagonal element = self-admittance = y i 0 + = sum of the admittances from the node i
y
j
ij
yij = mutual admittance = admittance between nodes i and j, with sign
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[J ] = [J1...J n ]T
1 4 1 2 2 5
5 1 0 1 8 2 [Y ] = 0 2 5 4 5 3
4 5 3 12
For large networks, the Y matrix is sparse; in other words, it includes plenty of zeros.
13
Methods for load flow studies I = YU U = Y-1I

Problem: Powers are known Currents are unknown
S = P + jQ = UI*
Powers are expressed with currents
S i = Y i 0 + Y ij U i2 Y ij U j U i j j
Voltages are solved by iteration
Gauss-Seidel method Newton-Raphson method
14
Methods for load flow studies Gauss-Seidel method
Pi jQi + Y ij U j Ui j Ui = Y i 0 + Y ij
j
we continue with the new values for voltage the process is repeated until the difference in voltages between the consecutive iterations is small enough converges slowly
15
Methods for load flow studies Gauss-Seidel acceleration factors

correction in voltage is multiplied by the constant :
U p +1 = U p + (U p +1 U p ) = U p + U p
the selection of the multiplier depends on the network to be analyzed; 1.6 being a common value
16
Methods for load flow studies Newton-Raphson

f(x) = 0 initial guess x0 find x1 such that f(x0 + x1) = 0 Taylor series f(x0) + f(x0)x1 = 0
x1 =
f ( x0 ) f (x0 )
continued...
17

The process is repeated with the value x1 = x0 + x1 if there are several equations fi(x1...xn) = 0 i = 1...n
f1 f1 ( x10 ...xn 0 ) x1 = ... ... f f n ( x10 ...xn 0 ) n x1
[ f ( xi 0 )] = [J ][x]
f1 xn x1 ... ... ... f n xn ... xn ...
J is the Jacobian matrix
[x] = [J ]1[ f ( xi 0 )]
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Newton-Raphson method for load flow studies
Power equations of load nodes:

Pi = Gi 0 + Gij U i2 U iU j (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij ) j j Qi = Bi 0 + Bij U i2 U iU j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij ) j j
We make guesses for voltages (absolute value and angle) Then, Pi and Qi are calculated with the above equations These are compared with the actual initial data (P, Q) mismatch (P and Q) Corrections in voltages are calculated (absolute values and angles) by applying Newton-Raphson method so that P and Q converge as much as possible Repeated until P and Q are small enough Mathematically difficult, converges fast, the most common method
19
Newton-Raphson method for load flow studies Power equations of nodes
Si =U i Ii
Si =U i Ii
S i = Y i 0 + Y ij U i2 Y ij U j U i j
I i = Y i 0 + Y ij U i Y ij U j j j
Pi = Gi 0 + Gij U i2 U iU j (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij ) j j Qi = Bi 0 + Bij U i2 U iU j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij ) ij = i j j j
U i = U i i
j
Alternative representation
U j = U j i Pi jQi = U i yij U j ( ij + j i )
j
Pi = yij U i U j cos( ij + j i ) Qi = yij U i U j sin ( ij + j i )

j
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Newton-Raphson method for load flow studies In the NR method for load flow studies, correction in voltages will be done by the mismatch P 1. Linearization of node equations
P P .. .. P1 U k 1 1 ... ... ... ... Pn1 ... ... n1 Q = ... ... U 1 1 ... ... ... ... Q Q .. .. Q U n1 n 1 U k 1
n = number of nodes
2. Selection of initial values Ui0, i0 Calculation of mismatches (actual calculated)
Pi = Pli Pi
Qi = Qli Qi Pli, Qli loads
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Newton-Raphson method for Load flow studies
3. We find the inverse for the Jacobian matrix and solve the corrections for angles and voltages 4. We substitute new values to voltages and angles and calculate the new partial derivative matrix 5. We calculate the new power mismatches If the mismatches > given tolerance, we return to item 3 Finish
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Equations for partial derivatives:
Pi = U iU j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij ) i j
Pi = U iU j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij ) j
Pi = 2(Gij + Gi 0 )U i U j (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij ) U i j
Pi = U i (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij ) U j
Qi = U iU j (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij ) i j
Qi = U iU j (Gij cos ij + Bij sin ij ) j

Qi = 2(Bij + Bi 0 )U i U j (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij ) U i j j
Qi = U i (Gij sin ij Bij cos ij ) U j

23
Newton-Raphson method for load flow studies For each node, there are Pi, Qi, Ui and i
Si = U i I i Si = U i I i
I i = yijU j
j
Si = Pi jQi
Pi jQi = U i yijU j
j
These are complex parameters: yij = yij ij U i = U i i U = U

j j i
Pi jQi = U i yij U j ( ij + j i )
Pi = yij U i U j cos( ij + j i ) Qi = yij U i U j sin ( ij + j i )
j j
We obtain a nonlinear set of equations

24
Problem
U1 U2
U1 = 4100 kV S2 = 320+j64 MVA U 2= ?
Line: R = 9,8 X = 124 B = 1350 s
Form the Newton-Raphson equation
P2 2 Q = J U 2 2 and consider what would be a right initial guess for U2. Hints: S 2 = U 2 I S = U I 2 = P2 jQ2 2 2 2
I 2 = y 21U 1 + y 22 U 2
P2 jQ2 = U 2 y 21U 1 + U 2 y 22 U 2
P2 U1U 2 sin ( 2 1 ) X

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1. Decoupled load flow (DLF)
[P ] [J A ][J B ] [ ] [Q ] = [J ][J ] [U ] C D
JA dependence of active power on angle JB dependence of active power on voltage JC dependence of reactive power on angle JD dependence of reactive power on voltage
In a power transmission network, JB and JC can be assumed zero Construction of the Jacobian and finding its inverse become easier 2. Fast decoupled load flow (FDLF)
Assumptions: R << X lines Ui Uj contiguous nodes i j contiguous nodes
the Jacobian matrix replaced by real constant matrix has to be constructed and inverted only once
These accelerated (approximate) methods nevertheless give accurate results, because the calculated powers are always compared with the real ones.
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Bus admittance matrix structure sparse-matrix technique
on the line i there is the element of the main diagonal + (i other nodes) the number of elements other than zero equalling the number of connections usually a node is connected only to a few (24) nearest nodes when the number of nodes increases, the dimension of the matrix increases quadratically, whereas the number of elements other than zero increases linearly
1 j5 3 j8 5 j15 6 j12 4 j10 2
0 0 0 15 10 5 10 10 0 0 0 0 5 0 25 12 8 0 [Y ] = 0 12 12 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 23 15 0 0 0 15 15 0
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we may determine the sparsity index S = where n2

Z = number of zeros n = dimension of the matrix n2 = number of all elements
for a matrix,
for the example network Z = 20, n = 6 S = 0.556 (55.6%) the sparsity depends only on network topology (connections) is constant for one network, changes in connections have an effect on the sparsity the matrix can be recorded by storing only the elements other than zero and their location data the saving in space becomes evident when the number of nodes increases, e.g. a Y-matrix of a 200 node network includes 40 000 elements, of which 1000 deviate from zero (assuming that there are 400 branches in the network)
jatkuu...
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1. the storage space requirement for a whole matrix is 40 000 storage locations 2. sequential tabulation requires:
element 1000 line 1000 column 200 total of 2200 locations
3. chained sequential tabulation requires:

element 1000 line 1000 next 1000 column 200 total of 3200 locations
J.Partanen www.ee.lut.fi/fi/lab/sahkomarkkina/ continued...
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Load Flow Studies

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Electricity power transmission