Overview/Histo ry of Jacob Kounin's Work

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Jacob Kounin is an educational theorist who focused on a teachers ability to affect student behavior through instructional management. His best-known work was done in the 1970s, where he conducted two major case studies. From educational psychologist to a well-known theorist today, Kounin brought a novel idea that incorporated both the instructional and disciplinary aspects of the classroom together. Before this happened, most educators viewed their role as a straight-forward passing on of skills and knowledge to their students. After publishing his book, Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms(1977), Kounin attempted to influence the original viewpoint of educators and to integrate teaching and discipline in the classroom. Kounins first observation of an intriguing pattern in student behavior was when he asked a student in his own classroom to put something away; he noticed that the students around him suddenly followed in focusing their attention. He watched as the correction of one student behavior actually spread to other students engaging in inappropriate behaviors, and resulted in a much more ordered room. He later described this phenomenon as the Ripple Effect. This first observation led Kounins to conduct experiments over 5 years with students from all levels, but later Kounin changed his focus to seeing how teachers actually prepared or proactively managed their classrooms before behavior occurred. He noticed how the reactions of teachers to students affected classroom management in a negative way. He learned that teachers were always receiving similar responses from their students no matter how they reacted to misbehavior in the classroom. From this observation, he concluded that there must be something a teacher could do to prevent misbehavior in the first place, which would lead to more effective classroom management. From his studies, Kounin developed theories about classroom management that were based around a teachers ability to organize and plan in their classrooms while using proactive behavior and high student involvement. He believed that in order for a teacher to have an effective connection between management and teaching, there needed to be good Lesson Movement. This Lesson Movement is achieved through withitness, overlapping, momentum, smoothness, and group focus. Withitness was Kounins word to describe a teachers ability to know what was going on at all times in his/her classroom. This can be as simple as making scanning looks around the room every once in awhile. Kounin said that is was not necessary for the teacher to know what is going on, but for the students to perceive that the teacher knows. Overlapping is the ability for a teacher to in a word, multi-task. Being able to present a new topic while preventing misbehaviors is essential for a teacher. The

concept of overlapping ties into the idea of withitness as well. Momentum is the flow of a lesson. A teacher must be able to roll-with-thepunches in acknowledging that things might go wrong and being able to fluidly adapt and continue onward despite distractions and disruptions. An example of this would be a student late for the class interrupts or technology that is being used goes wrong. Smoothness is also highly related to momentum. Being able to keep on track without getting on tangents as well as being diverted by irrelevant questions or information is important. Many times, a teacher can get distracted and leave a topic open and not come back to it until later, which can be confusing to students. Another thing that can ruin smoothness is when a teacher does not have a plan or course of action, it can seem as though the lecture is jumping from one topic to the next. The final aspect that results in Lesson Movement and effective teaching through integrating management and learning is group focus. Group focus is the ability of a teacher to engage the whole class using techniques such as building suspense or asking community questions. This can also look like asking random questions, or asking a student a question and then looking around at other students to see if they are thinking or ready to respond. These are the main theories and history of Jacob Kounin.

Classroom Management Theorists and Theories/Jacob Kounin

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Contents
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1 Overview/History of Jacob Kounin's Work 2 Critique of Kounin's Philosophy 3 Questions 4 References

[edit]Overview/History

of Jacob Kounin's Work

Jacob Kounin is an educational theorist who focused on a teachers ability to affect student behavior through instructional management. His best-known work was done in the 1970s, where he conducted two major case studies. From educational psychologist to a well-known theorist today, Kounin brought a novel idea that incorporated both the instructional and disciplinary aspects of the classroom together. Before this happened, most educators viewed their role as a straight-forward passing on of skills and knowledge to their students. After publishing his book, Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms(1977), Kounin attempted to influence the original viewpoint of educators and to integrate teaching and discipline in the classroom. Kounins first observation of an intriguing pattern in student behavior was when he asked a student in his own classroom to put something away; he noticed that the students around him suddenly followed in focusing their attention. He watched as the correction of one student behavior actually spread to other students engaging in inappropriate behaviors, and resulted in a much more ordered room. He later described this phenomenon as the Ripple Effect. This first observation led Kounin to conduct experiments over 5 years with students from all levels, but later Kounin changed his focus to seeing how teachers actually prepared or proactively managed their classrooms before behavior occurred. He noticed how the reactions of teachers to students affected classroom management in a negative way. He learned that teachers were always receiving similar responses from their students no matter how they reacted to misbehavior in the classroom. From this observation, he concluded that there must be something a teacher could do to prevent misbehavior in the first place, which would lead to more effective classroom management. From his studies, Kounin developed theories about classroom management that were based around a teachers ability to organize and plan in their classrooms while using proactive behavior and high student involvement. He believed that in order for a teacher to have an effective connection between management and teaching, there needed to be good Lesson Movement. This Lesson Movement is achieved through withitness, overlapping, momentum, smoothness, and group focus. Withitness was Kounins word to describe a teachers ability to know what was going on at all times in his/her classroom. This can be as simple as making scanning looks around the room every once in awhile. Kounin said that is was not necessary for the teacher to know what is going on, but for the students to perceive that the teacher knows. Overlapping is the ability for a teacher to in a word, multi-task. Being able to present a new topic while preventing misbehaviors is essential for a teacher. The concept of overlapping ties into the idea of withitness as well. Momentum is the flow of a lesson. A teacher must be able to roll-with-the-punches in acknowledging that things might go wrong and being able to fluidly adapt and continue onward despite distractions and disruptions. An example of this would be a student late for the class interrupts or technology that is being used goes wrong.

Smoothness is also highly related to momentum. Being able to keep on track without getting on tangents as well as being diverted by irrelevant questions or information is important. Many times, a teacher can get distracted and leave a topic open and not come back to it until later, which can be confusing to students. Another thing that can ruin smoothness is when a teacher does not have a plan or course of action, it can seem as though the lecture is jumping from one topic to the next. The final aspect that results in Lesson Movement and effective teaching through integrating management and learning is group focus. Group focus is the ability of a teacher to engage the whole class using techniques such as building suspense or asking community questions. This can also look like asking random questions, or asking a student a question and then looking around at other students to see if they are thinking or ready to respond. These are the main theories and history of Jacob Kounin. Ramona B== Implementation Of Kounin's Philosophy == As mentioned above the Five Main points of Kounin's work are:

1) withitness 2) overlapping 3) momentum 4) smoothness 5) group focus

I. "With-it-ness" The teacher is responsible for inhibiting poor behavior. The teacher can maintain this strategy by making eye contact to all students at all times. The teacher should know each student on a personal basis (i.e. name, interests, strength, weaknesses, etc.)The teacher can use other non-verbal techniques to show students that they are alert and care about the well-being of all students. The teacher may also want to make a respectable suggestion to inform the student that their behavior is unacceptable. The teacher should have communicated to all students the expectations and can have these displayed so everyone can be "with-it". II. Overlapping The teacher can have procedures that will allow the teacher to be effective when two situations occur at the same time. For example, if a student is done with an assessment or an assignment early have something for them to do such as moving on to another assignment, reading a book, or a quiet enrichment exercise. While the early-finishers are staying busy the teacher is allowed to move around the room to answer question or assist struggling students. Another example, if the teacher is in the middle of a lecture and a student enters the room the teacher should make eye contact with the student, have an area for the student to turn in work, and continue with the lesson. Once the students are doing their work the teacher can go to the tardy student and tell them what they missed or answer any questions from the homework assigned the night before.

III. Momentum The teacher should make lectures short to allow students to group together and move around to gain more knowledge of the content. The teacher should make sure that these exercises remain short so students do not get bored. A teacher can keep a timer and assign roles to students to keep the students moving and on a time deadline. If students are struggling the teacher can reflect on what they can do to make the lesson more meaningful and easier to understand for their students. IV. Smoothness The teacher can have students make hand gestures that will tell the teacher whether the student has a comment or question concerning the lesson. This technique allows the teacher to have an idea of which students may cause an unwanted tangent and which students may have a good question that could pertain to utilizing the time effectively. When placing students in group-work the teacher can walk around facilitating and listening to discussions of other students. The teacher can then intervene or take the group to a different track if the teacher feels it is necessary. V. Group Focus The teacher can implement this strategy with several techniques: A.Encourage Accountability: Make students aware that they will be graded for their participation and contributions to the group. B.The teacher can have a canister of popsicle sticks that have each students name on them. The teacher can pick the popsicle stick at random to keep students on track and out of their seats with anticipation for question/answer time, board problems, etc. C.The students can facilitate a discussion. Once they have finished a task they can turn to each other or they could pair up with those who are already done and compare answers. In order for implementation to be effective the teacher must be well organized, communicate their expectations to their students, and hold them responsible for their actions to encourage motivation and attention. Elementary School In an elementary setting, the teacher could pair up the class in groups of 3-5 students and assign a team name. The teacher could have a visual of a pocket chart to show where that group will be during the time granted. For example, a pink card for Suzy, Bobbie, and Billy could stand for the Phonics station. A green card could stand for Lizzy, Gary, and Greg to be at the Math station. The time could be set for 30 minutes. Once the timer has elapsed the students would be instructed of how to rotate. The teacher must not remain idle at any time. This should be used as reinforcement/enrichment of the content in which the teacher has already covered the material and could informally assess understanding and application of content. The centers assure the five strategies by having directions at each center, a visual to state where students should be after the time is up, and a way for teachers to actively listen to concerns/speed-bumps that are

holding them back. The teacher should make each center as kinestethic as possible with many manipulatives at each station (i.e. Magnetic letters for spelling center, dice or play money for Math, etc.) It is very important that elementary instructors maintain their energy and enthusiasm when presenting to their students.

Middle School Kounin's theories are very useful in a Middle School setting. The first two terms he uses, "Withitness" and "Overlapping," can be used for preventing the misbehavior of other students. When one student is about to throw a paper airplane or punch his friend in the shoulder, the teacher can make eye contact with him and shake his head. The belief is that doing this will show other students that they will not get away with this either. In Middle School, however, it usually becomes more necessary to make an example of a student who willingly breaks a rule so that other students know they will share the same fate if they do so as well. Also, the "overlapping" ability to do more than one thing at once is essential, since most middle school students will capitalize on the opportunity to get away with outlawed behavior while the teacher's back is turned. A final approach that seemed very effective was implementing lesson plans with high participation formats. When every student always has something to do, each will not become bored and find off-task behavior to engage in.

High School In a high school setting, a teacher needs to incorporate all of the aspects of Kounin's philosophy in their teaching practice. This means that with-it-ness, overlapping, smoothness, momentum, and group focus all must meld together to form a coherent whole. This could be implemented through teachers having at least a weeks lessons ahead of time in order for them to be sure that lesson fluidity occurs. The with-it-ness that comes with being an effective teacher is most often the fruit of planning and keeps students on task. This takes a special ability to diffuse potentially distracting situations in which teachers need to bring students back to the task at hand. In showing students the connections between one subject to the next, using previous vocabulary to prepare students for learning new vocabulary, a teacher will show overlapping. This overlapping ties into the momentum aspect. Students that feel as thought they are learning will make connections between old and new material. This confidence will allow them to contribute to the momentum of the classroom. The group focus aspect in the high school setting really takes a quick attention to detail. Keeping high school students on task and not thinking about tomorrow nights football game is a skill that is essential to promoting learning. A teacher needs to be able to spot check for students not paying attention and rapidly engage them back into the subject, while holding the rest of the class attention. This can be done through exciting announcements, demonstrations, or by changing the atmosphere of learning.

[edit]Critique

of Kounin's Philosophy

Jacob Kounin found his original inspiration from the research of a psychiatrist named William Glasser who developed his well-known Reality Therapy in the mid-1960s. Trained initially in the Sigmund Freud approach, Glasser rejected the concept of delving into a persons past and subconscious thoughtprocesses in favor of a behavior-centered counseling method that encourages the person to focus on the here-and-now of the situation and what can concretely and most productively be done about a persons immediate environment. Ultimately, individuals should see that they are part of social structure and must live with other human beings. Rather than searching for past hurts, Glasser tried to help his clients recognize the failings in their behaviors and make appropriate corrections. People have needs and must learn how to pursue those needs without encroaching upon the well-being of others. Jacob Kounin adopts an aspect of this theory with his belief that students have the capacity to reflect upon and choose to behave differently. Alfie Kohn is another theorist that has a few remote similarities to Kounin in the fact that both are united in giving students the freedom to reflect on the productivity of their actions (whether they lead them closer to their goals or not) and change their behavior accordingly. The final theorists that Kounin most closely identifies with are Lee and Marlene Canter who have championed the approach of Assertive Discipline. This method adopts a preventative tactic in making acceptable and unacceptable behaviors very clear to the students. Kounin, with his belief in stemming the ripple effect, holds to this opinion as well. It is far better to stop a behavior when one child engages in it than to wait until the entire class has begun imitating it. Not too many people have militantly disagreed with Kounins theories. The only place of contention some might have is that having an effective lesson plan may not necessarily be the sure-all of maintaining proper classroom management and discipline. Other supplemental discipline flow-charts or consequences may be required to maintain student behavior, especially of those students who are not so willing to make the most productive and peaceful choices. Katie's Reflection: I agree with Kounin that these techniques are vital to the success of an educators classroom, however, misbehaviors will still occur in any classroom regardless of what strategies an educator will use. Kounin gives advice to educators to prevent or decrease misbehaviors in the classroom, but he does not tell the educator what to do to discipline a student. Kounins ripple effect is true in that if students feel that you are being unfair there will be an increase in misbehavior; but, I feel that an educator must have flexibility in the discipline model of each child. Each child is different and will react differently to various consequences or affirmations. Therefore, Kounin should elaborate on what he would do in the classroom to accommodate those students that need extra support/flexibility. Gales Reflection In thinking about Kounins ideas that a prepared teacher is an effective manager, I would agree. The idea that a well-managed classroom is accomplished for the most part by having an engaging lesson is very true. However, there are certain students who will not be able to be prevented from misbehavior because there are times that students are misbehaving as a response to some factor that is outside of my control as a teacher. Kounins theory is limited in the scope of how it applies to all students; however, I believe that his

ideas of with-it-ness, overlapping, momentum, and group focus are all great traits that teachers can strive to incorporate into their classroom skills. I have found that I am very good at the group focus, but tend to have a hard time keeping the lesson momentum, or sometimes unintentionally kill the momentum. These are things I would like to continue or work on in the future. Daryle's Reflection: Preparation is important; the more you are prepared (with a lesson plan, through experience, etc.) the more you can handle the discussion around a topic area. However, engagement is equally key. Engagement with the students, individually first, then as a group is enabled through preparedness and experience. Each child is indeed different and is seeking ways to express themselves more as time passes and they move from early to later school years. We cannot see this as a threat to teacher authority. Quite the opposite, it is the heart of the teaching and learning experience that we should be encouraging (as in Jonathan Kozol's work, a modern slant on Socratic teaching style). The more we can engage with them through understanding how they see the world, how they learn and how they find it easy to express themselves, the more we can keep them attentive, focussed and on task. This negates the need for behaviour management as the student is connected to the learning experience. Scanning (the lighthouse effect), physically moving around the room (using proximity to encourage attention), managing entrances and exits, these are all great pedagogic and, in my humble opinion, andragogic skills that great teachers employ to keep the classroom alive and interesting, a place for discovery. Kounin is a major contributor to this through his work.

[edit]Questions
1) How would you incorporate Kounin's 5 Management Behaviors in your classroom? 2) Analyze whether Kounin's ideas would strengthen your teaching practices?

Classroom Management Theorists and Theories/Rudolf Dreikurs

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INTRODUCTION
Social psychologist Rudolf Dreikurs was born in Vienna, Austria on February 8, 1897. He graduated from the medical school of the University of Vienna before spending five years as an intern and resident in psychiatry. His research in the field of social psychiatry led him to organize the first Mental Hygiene Committee in Austria and to become interested in the teachings of social psychologist Alfred Adler. As a director of one of the child guidance centers in Vienna, he employed Adler's methods with families and classrooms (http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Dreikurs%2C_Rudolf) .

In 1937, Dreikurs left Austria to avoid Nazi persecution and arrived in the U.S. He eventually moved to Chicago in 1939 and became a student and colleague of Adler, who believed that the main purpose of all humans was belonging and acceptance by others. The Encyclopdia Britannica describes Dreikurs as an "American psychiatrist and educator who developed the Austrian psychologist Alfred Adler's system of individual psychology into a pragmatic method for understanding the purposes of reprehensible behavior in children and for stimulating cooperative behavior without punishment or reward." Dreikurs was Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry at the Chicago Medical School and the Director of the Alfred Adler Institute of Chicago. He also was editor of theJournal of Individual Psychology. He died in Chicago on May 25, 1972. The following is a list of books written by Dreikurs and one written about Dreikurs: (Rudolf Dreikurs, n.d.) A Parent's Guide to Child Discipline by Rudolf Dreikurs and Loren Grey The Challenge of Marriage The Challenge of Parenthood Children: The Challenge -- by Rudolf Dreikurs, Vicki Soltz Coping With Children's Misbehavior, a Parent's Guide Discipline Without Tears -- by Rudolf Dreikurs, et al. Encouraging Children to Learn by Rudolf Dreikurs, Don, Sr. Dinkmeyer Family council: the Dreikurs technique for putting an end to war between parents and children (and between children and children) Fundamentals of Adlerian Psychology Maintaining Sanity in the Classroom: Classroom Management Techniques -- by Rudolf Dreikurs, et al. New Approach to Discipline: Logical Consequences Psychology in the Classroom: A Manual for Teachers Social Equality the Challenge of Today (Biography) Courage to Be Imperfect: The Life and Work of Rudolf Dreikurs by Janet Terner, W.L. Pew

FUNDEMENTALS OF DREIKURS' SOCIAL DISCIPLINE MODEL

Dreikurs' Social Discipline model is based on the four basic premises of Adler's social theory. These premises are (http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Dreikurs%2C_Rudolf): 1. Humans are social beings and their basic motivation is to belong 2. All behavior has a purpose 3. Humans are decision-making organisms 4. Humans only perceive reality and this perception may be mistaken or biased

Dreikurs' educational philosophy is "based on the philosophy of democracy, with its implied principle of human equality, and on the socio-teleological approach of the psychology of Alfred Adler. In this frame of reference, man is recognized as a social being, his actions as purposive and directed toward a goal, his personality as a unique and indivisible entity" (Dreikurs, 1968, p. x). A socio-teleological approach implies the existence of God, a higher purpose, and a natural order of things. Dreikurs believed it was possible to understand children's misbehaviors by recognizing the four main purposes or goals of the child. The four goals of misbehavior are attention getting, the contest for power, seeking revenge, and displaying inadequacy. Dreikurs promoted the use of encouragement and logical (and natural) consequences rather than reward and punishment. Essentially, every action of the child is grounded in the idea that he is seeking his place in the group. A well-adjusted child will conform to the requirements of the group by making valuable contributions. A child who misbehaves, on the other hand, will defy the needs of the group situation in order to maintain social status. Whichever of the aforementioned goals he chooses to employ, the child believes that this is the only way he can function within the group dynamic successfully. Dreikurs states that "his goal may occasionally vary with the circumstances: he may act to attract attention at one moment, and assert his power or seek revenge at another" (Dreikurs, 1968, p.27). Regardless if the child is well-adjusted or is misbehaving, his main purpose will be social acceptance. The following are techniques that can be used to address the four goals of misbehavior: A. Attention Getting 1. 1. Minimize the Attention - Ignore the behavior, stand close by, write a note 2. Legitimize the Behavior - Create a lesson out of the behavior, have the class join in the behaviors 3. Do the Unexpected - Turn out the lights, play a musical instrument, talk to the wall 4. Distract the Student - Ask a question or a favor, change the activity 5. Recognize Appropriate Behavior - Thanks students, give the a written note of congratulations 6. Move the Student - Ask the student to sit at another seat, send the student to a "thinking chair" B. Seeking Power and Control 1. 1. Make a Graceful Exit - Acknowledge student's power, remove audience, table matter for later discussion, 2. Use a Time-Out 3. Apply the Consequence

C. Seeking Revenge 1. 1. Same as for "Contest for Power" D. Displaying Inadequacy 1. 1. Modify Instructional Methods 2. Use Concrete Learning Materials and Computer-Enhanced Instruction 3. Teach One Step at a Time (or break instruction into smaller parts) 4. Provide Tutoring 5. Teach Positive Self-Talk and Speech 6. Teach that Mistakes are Okay 7. Build Student's Confidence 8. Focus on Past Successes 9. Make Learning Tangible 10. Recognize Achievement

CASE STUDIES FOR PRACTICAL CLASSROOM IMPLEMENTATION

We have summarized some actual case studies from Dreikurs' book entitled Psychology in the Classroom: A Manual for Teachers in hopes that these examples will be inspirational for use in your own classroom. These studies provide methods and strategies for dealing with the four goals of misbehavior: Attention Getting, Revenge, Power and Control, and Helplessness and Inadequacy. While each strategy may be modified for the secondary classroom, Dreikurs primary focus was behavior management at the elementary level. The authors have given examples for elementary, junior high or middle school, and high school levels. These case studies come from the school system of Gary, Indiana in the 1950's. Elementary Case Study Bessie is repeating the third grade. Her learning rate is probably low. In math she will put anything down for an answer or she might put down no answer at all. She seems afraid to recite. Dreikurs concludes that the child is functioning on a lower level than her ability allows. Bessie's teacher has spoken with the class about the importance of being good listeners. It was decided and agreed upon that while one student was reading aloud other students would wait to raise their hands until the teacher asked for input. This would encourage students like Bessie to recite without feeling nervous or interrupted. Dreikurs notes how this strategy was effective in inducing the whole class to give Bessie support and encouragement. The teacher also began giving Bessie more time to finish her work. By the next week, Bessie had improved a great deal. The teacher remarked that she was proud of Bessie, drew a smiling picture on her paper, and solicited encouragement from the principal as well. Bessie's teacher, by identifying Bessie's fear of failure

during recital and removing pressure, allowed Bessie to discover that she could solve the problems. After this realization, Bessie was soon able to work at a faster pace. Furthermore, by encouraging Bessie, the teacher nurtured Bessie's pride in her accomplishments Dreikurs, 1968, p.178). This case study focuses on the fourth goal of misbehavior, or Helplessness and Inadequacy. Bessie was refusing to try most educational demands because she was unaware of her capabilities and therefore refused to comply with classroom expectations. Bessie's problems are rooted in feeling discouraged. Strategies that assist helpless students include modifying instructional methods, teaching in a step-by-step fashion, allowing for mistakes, building confidence by recognizing achievement, and teaching positive selftalk. By modifying instruction based on Bessie's individual needs, her teacher was successful. It is important to note the significance of the teacher's responsibilities when considering Dreikur's behavior management techniques. These strategies require an openness and caring for the student in order to achieve success. Middle School Case Study Charles is fifteen years old and in the seventh grade. Although he is three years older than the other students, he is small and slight. He comes from a large family with many older married siblings. There is a new baby at home. His sister, one year younger than him, is also in the class. The teacher was assigned the class four months prior following a substitute. He found Charles to be disruptive and uncooperative. Charles would wander around the classroom and speak out of turn regularly. Although there were other disruptive students in the class, Charles had a more malicious and arrogant demeanor. Dreikurs theorized that Charles sought power and control and was perhaps exhibiting elements of revenge. The teacher sought to diffuse the situation by being friendly and courteous, yet was at a loss for an effective strategy. A paddle was supplied by the administration, but the teacher declined this approach. Dreikurs felt that the paddle more than likely contributed to the disruptive situation in the classroom and appreciated the teacher's approach. The teacher found it difficult to maintain group discussions on discipline in the classroom due to disruptions. He observed that Charles migrated to the larger, more rugged boys in the class, often trading punches. Charles once displayed a switchblade, which the teacher firmly asked him to leave at home. Dreikurs observed that the teacher did the right thing in not confiscating the knife because Charles respected the teacher's instructions and did not display the knife again. One day when the teacher observed Charles out of his seat again, he asked Charles why he was not seated. Charles responded that he needed to find his book. It had been fifteen minutes since the assignment requiring the book had begun, so the teacher replied that perhaps Charles better sit down before he lost his seat. This was greeted with laughter by the class. Driekurs explained the successful strategy of using humor to win the class over to his side. "Solitation of group pressure is by and large a powerful and effective method" (Dreikurs, 1968, p.155). Charles no longer held power and as a result conformed to the classroom expectation of remaining seated. This example illustrates the Power and Control and Revenge goals for motivating misbehavior. Removing the ability to gain power is an effective strategy for dealing with these issues. Dreikurs suggests doing the

unexpected, removing the audience, and using time-outs. Once again the emphasis is on logical consequences. Effectiveness is increased when these consequences are set in advance. Furthermore, this case study illustrated the goal of Attention Getting. Some suggestions Dreikurs gives are reducing attention in favor of distracting the student and emphasizing appropriate behavior. High School Case Study Hal is the eldest of two children and a student in the teacher's eleventh grade English class. Hal's parents were divorced when he was eleven years old. His mother usually worked in the evenings leaving Hal and his brother on their own. Hal seldom did the assignments, rarely participated in class discussions, and was often absent. Hal and two classmates were caught robbing a home and had succeeded in robberies before. Hal was the ring-leader. All three were put on probation. When at school, Hal appeared nervous and assumed everyone was out to get him. For example, if the teacher happened to look his way, Hal would respond, "What are you watching me for?" Dreikurs explains that Hal's defensive attitude is a result of being pushed around and that because Hal expects this treatment, he unintentionally provokes it. Hal is seeking revenge against a society in which he has no place (Dreikurs, 1968, p.172). When studying drama, the teacher asked Hal to read for a part in a play. Hal did very well and was awarded a leading role on the condition that he keep up with classwork and attend all rehearsals. Dreikurs noted that Hal was ambitious and capable, as evidenced by his criminal activities. By incorporating Hal into the framework of productive society, Hal could now use his talents appropriately. By taking a chance on Hal, the teacher facilitated a situation in which Hal gained confidence and cooperated throughout the remainder of the school year. Dreikurs felt that it probably was not solely the play that was responsible for the changes in Hal. Dreikurs adds the teacher must have employed a great deal of encouragement and understanding as well. This example of the Revenge goal illustrates how the strategy of acknowledging the student's power can be extremely effective. Hal sought status through his criminal activity. By achieving this recognition through more socially appropriate activities, such as starring in the school play, Hal's goals were met and the misbehavior was no longer necessary.

PROFESSIONAL CRITIQUE
Articles in Support of Dreikurs' Theory It was difficult to find scholarly articles that were supportive of Dreikurs's work and his educational theory. However, a search on the Internet quickly showed that "Dreikursian" and "Alderian/Dreikursian" principles are used in different therapy and guidance situations throughout the country. For example, these principles are used and taught in "child guidance", "parent education", and family therapy" situations at various centers. The following example of how these Dreikursian" and "Alderian/Dreikursian" principles are used is from the Positive Discipline Association. The Positive Discipline Association is a program that teaches young people to be "responsible, respectful and resourceful members of their communities(Positive Discipline Association)." Their "Positive Discipline

Parenting and Classroom Management Model" is based on Adler' and Dreikurs's work, particularly their democratic approach to teaching and parenting. This Association provided one example of this approach working in a school setting. There was a 4-year study of classroom meetings, one technique promoted by Dreikurs, in a lower-income Sacramento elementary school. The study showed that during the four-year period, suspensions decreased (from 64 per year to 4 per year), vandalism decreased (from 24 occurrences to 2) and teachers reported an improvement in the classroom climate, behavior, and academic performance Articles That Do Not Support Dreikurs' Theory It was difficult to find scholarly articles that were critical of Dreikurs's work and his educational theory. Alfie Kohn is very critical of his work and theory, and Charles Wolfgang has some issues with the ability of teachers to determine a student's goal of misbehavior and use logical consequences, but little else, especially from psychologists, was found that did not support Dreikurs's theory. Alfie Kohn, an author and lecturer who speaks widely on human behavior, education, and parenting, in an article entitled "Beyond Discipline" in Education Week (1996), is skeptical of Dreikur's ideas of logical consequences. Kohn believes Dreikurs simply repackages punishment as logical consequences. As Kohn notes, "The student is still forced to do something undesirable (or prevented from doing something desirable), but the tone of the interaction is supposed to be more reasonable and friendly, and the consequence itself must have some conceptual connection to the child's act." Kohn goes on to describe a situation Dreikurs wrote about in his Logical Consequences: A New Approach to Discipline. A 2nd grade male student who talked out of turn, squirmed a lot, and so on was given the "logical consequence" of being taken from the classroom and told to spend some time back in kindergarten. According to Dreikurs, this is a logical or appropriate consequence as long as the teacher prefaces it with telling the student that she wonders if the student is ready to continue in the 2nd grade and suggesting that it might be better for him to go back to kindergarten. Kohn also has an issue with Dreikurs's idea of democracy in the classroom. Kohn suspects that Dreikurs used classroom meetings and other "modern" techniques to get students to conform or do what they were told. Kohn quotes Dreikurs as writing, "It is autocratic to force, but democratic to induce compliance." (R. Dreikurs et al., Maintaining Sanity in the Classroom, 2d ed. [New York: HarperCollins, 1982], page 67.) Obviously Kohn does not see Dreikurs's use of classroom meetings and other techniques as democratic because teachers still hold much of the power and students have no choice but to conform to what the teacher wants and thinks is best for the group. Charles Wolfgang, the author of Solving Discipline and Classroom Management Problems: Methods and Models for Today's Teachers, notes that it may be difficult to determine which of the four goals of misbehavior a student is exhibiting. Wolfgang also mentions that it may be difficult for a teacher to determine what sort of logical consequences are appropriate to use. In essence, Wolfgang is not necessarily criticizing Dreikurs's philosophy but is questioning the ease with which teachers and other adults can determine the particular goal of a misbehavior and use logical consequences.

The Authors' Personal Reflections Angela Curry One point I found particularly interesting relates back to the second case study above involving Charles. During the time of writing these studies, corporal punishment was a prevalent and acceptable means of behavior management. Dreikurs, however, felt that this type of punishment probably contributed to disruptive behavior. Even today, spanking, while debatable, is still quite present in our society. Many agree with "spare the rod, spoil the child". In reference to Dreikurs' view of logical consequences, spanking does seem a bit absurd. How is hitting a child a logical consequence of, for example, not making her bed? Or saying a bad word? In adulthood, we have logical consequences mandated by law. These consequences make our society function somewhat rationally. If I am speeding, I might get a speeding ticket, and this seems logical. What if the consequence for speeding required that I spend a year in prison? Would I passively accept these consequences, or might I tend toward disruption? A recurring theme I have noticed in Dreikursian theory is the respect for the child as a member of society. There are many examples throughout history of what happens when a people do not feel respected. If we model our classrooms on societies and communities, we must realize that mutual respect is of the utmost necessity. By setting logical consequences in advance and encouraging the student, we are setting good examples and modeling good citizenship. -A.C. Chris Adams I find Angela's reflection on corporal punishment particularly cogent because I grew up during a time when corporal punishment in schools was still practiced and an often used consequence for misbehavior. Though it was not a logical consequence according to Dreikurs, it sure did prevent me from misbehaving in Mr. Baker's class. I find Dreikurs's emphasis on democracy in the classroom intriguing and appropriate, even though Kohn believes it is more autocratic than democratic. It is intriguing in light of the history of education prior to the 20th century. For example, education in the post-Revolutionary War period emphasized promoting patriotism, teachings about the new republic and what it meant to be a citizen in America. I just find the juxtaposition of this pre-20th century idea of education with Dreikurs's methods for bringing democracy into the classroom, such as classroom meetings and discussions, interesting. Dreikurs's methods of bringing a democratic approach into the classroom are in line with my desire to make my classroom more democratic. His methods of addressing misbehaviors in the classroom are appropriate and adaptable to my 9th grade science classroom. By employing these methods, I hope to take my teacher-centered classroom with inconsistent classroom management and re-create it into a studentcentered classroom with more effective classroom management. I believe I can do this in three ways: (1) learn to recognize why students are misbehaving (Dreikurs's four goals); (2) use some of the techniques (discussed above) to deal with these behaviors; and (3) incorporate more classroom discussion (maybe using the Touchstones Discussion method) and meetings into lessons. Dreikurs's methods seem to parallel

my belief that your have to be a teacher that is kind and fair with students, aware of their behaviors and the reasons behind those behaviors, and open to discussing with students how to deal with particular positive and negative behaviors in the classroom.