SOME ASPECTS OF PROCESS PARAMETRIC OPTIMIZATION IN CONVENTIONAL AND

NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ENVIRONMENT

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SIKKIM MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to conventional and non conventional machining
Machining removes certain parts of work pieces to change them into final parts.
Machining nowadays has been classified into two types 1) conventional
machining 2) Non-conventional machining. Conventional machining also known
as traditional machining requires the presence of a tool that is harder than the
work to be machined. This tool should be penetrated in the work piece to a certain
depth. Moreover, a relative motion between the tool and work piece is responsible
for forming or generating the required shape. The absence of any of these
elements in any machining process such as the absence of tool work piece contact
or relative motion makes the process a non-conventional or non-traditional one.
1.2 Types of conventional and non conventional machining process
Conventional machining process include drilling, turning, boring, milling,
shaping, broaching, slotting, grinding etc.
Similarly, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Water
Jet and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (WJM and AWJM), Electro-discharge
Machining (EDM), wire electric discharge machining (WEDM) are some of the
Non conventional Machining (NCM) Processes.
1.3 Classification of conventional and non-conventional machining process
To classify Non-conventional and conventional machining Processes, one needs to
understand and analyse the differences and similar characteristics between
conventional machining processes and Non conventional machining processes.
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Conventional Machining Processes mostly remove material in the form of chips
by applying forces on the work material with a wedge shaped cutting tool that is
harder than the work material under machining condition. Such forces induce
plastic deformation within the work piece leading to shear deformation along the
shear plane and chip formation. Fig.1 depicts such chip formation by shear
deformation in conventional machining.
1.4 Characteristics of conventional and non conventional machining
a) Characteristics of conventional machining are:-
Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation
Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces energy
Domain can be classified as mechanical
Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under
Machining conditions
Fig 1. Shear deformation in conventional machining leading to chip formation
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NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ENVIRONMENT
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b) Characteristics of non conventional machining(NCM) are:-
Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no chip formation
may take place. For example in AJM, chips are of microscopic size and in case
of Electrochemical machining material removal occurs due to electrochemical
dissolution at atomic level
In NCM, there may not be a physical tool present. For example in laser jet
Machining, machining is carried out by laser beam. However in
Electrochemical Machining there is a physical tool that is very much required
for machining
In NCM, the tool need not be harder than the work piece material. For
example, in EDM, copper is used as the tool material to machine hardened
steels.
Mostly NCM processes do not necessarily use mechanical energy to provide
Material removal. They use different energy domains to provide machining.
For Example, in USM, AJM, WJM mechanical energy is used to machine
material,
Whereas in ECM electrochemical dissolution constitutes material removal.
Thus characteristics of non conventional machining depends upon nature of
energy used for material removal(fig 2.)
Fig. 2 shows classification of NCM on basis of energy used
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1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of conventional and non conventional
machining process
Conventional machining sufficed the requirement of the industries over
the decades. But new exotic work materials as well as innovative
geometric design of products and components were putting lot of
pressure on capabilities of conventional machining processes to
manufacture the components with desired tolerances economically. This led to the
development and establishment of NCM processes in the industry as
efficient and
Economic alternatives to conventional ones. With development in the NCM
processes, currently there are often the first choice and not an alternative to
conventional processes for certain technical requirements. The following
examples are provided where NCM processes are preferred over the conventional
machining process:
Intricate shaped blind hole e.g. square hole of 15 mmx15 mm with a
Depth of 30mm
Difficult to machine material e.g. same example as above in Inconel, Ti-
alloys or carbides.
Low Stress Grinding Electrochemical Grinding is preferred as
compared to conventional grinding
Deep hole with small hole diameter e.g. 1.5 mm hole with l/d = 20
Machining of composites.
1.6 optimization of process parameters in conventional and non conventional
machining process and its need
optimization:- It may be defined as Finding an alternative with the most cost
effective or highest achievable performance under the given constraints, by
maximizing desired factors and minimizing undesired ones.
In the following work an attempt has been made to optimize the process
parameters of conventional machining operation (drilling operations) i.e drilling
time using genetic algorithm.
SOME ASPECTS OF PROCESS PARAMETRIC OPTIMIZATION IN CONVENTIONAL AND
NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ENVIRONMENT
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In addition to the above mentioned work the process parameters of non
conventional machining (WEDM) i.e. MRR, Kerf and surface finish have also
been optimized using grey relational analysis.
Optimization helps us to find the most effective settings required so as to obtain
the desired process parameters under given constraints.
In the present study experimental settings were optimized so as to obtain
minimum drilling time in conventional machining environment (drilling) and to
obtain maximum MRR, Surface finish (SF) and minimum kerf in non
conventional machining environment (WEDM).
SOME ASPECTS OF PROCESS PARAMETRIC OPTIMIZATION IN CONVENTIONAL AND
NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ENVIRONMENT
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CHAPTER 2
2. Prior Art
2.1 Based on optimization techniques used in non conventional
machining(WEDM)
For optimization of wire electric discharge machining (WEDM) many optimization
techniques have been used.
A neural network system to find out settings of pulse duration, pulse interval, peak
current, open circuit voltage, servo reference voltage, electric capacitance, and table
speed for the computation of cutting speed and surface finish was used by Tarng et
al.[1].Scott et al. [2] used a factorial design method to analyze the optimal
combination of control parameters in WEDM, the measures of machining
performance being the metal removal rate and the surface finish. Based on the
analysis of variance, it was determined that the discharge current, pulse duration, and
pulse frequency are significant control factors for both the metal removal rate and
surface roughness.
The machining performances in terms of MRR and surface finish were obtained by
processing of two advanced ceramics under different cutting conditions using WEDM
by Lok and Lee[3]. Mahapatra and Patnaik [4]. Applied Taguchi method and Genetic
Algorithm to deduce an optimal parametric combination to achieve desired quality of
the machined product. It was found that, it may so happen, the optimal result
predicted by GA cannot be achieved in reality, due to nonexistence of the optimal
parameter combination in the machine. So, in reality a compromise has to be made to
select the next possible factor combination, very close to the optimal.
Kuriakose and Shunmugam[5]. Conducted experiments based on Taguchis L-18
orthogonal array .Then they employed the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm to
determine the optimal process parameters that would optimize the cutting velocity and
SR of WEDM process.
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Ramakrishnan and Karunamoorthy[6]. Considered three response characteristics,
e.g. MRR, SR and wire wear ratio (WWR) for a WEDM process and obtained the
optimal process settings by optimization of multiple response signal-to-noise (MRSN)
ratio, the logarithmic transformation of the sum of the weighted normalized quality
loss of individual response variable.
Manna and Bhattacharyya [7] devised mathematical models relating to the machining
performance criteria like MRR, SR, spark gap and gap current using the Gauss
elimination method .The effect of various machining parameters on the gap width, SR
and the depth of white layer on the machined work piece (SKD11
alloy steel) surface was analyzed experimentally by Huang et al. [8] They adopted the
feasible-direction.
It may be noted that most of the prevailing approaches use complex mathematical
models for optimization of multiple responses. Moreover, these mathematical
approaches may not take into account the possible correlation among the responses
that may exist.
In this study, some modifications of the multi-response optimization procedure are
suggested. and the experimental data reported by Mahapatra and Patnaik [4] are
analysed using this modified procedure(GRA).
The purpose of the present work is to introduce the use of grey relational analysis in
selecting optimum conditions on multi-performance characteristics, namely, MRR,
Kerf and Surface finish. And finally the factors affecting the most in the WEDM
process are analyzed.
2.2 Based on optimization techniques used in conventional machining(WEDM)
With reference to the published literature, it is clear that, currently the usage of the
GA technique, which is labeled as a soft computing approach for the drilling
machining cutting process, is given less consideration by researchers.
Taguchi approach was used by Amitava Ray et al[9] to optimize the drilling time
using Process cost prediction. According to Ganesan, Mohankumar, Ganesan, and
Ramesh Kumar[10], GA and PSO is one the best population search techniques. GA
SOME ASPECTS OF PROCESS PARAMETRIC OPTIMIZATION IN CONVENTIONAL AND
NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ENVIRONMENT
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optimization technique has been used by a number of researchers to find the optimal
surface roughness in various traditional and modern machining (Maji & Pratihar[11]).
An overview of GA technique to optimize the surface roughness in milling process
and previous work of machining optimizing problem for surface roughness can be
found in Zain, Haron, and Sharif [12]. Taguchi-based optimization technique has
produced a unique and powerful optimization discipline that differs from traditional
practices (Phadke, [13]). This approach can economically satisfy the needs of problem
solving and design optimization with minimum number of experiments without the
need for process model developments. However, the original Taguchi technique is
designed to optimize a single performance characteristic. Several modifications are
suggested to the original Taguchi method for multi-response optimization such as
principal component analysis (PCA), data envelopment analysis (DEA) and grey
relational analysis (GRA) ( Jeyapaul et al., 2[14] ). However, all these modifications
increase the computational process complexity and require proper engineering
judgment.
In this research genetic algorithm is used to predict the optimal process parameter
settings of drilling process. In this study, some modifications of the single response
optimization procedure are suggested. and the experimental data reported by Amitava
Ray et al[9] are analyzed using this modified procedure(GA).
SOME ASPECTS OF PROCESS PARAMETRIC OPTIMIZATION IN CONVENTIONAL AND
NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ENVIRONMENT
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CHAPTER 3
3. Objectives of the research done:-
The objectives of the research done are as follows:-
- To study the characteristics, applications and classification of conventional
and non conventional machining environment.
- To determine the optimal settings for the factors affecting both conventional
and non conventional machining.
- To determine the best possible single & multi objective optimised setting for
maximization of MRR, Surface finish(SF) and minimization of kerf in
WEDM(non conventional machining environment) using grey relational
analysis(GRA).
- To determine the factors affecting the Wire electric discharge
machining(WEDM) the most using grey relational analysis.
- To determine the best possible effective setting for minimization of drilling
time in drilling process(conventional machining environment) using Genetic
Algorithm.
- To study the research methodologies used in optimization process of both
conventional and non conventional machining environment.
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CHAPTER 4
4. Optimization of WEDM process parameters using grey relational
analysis
4.1 Introduction to wire electric discharge machining(WEDM)
Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM), a kind of non-traditional precision
machining process, has been found to be an extremely potential electro-thermal
process in the field of conductive material machining.
In recent years, the technology of wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM)
has been improved significantly to meet the requirements in various manufacturing
fields, especially in the precision die industry. WEDM is a thermo electrical
process in which material is eroded from the work piece by a series of discrete
sparks between the work piece and the wire electrode (tool) separated by a thin
film of dielectric fluid (de-ionized water) that is continuously fed to the machining
zone to flush away the eroded particles. The movement of wire is controlled
numerically to achieve the desired three-dimensional shape and accuracy of the
work piece.
The schematic diagram of WEDM is shown in Fig.3 along with dielectric flow,
power supply, working table and other control devices. It is evident from Fig. 1that
it is absolutely essential to hold the wire in a designed position against the object
because the wire repeats complex oscillations due to electro-discharge between the
wire and work piece. Normally, the wire is held by a pin guide at the upper and
lower parts of the work piece
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The most important performance measures in WEDM are material removal rate,
surface finish and cutting width (kerf). They depend on machining parameters like
discharge current, pulse duration, pulse frequency, wire speed, wire tension and
dielectric flow rate.
Among other performance measures, the kerf, which determines the dimensional
accuracy of the finishing part, is of extreme importance. The internal corner radius to
be produced in WEDM operations is also limited by the kerf. The gap between wire
and work piece usually ranges from 0.025 to 0.075 mm and is constantly maintained
by a computer controlled positioning system.
In WEDM operations, material removal rate determine the economics of machining
and rate of production where as kerf denotes degree of precision.
4.2 Experimental design and data collection
The experimental designs used in this research are based on taguchi process. Taguchi
methods are statistical methods developed by g. taguchi to improve the quality of
manufacturing goods. recently this method can be applied to engineering by
technology and various product development applications. Here taguchi design are
used to design the experimental plan.
Experiments by Mahapatra and Patnaik [4]have been carried out on D2 steel
block(1.5%C, 12% Cr, 0. 6%V, % Mo, 0 .6% Si, 0.6% Mn and b al ance Fe) with
200251 0 mm size, was cut 100 mm in length with 10 mm depth along the longer
length. A 0.25-mm diameter stratified wire ( zinc coated copper w ire) with vertical
Fig. 3 schematic diagram of WEDM
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Configuration was used and discarded once used using Taguchis L
27
Orthogonal
Array (OA) experimental design which consists of 27 combinations of six process
parameters. Experimental design using Taguchis L
27
Orthogonal Array is illustrated
in table.1.
In the present study process parameters used are:-
(i) Discharge current
(ii) Pulse duration
(iii) Pulse frequency
(iv) Wire speed
(v) Wire tension
(vi) Dielectric flow rate
The response variables used are:-
(I) MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE (MRR)
(II) KERF
(III) SURFACE FINISH(SF)
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Table. 1 Taguchis L
27
Orthogonal Array [4]
Exp no A B C D E F MRR R
a
KERF
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.139939 3.68 0.236
2 1 1 1 1 2 2 0.127569 3.61 0.190
3 1 1 1 1 3 3 0.115264 3.53 0.161
4 1 2 2 2 1 1 0.169761 3.82 0.286
5 1 2 2 2 2 2 0.150028 3.77 0.224
6 1 2 2 2 3 3 0.156325 3.70 0.217
7 1 3 3 3 1 1 0.182900 3.86 0.308
8 1 3 3 3 2 2 0.166973 3.83 0.248
9 1 3 3 3 3 3 0.146937 3.77 0.204
10 2 1 2 3 1 2 0.141560 3.64 0.211
11 2 1 2 3 2 3 0.132273 3.63 0.184
12 2 1 2 3 3 1 0.151855 3.67 0.256
13 2 2 3 1 1 2 0.222566 3.89 0.332
14 2 2 3 1 2 3 0.219497 3.87 0.306
15 2 2 3 1 3 1 0.220792 3.90 0.372
16 2 3 1 2 1 2 0.165344 3.86 0.246
17 2 3 1 2 2 3 0.156703 3.83 0.218
18 2 3 1 2 3 1 0.165329 3.86 0.278
19 3 1 3 2 1 3 0.168143 3.73 0.234
20 3 1 3 2 2 1 0.174135 3.75 0.294
21 3 1 3 2 3 2 0.170947 3.73 0.254
22 3 2 1 3 1 3 0.161285 3.80 0.225
23 3 2 1 3 2 1 0.169096 3.84 0.285
24 3 2 1 3 3 2 0.169818 3.83 0.253
25 3 3 2 1 1 3 0.188897 3.99 0.263
26 3 3 2 1 2 1 0.155701 3.89 0.262
27 3 3 2 1 3 2 0.174034 3.89 0.259
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Table 2 &3 shows the input and the fixed parameters and their levels respectively
used in the present study.
Table 2. Input and fixed parameters
Process parameters Symbols Fixed parameters
Discharge current Factor A Wire Zinc-coated copper
wire
Pulse duration Factor B Shape Rectangular product
Pulse frequency Factor C Location of work
piece on working
table
At the center of the
table
Wire speed Factor D Angle of cut Vertical
Wire tension Factor E Thickness of work
piece
10 mm
Dielectric flow rate Factor F `Stability Servo control
Height of work piece 25 mm
Wire type Stratified, copper,
diameter
0.25 mm
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Table 3. Eactors and their levels
LEVELS
Control Factor 1 2 3 UNITS
Discharge current 16.00 24.00 32.00 amp
Pulse duration 3.20 6.40 12.80 sec
Pulse frequency 40.00 50.00 60.00 KHz
Wire speed 7.60 8.60 9.20 m/min
Wire tension 1000 1100 1200 g
Dielectric flow
rate
1.20 1.30 1.40 bars
4.3 Single objective optimization using taguchi methodology
The actual values of machining process parametric combinations and corresponding
responses i.e. material removal rate, kerf and R
a
listed in Table 1. In Taguchi
methodology, a loss function is transformed into Signal-to-Noise (S/N) ratio. In this
experimental investigation, material removal rate (MRR) corresponds to higher the
better (HB) type. However, kerf and R
a
correspond to lower the better (LB) type. The
S/N ratio values were calculated based on the following equations.
Higher the better (HB) type S/N ratio =
10 2
1
1 1
10log
n
i
i
n y

1

1
]
_
Lower the better (LB) type S/N ratio =
2
10
1
1
10log
n
i
i
y
n

1

1
]
_
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Regardless of the category of the performance characteristics, a greater q value
corresponds to a better performance. The plots of S/N ratios of the three responses
with each process parameter are shown in figures 4-6. In the following sections, the
influence of WEDM process parameters such as discharge current, pulse duration,
pulse frequency, wire speed, wire tension, dielectric flow rate on MRR, kerf and R
a
have been analyzed based on the S/N curves as obtained by MINITAB 15 software.
4.3.1 Analysis of MRR
Fig.4 shows that with increase in discharge current and pulse duration MRR increases
and then decreases. Whereas MRR increases with increase in pulse frequency.on the
other hand MRR decreases with increase in wire speed, tension and dielectric flow
rate.
Fig.4 PLOT OF S/N RATIO OF MRR
4.3.2 Analysis of KERF
Fig.5 Shows that with increase in discharge current and pulse duration KERF
increases and then decreases. Whereas KERF increases linearly with increase in pulse
frequency. On the other hand KERF decreases with increase in wire speed and KERF
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first decreases and then increases with increase in wire tension tension. It is also
observed that KERF decreases linearly with increase in dielectric flow rate.
Fig.5 PLOT OF S/N RATIO OF KERF
4.3.3 Analysis of R
a
Fig.6 Shows that with increase in dishcharge current, pulse duration and pulse
frequency the Ra increases and with increase in wire speed , wire tension , dielectric
flow rate it decreases
Fig.6 PLOT OF S/N RATIO OF Ra
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4.4 Multi objective optimization using grey relational analysis
4.4.1Grey relational analysis
Recently, the grey relational analysis (GRA) has become one of the powerful and
effective soft-tool to analyze various processes which having multiple performance
characteristics.
In most of the real world problems, the situation comes in a state which is neither
perfectly black (with no information) nor perfectly white (with complete information).
This condition is then described as being grey. The GRA is based on a grey system, in
which a part of information is known and other remaining part of information is
unknown. Generally, GRA is carried out for solving complicated problems which
have interrelationships among the designated performance characteristics. GRA is
also performed to solve multi-input and discrete data problems effectively and
efficiently. In the following sections, the step-by-step procedure of carrying out grey
relational analysis has been discussed showing the grey relational analysis based
results of the present research.
The above experiments in the present study are analyzed using grey relational analysis
to obtain the most optimized settings.
4.4.2 Normalization of experimental results
Normalization is the process in which transformation of input data takes place to an
evenly distributed data in a scale range between 0 and 1. The experimental results for
the responses i.e. MRR, R
a
and KERF are normalized using equations (1)-(2) where
x
ij
is the normalized value of y
ij
for response j (j = 1,2,3,.,n) of experiment I (i =
1,2,3,,m)
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(i) If the response is of higher-the-better type, then normalized value x
ij
is
expressed as
| | | | |
min / max min
ij ij ij ij ij
x y y y y
(1)
(ii) If the response is of smaller-the-better type, then normalized value x
ij
is
expressed as
| | | | |
max / max min
ij ij ij ij ij
x y y y y
(2)
If the normalized value x
ij
for a response j of experiment i is equal to 1 or nearer to
1, then it is said that the performance of that particular experiment i is best
for the response j.
That normalized value is termed as reference value (x
0j
) for j
th
response.
In the present research study, MRR is of higher-the-better type response
whereas R
a
and kerf are smaller-the-better type responses.
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Table 4. Normalized data
EXPT NO MRR R
a
KERF
1 0.222985 0.673918 0.64455
2 0.114676 0.826087 0.862559
3 0 1 1
4 0.507884 0.369565 0.407583
5 0.323982 0.478261 0.701422
6 0.382668 0.630435 0.734597
7 0.630333 0.282609 0.303318
8 0.481902 0.347826 0.587678
9 0.295176 0.478261 0.769209
10 0.245065 0.76087 0.763033
11 0.158515 0.782609 0.890995
12 0.341009 0.695652 0.549763
13 1 0.217391 0.189573
14 0.971398 0.26087 0.312796
15 0.983467 0.195652 0
16 0.46672 0.282609 0.597156
17 0.38619 0.347826 0.729858
18 0.46658 0.282609 0.445998
19 0.492805 0.565217 0.654028
20 0.548648 0.521739 0.369668
21 0.518937 0.565217 0.559242
22 0.428892 0.413043 0.696682
23 0.501687 0.326087 0.412322
24 0.508416 0.347826 0.563981
25 0.686222 0 0.516588
26 0.376852 0.217391 0.521327
27 0.547706 0.217391 0.535545
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4.4.3 GREY RELATIONAL COEFFECIENTS
The grey relational coefficient (table6) is calculated to determine the closeness of x
ij
to x
0j
. Higher value of grey relational coefficient means x
ij
is closer to x
0j
. Grey
relational coefficient is calculated based on equation (3). This calculation requires the
estimation of quality loss ij of each response from its best suited value (Table 5)
| | |
0 min max max
, /
j ij ij
x x A + A A + A for i= 1,2,3,..,m and j = 1,2,3,.,n
(3)
where,
0 ij j ij
x x A
(table 6)
[ ]
min
min , 1, 2,3,...., ; 1, 2,3,....,
ij
i m j n A A
[ ]
max
max , 1, 2,3,...., ; 1, 2,3,....,
ij
i m j n A A =0.5,
distinguishing coefficient, e(0,1)
The normalized values of each of the responses for all 27 experiments are used to
calculate the grey relational coefficient using equation (3). The distinguishing
coefficient is taken as 0.5.
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Table 5 Estimation of ij
EXPT NO MRR SF KERF
IDEAL
SEQUENCE 1
1 1
1 0.777015 0.326082 0.35545
2 0.885324 0.173913 0.137441
3 1 0 0
4 0.492116 0.630435 0.592417
5 0.676018 0.521739 0.298578
6 0.617332 0.369565 0.265403
7 0.369667 0.717391 0.696682
8 0.518098 0.652174 0.412322
9 0.704824 0.521739 0.230791
10 0.754935 0.23913 0.236967
11 0.841485 0.217391 0.109005
12 0.658991 0.304348 0.450237
13 0 0.782609 0.810427
14 0.028602 0.73913 0.687204
15 0.016533 0.804348 1
16 0.53328 0.717391 0.402844
17 0.61381 0.652174 0.270142
18 0.53342 0.717391 0.554002
19 0.507195 0.434783 0.345972
20 0.451352 0.478261 0.630332
21 0.481063 0.434783 0.440758
22 0.571108 0.586957 0.303318
23 0.498313 0.673913 0.587678
24 0.491584 0.652174 0.436019
25 0.313778 1 0.483412
26 0.623148 0.782609 0.478673
27 0.452294 0.782609 0.464455
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Table 6. Grey relational coefficients
EXPT NO MRR SF KERF
1 0.391538 0.605267 0.584488
2 0.360926 0.741936 0.784386
3 0.333333 1 1
4 0.503973 0.442308 0.457701
5 0.425164 0.489362 0.626113
6 0.447495 0.575 0.653251
7 0.574933 0.410714 0.417822
8 0.491112 0.433962 0.548052
9 0.414998 0.489362 0.68419
10 0.398427 0.676471 0.678456
11 0.372721 0.69697 0.821011
12 0.43141 0.621621 0.526185
13 1 0.38983 0.381555
14 0.945891 0.403509 0.421158
15 0.967992 0.383333 0.333333
16 0.483896 0.410714 0.553806
17 0.44891 0.433962 0.649231
18 0.48383 0.410714 0.474382
19 0.496428 0.534883 0.591036
20 0.525568 0.511111 0.442348
21 0.509651 0.534883 0.531486
22 0.466806 0.46 0.622419
23 0.500845 0.425926 0.459695
24 0.504244 0.433962 0.534177
25 0.614418 0.333333 0.508434
26 0.445177 0.38983 0.510896
27 0.525048 0.38983 0.518428
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4.4.4 Grey relational grade
Grey relational grade is the weighted sum of the grey relational coefficients for
a particular experiment and it is calculated using equation (4).
| |
0 0
1
, ,
n
i j ij
j
X X wj x x

I
_
fori = 1,2,3,...,m (4)
where, (X
0
, X
i
) is grey relational grade between comparability sequence X
i
and
reference sequence X
0
and
1
1
n
ij
j
w

_
.
The experiment which has highest grey relational grade is said to be best choice of all
the runs. The values of grey relational coefficients and grey relational grade are
shown in table 6 and 7.
The graph (Fig. 7) between the grey relational grade (x-axis) and the number of
experiments (y-axis) using Microsoft excel. it is clearly visible from the plotted graph
that the third experiment has the highest grey relational grade hence is the best choice
of all the experimental runs.
Fig.7 Grey relational grade Vs experimental runs
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Table 7 Grey relational grade
EXPT NO GREY RELATIONAL
GRADE
1 0.527096
2 0.629083
3 0.777778
4 0.467994
5 0.513546
6 0.558582
7 0.467823
8 0.491042
9 0.529517
10 0.584451
11 0.630234
12 0.526405
13 0.590462
14 0.590186
15 0.561553
16 0.482805
17 0.510701
18 0.456309
19 0.540783
20 0.493009
21 0.52534
22 0.516408
23 0.462155
24 0.490794
25 0.485395
26 0.448635
27 0.477769
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Mean for overall grey relational grade at different levels is then calculated using the
grey relational grades at the corresponding levels.
The delta values found in the following table shows us that within selected
experimental domain the most significant factor becomes pulse duration (B). Next to
pulse duration is the dielectric flow rate (F), wire speed (D), discharge current(A),
wire tension(E) and pulse frequency(C) are the parameters in order to influence on
responses.
Table.8 Mean of the overall grey relational grade
LEVELS
A B C D E F
1 0.551385 0.581575 0.539237 0.565329 0.518135 0.490109
2 0.548123 0.527964 0.521446 0.505452 0.529843 0.531699
3 0.493365 0.483333 0.532190 0.522092 0.544894 0.571065
DELTA 0.05802 0.098242 0.017791 0.059877 0.026759 0.080956
RANK 4 1 6 3 5 2
4.4.6 Results and discussions
The experiment with highest grey relational grade (table 6) is said to be the most
optimum one.
For single objective optimization of each response criteria, taguchi technique is used
and the results achieved are given in table 9.
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Table9. Results achieved using taguchi methodolgy
For multi-objective optimization of response criteria, grey relational analysis (GRA)
has been performed and the optimal multi-objective process parametric settings found
are A(1)B(1)C(1)D(1)E(3)F(3). This shows that optimum settings found are
16amp/3.2 sec/40 KHz /7.60m/min/1200g/1.40bars for the factors i.e. discharge
current, pulse duration, pulse frequency, wire speed, wire tension, dielectric flow rate
respectively which would maximize MRR and minimize kerf and surface
roughness(R
a
).
From table 7. It is found that within selected experimental domain the most significant
factor becomes pulse duration. Next to pulse duration is the dielectric flow rate, wire
speed, discharge current, wire tension and pulse frequency are the parameters in order
to influence on responses.
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CHAPTER 5
5. Application of genetic algorithm in minimizing the drilling time
5.1 Introduction to drilling process
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole in solid
materials.
The drill bit is a multipoint, end cutting tool. It cuts by applying pressure and rotation
to the work piece, which forms chips at the cutting edge.
Drilling is one of the most common and complex operations among many kinds of
machining methods. It is widely used in a variety of manufacturing industries
including aerospace and automotive sectors.
In drilling operations, drilling time depends upon thickness, feed rate, hole diameter,
cutting speed and clearance
5.2. Experimental design and data collection
The experimental data (table.11) used in the present study is based on the research
work done by Amitava ray et al.[9]. In this study experiments were conducted using
taguchi L
27
orthogonal array (table.11) and the following process parameters (table.10)
were taken into consideration to optimize the drilling time.
(i) Thickness of material removed(mm)
(ii) Diameter of material (mm)
(iii) Surface speed of drill (mm/s)
(iv) Feed(mm/rev)
(v) Clearance(mm)
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Table.10 Shows the process parameters and its levels
s
S.no FACTORS UNITS LEVEL1 LEVEL2 LEVEL3
1
1 THICKNESS (A) mm 2.5 10 25.4
2
2 DIAMETER (B) mm 6.35 10 25.4
3
3 SPEED (C) mm/s 180 350 550
4
4 FEED (D) mm/rev 0.15 0.45 1
5
5 CLEARANCE (E) mm 1 2 3
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Table.11 Shows the process parameters and its levels
Exp
no
THICKNESS DIAMETER SPEED FEED CLEARANCE DRILLING
TIME
1 2.5 6.35 180 0.15 1 2.5847
2 2.5 6.35 180 0.15 2 3.3232
3 2.5 6.35 180 0.15 3 4.0616
4 2.5 10.00 350 0.45 1 0.6978
5 2.5 10.00 350 0.45 2 0.8971
6 2.5 10.00 350 0.45 3 1.0965
7 2.5 25.40 550 1.00 1 0.5075
8 2.5 25.40 550 1.00 2 0.6525
9 2.5 25.40 550 1.00 3 0.7976
10 10.0 6.35 350 1.00 1 0.6267
11 10.0 6.35 350 1.00 2 0.6836
12 10.0 6.35 350 1.00 3 0.7406
13 10.0 10.00 550 0.15 1 4.1867
14 10.0 10.00 550 0.15 2 4.5673
15 10.0 10.00 550 0.15 3 4.9478
16 10.0 25.40 180 0.45 1 10.8311
17 10.0 25.40 180 0.45 2 11.8157
18 10.0 25.40 180 0.45 3 12.8004
19 25.4 6.35 550 0.45 1 2.1268
20 25.4 6.35 550 0.45 2 2.2074
21 25.4 6.35 550 0.45 3 2.2879
22 25.4 10.00 180 1.00 1 4.6053
23 25.4 10.00 180 1.00 2 4.7798
24 25.4 10.00 180 1.00 3 4.9542
25 25.4 25.40 350 0.15 1 40.1059
26 25.4 25.40 350 0.15 2 41.6250
27 25.4 25.40 350 0.15 3 43.1442
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5.3 Development of regression equation for drilling time
The first necessary step for process parameter optimization in any metal cutting
process is to understand the principles governing the processes by developing
an explicit mathematical model. Here, statistical regression technique has been used
to model the equation.
The objective consists of adjusting the parameters of a model function to best
fit a data set. A simple data set consists of n points (data pairs) (xi, yi) i = 1,
..., n, where xi is an independent variable and y
i
is a dependent variable
whose value is found by observation. The model function has the form f(x, ), where
the m adjustable parameters are held in the vector . The goal is to find the
parameter values for the model which "best" fits the data. The least squares
method finds its optimum when the sum, S, of squared residuals.
(5)
is a minimum. A residual is defined as the difference between the actual value of the
dependent variable and the value predicted by the model.
(6)
An example of a model is that of the straight line. Denoting the intercept as
0
and the slope as
1
, the model function is given by
(7)
A data point may consist of more than one independent variable. For an example,
when fitting a plane to a set of height measurements, the plane is a function of
two independent variables, x and z, say. In the most general case there may be one
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or more independent variables and one or more dependent variables at each data
point.
The minimum of the sum of squares is found by setting the by setting the
Gradient to zero. Since the model contains m parameters there are m gradient
equations.
(8)
From equations (6) and (8), the gradient equation can be written as
(9)
The gradient equations apply to all least squares problems.
Each particular problem requires particular expressions for the model and its partial
derivatives. A regression model is a linear one when the model comprises a
linear combination of the parameters, i.e.
(10)
Here the coefficients, j, are functions of x
i
.
Letting
(11)
In case the least square estimate (or estimator, in the context of a random sample), is
given by
(12)
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The following regression equation has been developed based on the experimental
results shown in Table 11. This regression equation is achieved by feeding the
experimental data to the statistical Minitab software. In Fig. 8, the snapshot view of
the results of regression analysis from Minitab software is shown. The regression
equation developed for drilling time is as follows
Drilling time= - 0.49 + 0.644 thickness + 0.871 diameter - 0.0127 speed - 15.6feed+
0.48 clearance
Correlation coefficient r
2
=0.801
The higher correlation coefficients confirm that suitability of the used model and the
correctness of the calculated model.
Fig.8 Snapshot of minitab 15
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5.4 optimization based on genetic algorithm
In 1975, Holland developed this idea in his book Adaptation in natural and artificial
systems. He described how to apply the principles of natural evolution to
optimization problems and built the first Genetic Algorithms. Hollands theory has
been further developed and now Genetic Algorithms (GAs) stand up as a
powerful tool for solving search and optimization problems. Genetic algorithms
are based on the principle of genetics and evolution [12]. Goldberg, 1989 gives
an excellent introductory discussion on GA, as well as some more advanced topics.
Genetic algorithms are a probabilistic search approach which is founded on the
ideas of evolutionary processes. The GA procedure is based on the Darwinian
principle of survival of the fittest. An initial population is created
containing a predefined number of individuals (or solutions), each represented by
a genetic string (incorporating the variable information). Each individual has an
associated fitness measure, typically representing an objective value. The
concept that fittest (or best) individuals in a population will produce fitter
offspring is then implemented in order to reproduce the next population.
Selected individuals are chosen for reproduction (or crossover) at each
generation, with an appropriate mutation factor to randomly modify the genes of an
individual, in order to develop the new population. The result is another set of
individuals based on the original subjects leading to subsequent populations with
better (min. or max.) individual fitness. Therefore, the algorithm identifies the
individuals with the optimizing fitness values, and those with lower fitness will
naturally get discarded from the population. Ultimately this search procedure finds
a set of variables that optimizes the fitness of an individual and/or of the
whole population. As a result, the GA technique has advantages over traditional non-
linear solution techniques that cannot always achieve an optimal solution. For
the genetic algorithm, the population encompasses a range of possible outcomes.
Solutions are identified purely on a fitness level, and therefore local optima are not
distinguished from other equally fit individuals. Those solutions closer to the
global optimum will thus have higher fitness values. Successive generations
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improve the fitness of individuals in the population until the optimization
convergence criterion is met. Due to this probabilistic nature GA tends to the
global optimum, however for the same reasons GA models cannot guarantee
finding the optimal solution. The GA consists of four main stages: evaluation,
selection, crossover and mutation. These are briefly discussed below.
- Evaluation
The evaluation procedure measures the fitness of each individual solution in the
population and assigns it a relative value based on the defining optimization (or
search) criteria. Typically in a non-linear programming scenario, this measure will
reflect the objective value of the given model.
- Selection
The selection procedure randomly selects individuals of the current population for
development of the next generation. Various alternative methods have been
proposed but all follow the idea that the fittest have a greater chance of survival.
- Crossover
The crossover procedure takes two selected individuals and combines them
about a crossover point thereby creating two new individuals. Simple (asexual)
reproduction can also occur which replicates a single individual into the new
population.
- Mutation
The mutation procedure randomly modifies the genes of an individual subject to
a small mutation factor, introducing further randomness into the population. This
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iterative process continues until one of the possible termination criteria is met: if a
known optimal or acceptable solution level is attained; or if a maximum number of
generations have been performed; or if a given number of generations without fitness
improvement occur. Generally, the last of these criteria applies as convergence slows
to the optimal solution.
Population size selection is probably the most important parameter, reflecting
the size and complexity of the problem. However, the trade-off between extra
computational `efforts with respect to increased population size is a problem specific
decision to be ascertained by the modeler, as doubling the population size will
approximately double the solution time for the same number of generations. Other
parameters include the maximum number of generations to be performed, a crossover
probability, a mutation probability, a selection method and possibly an elitist
strategy, where the best is retained in the next generations population.
Fig.5 Flow chart of Genetic Algorithms
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Unlike traditional optimization methods, GA is better at handling integer variables
than continuous variables. This is due to the inherent granularity of variable gene
strings within the GA model structure. Typically, a variable is implemented with a
range of possible values with a binary string indicating the number of such values;
i.e. if x1 [0,15] and the gene string is 4 characters (e.g. 1010) then there are 16
possibilities for the search to consider. To model this as a continuous variable increases
the number of possible values significantly. Similarly, other variable information which
aids the search considerably are upper and lower bound values. These factors can
affect convergence of the model solutions greatly.
The fitness function used in the genetic algorithm was same as the equation found by
linear regression analysis. The Turbo C compiler was used to develop the GA
simulation. And following specifications were taken into consideration
Constraints used for the process parameters were as follows:-
POPULATION SIZE = 27
MAXGENS = 100
NO. OF VARIABLES = 5
PERCENTAGE OF CROSSOVER = 75%
PERCENTAGE OF MUTATION = 2%
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2.5 Thickness 25.4
6.35 Diameter 25.4
180 Speed 550
0.15 Feed 1
1 clearance 3
5.5 results and discussions
- It is observed that the drilling time decreases with increase in no. of generations.
The optimal parametric setting of Thickness, diameter, speed ,feed ,clearance for
which drilling time is minimum is 21.530mm/ 24.009mm/520.770mm/sec/ 0.873
mm/rev/ 2.312mm.
- Unlike traditional optimization methods, GA is better at handling integer
variables than continuous variables. This is due to the inherent granularity of
variable gene strings within the GA model structure.
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CHAPTER 6
6.1 Conclusion
In the present research investigation, an attempt has been made to find out the optimal
process parametric setting of conventional (Drilling) and non conventional machining
(WEDM) process.
The following are the major conclusion that can be drawn based on the experimental
results achieved in the present research study.
For single objective optimization of each response criteria, taguchi technique is used
and the results achieved are given in given below.
MRR = 24amp/6.4 sec /60 KHz /7.6 m/min /1000 g /1.2bars
Kerf = 16amp/3.2 sec /40 KHz /9.2 m/min /1100 g /1.4bars
Ra = 16 amp /3.2 sec /40 KHz /9.2 m/min /1200 g/1.4bars
For multi-objective optimization of response criteria, grey relational analysis (GRA)
has been performed and the optimal multi-objective process parametric settings found
are 16amp/3.2 sec/40 KHz /7.60m/min/1200g/1.40bars
It is found that within selected experimental domain the most significant factor
becomes pulse duration. Next to pulse duration is the dielectric flow rate, wire speed,
discharge current ,wire tension and pulse frequency are the parameters in order to
influence on responses.
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The optimal parametric setting of Thickness, diameter, speed ,feed ,clearance for
which drilling time is minimum is 21.530mm/ 24.009mm/520.770mm/sec/ 0.873
mm/rev/ 2.312mm
CHAPTER 7
7.1 References
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in wire electrical discharge machining. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 35(129):16931700
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7. Manna A, Bhattacharyya B (2006) Taguchi and Gauss elimination method: a dual
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NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING ENVIRONMENT
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15. Zain, A. M., Haron, H., & Sharif, S. (2010a). Application of GA to optimize
cutting
conditions for minimizing surface roughness in end milling machining process.
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Optimal Cutting Conditions For Minimizing Surface Roughness In End Milling
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Annealing to estimate optimal process parameters of the abrasive waterjet
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retrospective and literature review. Sadhana Journal (India), 30, 699711.
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