CE 2204 : Surveying I

By Dr. Srinath Rajagopalan

CE2204 SURVEYING I Syllabus

OBJECTIVE At the end of the course the student will posses knowledge about Chain surveying, Compass surveying, Plane table surveying, Leveling, Theodolite surveying and Engineering surveys. Unit I INTRODUCTION AND CHAIN SURVEYING 8 Definition - Principles - Classification - Field and office work - Scales - Conventional signs - Survey instruments, their care and adjustment - Ranging and chaining - Reciprocal ranging - Setting perpendiculars - well - conditioned triangles - Traversing - Plotting Enlarging and reducing figures. Unit II COMPASS SURVEYING AND PLANE TABLE SURVEYING 7 Prismatic compass - Surveyors compass - Bearing - Systems and conversions - Local attraction - Magnetic declination - Dip - Traversing - Plotting - Adjustment of errors Plane table instruments and accessories - Merits and demerits - Methods - Radiation Intersection - Resection Traversing. Unit III LEVELLING AND APPLICATIONS 12 Level line - Horizontal line - Levels and Staves - Spirit level - Sensitiveness - Bench marks - Temporary and permanent adjustments - Fly and check levelling - Booking - Reduction - Curvature and refraction - Reciprocal levelling - Longitudinal and cross sections Plotting - Calculation of areas and volumes - Contouring - Methods - Characteristics and uses of contours - Plotting - Earth work volume - Capacity of reservoirs.

CE2204 SURVEYING I Syllabus

Unit IV. THEODOLITE SURVEYING 8 Theodolite - Vernier and microptic - Description and uses - Temporary and permanent adjustments of vernier transit - Horizontal angles - Vertical angles - Heights and distances - Traversing - Closing error and distribution Gales tables - Omitted measurements. Unit V. ENGINEERING SURVEYS 10 Reconnaissance, preliminary and location surveys for engineering projects - Lay out - Setting out works - Route Surveys for highways, railways and waterways - Curve ranging - Horizontal and vertical curves - Simple curves - Setting with chain and tapes, tangential angles by theodolite, double theodolite - Compound and reverse curves - Transition curves - Functions and requirements - Setting out by offsets and angles - Vertical curves Sight distances - Mine Surveying - instruments - Tunnels - Correlation of under ground and surface surveys - Shafts - Adits.

Text books and references

TEXT BOOKS 1. Bannister A. and Raymond S., Surveying, ELBS, Sixth Edition, 1992. 2. Kanetkar T.P., Surveying and Levelling, Vols. I and II, United Book Corporation, Pune, 1994. 3. Punmia B.C. Surveying, Vols. I, II and III, Laxmi Publications, 1989 REFERENCES 1. Clark D., Plane and Geodetic Surveying, Vols. I and II, C.B.S. Publishers and Distributors, Delhi, Sixth Edition, 1971. 2. James M.Anderson and Edward M.Mikhail, Introduction to Surveying, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1985. 3. Heribert Kahmen and Wolfgang Faig, Surveying, Walter de Gruyter, 1995. Refer Civil Intranet Elearning website for presentation, notes, and other information

Surveying
Defined as the art of determining relative positions of distinctive features on, above or below the surface of earth through measurement of distances, elevations, and directions The term Surveying is limited to representation of surface features on a horizontal plane The branch of surveying which deals with the measurement of the relative heights of features is known as leveling Origin : B.C 3000 (from Egypt) due to the overflowed Nile River. Try to re-established the boundaries

Importance:
The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as construction of highways, railways, bridges, tunnels, dams, all types of buildings etc are based upon surveying measurements. Moreover, during execution, project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points established by surveying.

Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized are

to fix the national and state boundaries;

to chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes; to establish control points;(stations having known position) to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping; and to prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth.

Objectives The objective of measurements is to show relative position of various objects on paper. Such representations on paper are called Plan and Map. Plan and Map It is the graphical representation of the features on, near or below the earth surface as projected on horizontal plane to a suitable scale. If the area surveyed is small and the scale to which its result plotted is large, then it is called Plan. If the area surveyed is large and the scale to which its result plotted is small, then it is called Map. No exact difference between the Plan and Map.

Principles of Surveying
1. Working from the whole to the part : Start the survey with a system of control points with high precision.(either by triangulation or by traversing) The line joining these points forms the boundary line of the area.( main skeleton of the survey.) Break the boundary into smaller ones and measure it with less laborious method. Reasons: To avoid the accumulation of errors and to control any localized errors.

Check Line

Tie Line

SoI Principal mapping agency of the Country. Topographical map: shows natural and man-made features, contours and positions of GTS benchmarks.

Plane Surveying Types/Divisions: Geodetic Surveying

The Earth shape is Oblate Spheroid, (polar axis : 12713.8 km, Equatorial axis : 12756.75 km) the line connecting any two points is not a straight line, but a Curve. Large area or accuracy required is high Curvature of the Earth has to be taken into account. Small distances the difference and subtended chord.

Types of Surveying
Controlling Factor- Degree of Accuracy. 1. Length of an arc of 1.2 Km on earths mean surface is only 1mm more than the straight line connecting those two points. 2. Sum of the interior angles of a geometrical figure laid on the surface of the earth differs from that of the corresponding figure only to the extent of one second for about every 200 sq.km.

Types of Surveying

Classification of Surveying Based on:

Nature of field of Survey Object of Survey Instruments used The methods employed.

1. Nature of field of Survey: (a) Land Survey

i. Topographic Survey: Measurement of natural features(rivers, streams, lakes hills and forests) and man made features (roads, railways, towns, villages and canals) ii. Cadastral Survey: Survey to mark properties of government and individuals iii. City Surveys: Survey made in connection with the construction of streets, water supply and sewage lines etc.

2. Object of Surveying: ( on the basis of objectives)

i. Engineering Survey : to collect data for designing roads, railways, highways, irrigation, water supply and sewage disposal projects. Military Survey : with an objective to work out points of strategic importance. Mine Survey : to explore mineral wealth. Geological Survey : to find out different strata in the Earths crust. Archeological Survey : Unearthing relics of antiquity.

ii.

iii. iv. v.

3. Based on Instruments used:

i. Chain Survey ii. Compass Survey iii. Plane table Survey iv. Theodolite Survey v. Tacheometric Survey vi. Modern Survey ( using distant meters and total stations) vii. Photographic and Aerial Survey

Triangulation

Surveying Character of Work

Four Distinct parts
Planning: Involves selection of appropriate surveying method , instruments, and station points Field work: Measurement of angles and distances and keeping a record of what has been done in Field Notes Office work: Consist of drafting, computing, and designing Care and Adjustments of Instruments

Field Work
Measuring distances and angles to: establish points and lines of reference for locating details such as boundary lines, roads, buildings, fences, rivers, bridges, and other existing features stake out or locate roads, buildings, utilities, and other construction projects establish lines parallel or at right angles to other lines, measure inaccessible distances as across rivers, extend straight lines beyond obstacles such as buildings and do any work that may require use of geometric or trigonometric principles. Measuring differences in elevations and determining elevations to: establish permanent points of known elevation (bench marks) determine elevations of terrain along a selected line or area for plotting profiles and computing grade lines stake out grades, cuts, and fills for construction projects. Making topographic surveys wherein horizontal and vertical measurements are combined. Recording field notes to provide a permanent record of the field work.

Field Notes
The field notes of the surveyor must contain a complete record of all measurements made during the survey with sketches and narration, where necessary, to clarify the notes. The best field survey is of little value if the notes are not complete and clear. They are the only record that is left after the field party leaves the survey site. Make notes for each days work on the survey complete with
Title of survey Date Weather conditions List of equipments

Personnel of the crew Sign the record at end of the day

All field notes should be lettered legibly. Use a sharp 2H or 3H pencils Numerals and decimal points should be legible and permit only one interpretation. Notes must be kept in the regular field notebook and not on scraps of paper for later transcription. The field notebook is a permanently bound book (not loose-leaf) for recording measurements made in the field.

Field Notes
Note: Erasures are not permitted in field notebooks.
Individual numbers or lines recorded incorrectly shall be lined out and the correct values added and the correction must be initialed. Pages that are to be rejected are crossed out neatly and referenced to the substituted page. This procedure is mandatory since the field notebook is the book of record and it is often used as legal evidence.

Field note recording takes three general forms: tabulations, sketches, and descriptions. Two, or even all three forms, are combined when necessary to make a complete record

Field Notes
Tabulation
Measurements may be recorded manually in a field book or they may be recorded electronically through a data collector. Electronic data collection has the advantage of eliminating reading and recording errors.

Sketches
Sketches add much to clarify electronic data collection files and should be used as a supplemental record of the survey. They may be drawn to an approximate scale, or important details may be exaggerated for clarity. Measurements may be placed directly onto the sketch or keyed in some way to the tabular data. A very important requirement of a sketch is legibility. It should be drawn clearly and large enough to be understandable.

Descriptions
Tabulations with or without added sketches can also be supplemented with descriptions. The description may only be one or two words to clarify the recorded measurements, or it may be quite lengthy in order to cover and record pertinent details of the survey.

Scales
Not always convenient to draw objects to their actual size
Building drawings Microchip circuit diagram

Convenient scale chosen to draw objects to readable size in a sheet of paper Scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimension of an element of an object as represented in the original drawing to the linear dimension of the same element of the object itself. The ratio of the drawing of an object to its actual size is called the representative fraction, usually referred to as R.F. R.F =drawing of an object/its actual size (in same units)

Classification of Scales
Based on Representative Fraction (R.F)
Full size scale : If we show the actual length of an object on a drawing, then the scale used is called full size scale. represented as 1:1, R.F. =1 Enlarging scale: Drawings of smaller machine parts, mechanical instruments, watches, etc. are made larger than their real size. These are said to be drawn in an increasing or enlarging scale. represented as n:1 (n>1), R.F. > 1 Reducing scale : If we reduce the actual length of an object so as to accommodate that object on drawing, then scale used is called reducing scale. Such scales are used for the preparation of drawings of large machine parts, buildings, bridges, survey maps, architectural drawings etc. represented as 1: n (n>1), RF < 1

Scales

Requirement of Good Scale

It should have suitable length, preferably within 300 mm The scale should be accurately divided and numbered It should read to the required accuracy R.F. should be clearly written on scale The main divisions should be the units, one tenth of the units and one hundredth of the units The zero of the scale should be placed between the units and its subdivisions for easy measurement of distance

Classification of Scales
Plain Scale
A plain scale is simply a line, which is divided into a suitable number of equal parts the first of which is further sub-divided into small parts. It is used to represent either two units or a unit and its fraction such as km, m and dm, etc.

Classification of Scales
Diagonal Scale
Diagonal scales are used to represent either three units of measurements such as meters, decimeters, centimeters or to read to the accuracy correct to two decimals. It consists of a line divided into required number of equal parts. The first part is sub-divided into smaller parts by diagonals

Vernier Scale
Used to measure fractional part of the smallest division in main scale Invented in 1631 by Pierre Vernier Consists of small scale (Vernier) and long scale (main scale) Graduated edge of vernier Slides over graduate edge of main scale Used in many survey equipments such as theodalites for precise measurement Two Types: Direct Vernier and Retrograde vernier

Direct Vernier
Graduations in vernier are in same direction as main scale n division on vernier scale coincide with n-1 division on main scale scale (vernier divisions smaller than main scale divisions) Least count is d/n where d is the value of the smallest division in main scale

Retrograde Vernier
Graduations in vernier are in opposite direction as main scale n division on vernier scale coincide with n+1 division on main scale (vernier divisions larger than main scale divisions) Least count is d/n where d is the value of the smallest division in main scale

COVENTIONAL SYMBOLS USED in CHAIN SURVEYING

Sl. No 1

Type of Chain

Features 66ft long chain divided into 100 links. 10 square chains are equal to 1 acre. 10 chain length equal to 1 furlong (1/8 of a mile) Used for land measurement and marking milestones along the roads.

Gunters or Surveyors Chain.

Revenue Chain

33ft long chain divided into 16 links. Used for measuring Cadastral surveys. (survey, map, or plan on a large scale i.e Usually topographical map, which exaggerates the dimensions of houses and the breadth of roads and streams, for the sake of distinctness.) 100ft long chain divided into 100 links. Used for all engineering surveys in ft.
IS 1492-1970 specifies the requirement of metric chain. Commonly used is of 20m or 30m length having 100 links with talleys at every 5m. (quick and easy reading). On talleys letter M engraved to distinguish a metric chain from nonmetric chain. Simple rings are provided at 1m .

3.
4.

Engineers Chain.
Metric Chain

Sl. No 4.

Type of Chain Metric Chain (contd)

Features Links are formed by pieces of galvanized and connected together by means of three oval shaped rings. This oval shape afford flexibility to the chain. loops Groove cut is made on outside of the brass handle for insertion of arrow. Brass handle with swivel joints facilitates turning of chain without twisting. Total length is marked on the brass handle. Consists of a ribbon of steel of 12 to 16mm width and 0.3 to 0.6mm thickness. steel ribbon wound around on open steel cross or in a metal reel. Available in 20 or 30 m lengths. Marking on the band is any one of the following methods: o Providing brass studs at every 0.2m and numbering at every metre. Last links from either end are subdivided in cm and mm. oEtching graduations as m, dm and cm on one side of the band and 0.2m links on the other side.

5.

Steel band ( also known as band chain)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Chain over Steel Band.

Advantages of Chain over Steel bands:
o o o o It can be read easily. It can be repaired easily. Being more flexible, ideal for surveying rough terrain. Does not require frequent cleaning as steel band requires.

Disadvantages of Chain over Steel bands:

o Due to opening of links actual chain length may become more than marked length and due to bending, its length get shortened whereas length of steel is practically unaltered. o Chain is heavy and cumbersome. o In chaining sloping ground, suspended chain has more sag and needs sag corrections for horizontally measured lengths.

Principle of Chain Surveying:

Divide the area into a number of triangles of suitable sides. Triangle is the simple plane geometrical figure which can be plotted with the lengths of its sides alone reason to prefer network of triangles. Chain Surveying simple and no need for measuring angles.

Applications of Chain Surveying:

On level ground and open with simple details. Area to be surveyed preferably of small extent. For ordinary works only as its length alters due to continued use. Sagging of chain- reduces accuracy of measurement. Can be read and repaired in the field itself. Suitable for rough useage.

Limitations of Chain Surveying: Unsuitable for large area crowded with many details. Unsuitable for undulated and wooded areas.

Technical Terms in Chain Surveying: Main Survey Station: The point where two sides of a main triangles meet. Tie Stations .( subsidiary stations): Stations selected on the main survey lines for running auxiliary lines. Base Line: Longest of the main survey lines.
Main reference line for fixing the positions of various stations and also to fix the direction of other lines. Accuracy of entire triangulation critically depends on this measurement.

Check line: used in the field in order to check the accuracy

of the measurements. Tie Line: is the line joining tie stations and subsidiary stations. Offset: Important details such as boundaries, fences, buildings and towers are located w.r.t main chain lines by means of lateral measurements. (Perpendicular and Oblique)

Ranging Out Survey Lines

In measuring the length of a survey line (chain line), it is necessary that the chain should be laid out on the ground in a straight line between the end stations. When a survey line is longer than a chain length, it is necessary to align intermediate points on chain line so that the measurements are along the line. The process of establishing intermediate point on a straight line between two end points is known as ranging. Two method of ranging
Direct ranging : When the stations are inter-visible Indirect Ranging : When the station are not inter-visible (also called reciprocal ranging)

Direct Ranging

Indirect Ranging
Indirect ranging is used when the stations are not inter-visible due to high ground or a hill or if the ends are too far apart. Intermediate points can be fixed on the survey line by reciprocal ranging. This method may also be used in ranging a line across a valley or river.

Reciprocal Ranging
Let A & B be the two stations with rising ground or a hill. Let two chainmen with ranging rods take up arbitrary positions at M1 and N1, such that, chainmen at M1 can see both rods at N1 and B and the chainmen at N1 can see the ranging rods at M1 and A. The chainmen at N1 directs the chainmen at M1 to shift the ranging rod to M2 in line with A and then chainman at M2 directs the chainmen at N1 to shift the ranging rod to N2 in line with B, By successively directing each other to be in line with the end points, their positions will be changed until finally they are both in line with A & B exactly on line AB. Now the four ranging rods at A M N & B are on same straight line.

Offsets
Perpendicular offsets
Cross Staff (draw and explain how to set perpendiculars using cross staff) Optical Square (draw and explain how to set perpendiculars using Optical square)
With reflecting mirror With prism

Oblique Offsets
Using two linear measurements Two angular measurements One linear and one angular measurements

Well Conditioned Triangle

The triangles of such a shape, in which any error in angular measurement has a minimum effect upon the computed lengths, is known as well-conditioned triangle. the best shape of a well conditioned triangle is an isosceles triangle whose base angles are 5614' each. However, from practical considerations, an equilateral triangle may be treated as a well-conditional triangle. In actual practice, the triangles having an angle less than 30 or more than 120 should not be considered.

Well conditioned triangle

In any triangle of a triangulation system, the length of one side is generally obtained from computation of the adjacent triangle. The error in the other two sides if any, will affect the sides of the triangles whose computation is based upon their values. Due to accumulated errors, entire triangulation system is thus affected thereafter. To ensure that two sides of any triangle are equally affected, these should, therefore, be equal in length or well conditioned triangle

Topics Covered in Class

Obstacles in Chain Surveying
Obstacles for chaining Obstacles for ranging Obstacles for both Numerical Problems

Chaining Over Sloped ground (Explain the procedure with diagram)

Direct method Indirect method
Measuring the vertical angle Theodalite Clinometer Measuring the level difference Theodalite Dumpy Level Hypotenusal Allowance

Topics Covered in Class

Chain Traversing
Reconnaissance Marking and fixing Survey stations
Criteria for selecting survey stations and survey lines Arrangement of survey lines
Base Line Main Lines Tie Lines Check lines

Locating ground features (offsets)

Running Survey Lines

Plotting of Chain Survey

One line Double line Conventional symbols

Accuracy & Precision

Accuracy : Degree of closeness of measured value to true value.
Accuracy of any measurement is very hard to judge as the true value is almost always never known

Precision: Degree of closeness of measured value to other measured values

Sources of Errors
Instrumental
Faulty and out of calibration instruments

Personal
Human error in adjustment and reading of results

Natural
Errors due to refraction, fog, temperature , humidity, wind etc

Types of Errors
Mistakes
Errors due to inattention, carelessness, inexperience Hard to detect and correct Every values taken in the field must be independently verified by another person

Systematic Error
Cumulative error Under similar condition the error has same magnitude and sign All equipments must be periodically calibrated and checked to minimize this error

Accidental Error
Compensating error over large set of readings Random error over small set of readings Obeys laws of probability Can be corrected using probability curves and most probable number methods

Errors in Chain Survey

Erroneous length of Chain or Tape
Cumulative (+ or-) Error due to wrong length of chain Serious source of error If length of chain is more measured distance will be less and error is ve If length of chain is less measured distance will be more and error is +ve Length of tape or chain must checked periodically

Errors in Chain Survey

Bad Ranging
Cumulative + Shortest distance connecting two points is straight line Any deviation from this is always longer Has great effect on offset measurements

Careless holding and marking

Compensating + or Placement and holding of arrows Can be cumulative for short stretch of lengths

Errors in Chain Survey

Bad Straightening and Non Horizontality
Cumulative + If the chain is in irregular horizontal curve or vertical line the measured distance will always be greater than the actual distance

Sag in Chain
Cumulative + When chain not stretched properly tend to sag in center causing measured distance to be greater than the actual distance

Errors in Chain Survey

Variation in Temperature
Cumulative + or When Chain or tape is used at a temperature other than the calibrated temperature, its length changes Length increases with increase in temperature and vice versa

Variation in Pull
Cumulative + or -, compensating + or If the pull applied is different than calibrated pull the length changes If the pull applied is not measured and is variable than it tends to compensate However, if a chainman applies the same pull, which is different than the standard pull than the error is cumulative

Errors in Chain Survey

Personal Mistakes
Displacement of arrows Miscounting chain length Misreading Erroneous booking

Relative importance of errors

Cumulative errors are more important than compensating errors One cumulative error might compensate other cumulative error, a greater pull may offset sag, or high temperature may offset short length of chain In short line compensating errors do not compensate The more times a line is measured, the more likely are accidental errors to disappear from the average value

Tape Corrections
Correction for absolute length Correction for temperature Correction for pull Correction for sag Correction for slope Correction for horizontal alignment Reduction to mean sea level Correction to Measurement in vertical plane

Correction for absolute length

Applied if the actual (absolute) length of tape not equal to standardized (nominal) value If absolute length > standardized length
Measured distance is too short Correction is +ve

If absolute length < standardized length

Measured distance is too long Correction is ve

Ca= L . c/l
Where Ca is absolute length correction L is measured length c= absolute length standardized length l= standardized length of tape

Correction for Temperature

Length of tape and chain varies with temperature As Temp increases Length increases and vice versa Ct = .(Tm-To).L
Ct is temperature correction (meters) : Coefficient of thermal expansion (oC-1) Tm: Average temperature in field during measurement (oC) To : Temperature during standardization of tape (oC) L is the measured length(m) If (Tm > To) Ct is +ve If (Tm< To) Ct is -ve

Correction for Pull

Length of tape standardized at a particular force. If applied pull > standard pull the tape length increases, the correction is +ve If applied pull < standard pull the tape length decreases, the correction is ve Cp = (P-P0)L/AE
Cp Correction for pull (m) P : Pull applied in field (kg or N) P0: Standard Pull (kg or N) L : Measured Length (m) A : Cross Sectional Area of chain or tape (mm2,cm2) E: Youngs Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2, kg/cm2)

Correction for Sag

When tape stretched on two supports it takes a form of horizontal catenary The horizontal distance will be less than the curved distance, therefore sag correction is always ve For the purpose of determining the correction the curve is assumed to be a parabola

Correction for Sag

Cs1 =l1 (wl1)2/24P2

Cs1 : Sag correction for length l1 (m) l1 : Length of tape suspended between two supports (m) w : Weight of tape per unit length (N/m) P : Pull applied in field (N)
Cs : sag correction per tape length (m) n : number of equal spans W : Total weight of tape (N) l : Tape length (m)

Cs = nCs1 = lW2/24n2P2

Correction for Sag

Total Sag Correction = NCs + sag correction for any fractional tape length
L :total measured length N : number of whole tape lengths

Correction for Sag and slope

If the two supports are in different levels This correction is for both sag and slope, no separate slope correction required Cs` =Cs Cos2 (1 wl (Sin )/P)
: + when P applied at higher end and when P applied at lower end) : Slope angle