Dli v18

Dialog
on
Language Instruction
Editor
Lidia Woytak
Editorial Advisors
Christine M. Campbell * Gordon L. Jackson * John Hedgcock
Copyeditor
CTI2(NAC) Megan N. Williams
2007
Volume 18 · Numbers 1 & 2
Defense Language Institute

Foreign Language Center
and
Presidio of Monterey
Dialog on Language Instruction
2007 · Volume 18 · Numbers 1 & 2
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2007 Volume 18 Numbers 1 & 2
Articles
1 The RAP Project: Using Technology to Reach Advanced-Level
Proficiency in Foreign language Learning
Hussny Ibrahim
15 Russian Arms Control Speaking Proficiency Course in

Defense Threat Reduction Agency
Valentina Freeman, Elena Krasnyanskaya, and Wesley Reed
27 Toward an Integrated Approach to the Development of

Interactive Listening Lessons
Abdelfattah Boussalhi and Maria Ortenberg
39 How to Enhance Students' Proficiency Through Movies

Kyung Sook Lee
49 The Role of Aptitude in Foreign Language Learning

Marina Cobb
57 Pre-Interpretation Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom

and on-Line
Teresa Gryminska
Review Article
69 Foreign Language Teaching Methodology at DLI: 1985 to Present
Christine Campbell and Deanna Tovar
Faculty Exchange
77 Notes from an OPI Tester Trainer to DLIFLC Instructors
Why Can't They Describe?
Patricia Fay-Magiera
News and Views

81 Former DLI Russian Faculty Member Publishes Book
Christine Campbell
General Information
83 Index
89 Calendar of Events
93 Information for Contributors
The Rap Project
2007, Vol. 18, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 1-14
The RAP Project

Using Technology to Reach
Advanced –Level Proficiency in Foreign Language Learning
Hussny Ibrahim
Middle East School II
In an attempt to respond to national needs for linguists with advanced

level proficiency in Modern Standard Arabic, I launched the Research,
Analyze, and Present (RAP) project in one Arabic department at
DLIFLC. My objective was to extend the learners’ proficiency to the
advanced level by maximizing their interaction with authentic audio
and reading materials and by making use of the students’ creativity
and analytical skills. Through teacher-guided Internet searches, the
learners systematically selected and interacted with authentic materials.
This paper is a case study of Class 505, which graduated 38 students
in June 2006. In this paper I show how the project evolved and what
the outcomes were in terms of proficiency test results and student
opinion.
Background
The need for high level linguists in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) has
prompted national interest in preparing students to reach advanced to superior levels
(Malone, 2005).
A new policy at the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center
(DLIFLC), which will be implemented in 2008, will require students to meet new
Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) standards of levels 2+, 2+, 2 in listening, reading,
and speaking, respectively. The ILR scale, used throughout the U. S. Government for
measuring language proficiency, provides descriptors of each base and plus level from 0+
to 5. The higher DLIFLC graduation standards are equivalent to the American Council
on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) standards of Advanced to Superior
levels.
With ILR level 3 equivalent to ACTFL’s Superior level and level 2+ identified as
that closer to level 3 than to level 2, the new goal is, in effect, to prepare students to reach
near-superior competency in reading and listening. The ability to understand hypothesis,
supported opinion, implications, and abstract linguistic formulations are major examples
of Superior level requirements.
As a further challenge, future Arabic students will be tested with a much more
rigorous MSA listening and reading examination. The Defense Language Proficiency
Test 5 (DLPT 5) is characterized by authentic reading and listening texts with strong
cultural and sociolinguistic references, based on such topics as geography, history and
politics. In addition, the authentic MSA listening texts are delivered by several Arabic
speakers with accents as varied as the countries using the language.
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Hussny Ibrahim
With these challenges in mind I started a project with Class 505 when the
students began Semester 2. On Wednesday July 13th, 2005, the students of class 505
were instructed to go to the new Multi Media Language Lab (MMLL) where they were
given the assignment, due by Friday of the same week, to search the Internet for current
Arabic news items related to the topic “Health and Science.” They were to report
their findings in a class room setting in any manner they chose as long as they used the
available technologies--Smart Board, networking facilities, and the available software
[i.e. PowerPoint, Adobe Audition, Movie maker, etc.). Their tasks were to find relevant
reading texts and to develop a list of key vocabulary encountered during their search
(i.e. idioms, expressions, sociolinguistic references, etc.). In addition, they had to write
a commentary on the news reflecting their individual interaction with the news medium.
Commentaries could range from one sentence to more than one paragraph. The results
were impressive; the variety of styles and innovations reflected students’ analytical skills,
as well as their individualized manner of interacting with and internalizing authentic
materials through the use of technology.
That week marked the beginning of the Research, Analyze, and Present project
(RAP) that evolved into a detailed methodology that makes its core curriculum the wide
world of the Internet. The teacher is a tutor, guide, and a coach, while the students are
placed at the center of the learning process. They control the learning material, select
the audio and reading texts to be studied, analyze and synthesize the information, and
explain their interactions with the texts in individual presentations that they systematically
design and deliver every Friday afternoon.
As the project evolved and the advantages became more apparent, it was
expanded into all of Department D, Middle East School II, as an essential part of the
curriculum.
The Project
The RAP project approaches theory and methodology from a simple motto that
rejects dogmatic thinking and embraces creativity-- “If it works, do it.” For example,
the Audio-Lingual Method, with its emphasis on grammar drills, which is now largely
outside the mainstream, may have a place in the MSA classroom. With a Level 2+
objective, teachers simply cannot afford to leave the intricate Arabic grammar to the
natural unconscious mechanism advocated by Krashen (Krashen, 1981). Grammar drills
and conscious instruction of grammar can be used alongside the practice of providing
the learner the opportunity to “mentally construct the grammar from extensive natural
data” (Krashen 1981). The RAP motto embraces pragmatism and empirical decisions
about the most effective foreign language methodology for each facet of learning. The
process of trial and error has been the leading force behind the implementation of the
RAP project.
The project has gradually acquired a methodology that reflects a variety of
theories, including those utilizing neurological discoveries about the brain and language
and the cognitive mechanism involved in the learning of a foreign language (Chomsky
1968 & Krashen 1981), and those emphasizing grouping and community and the need
for cultural social interaction (Vygotsky, 1991) in order to progress to advanced levels
of communicative competence. Also, this project is based on the recognition that we
are witnessing a technological revolution that will no doubt play a role in all learning
in the future.
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The Rap Project
The following pages will show how the RAP project integrates the computer,
networking, and the Internet into the language learning process. I will explain how the
RAP methodology was developed and how the socio-cognitive and cognitive concepts
influenced the progress of the project. I will attempt to assess the effectiveness of the
project through two measures. First, I compare DLPT results of class 505 with overall
MSA results in previous years. This comparison with the results of MSA classes using the
traditional written curriculum during the same timeframe may provide a reasonable tool
to help assess the program. Second, I discuss outcomes of an evaluation questionnaire
administered to the students with the assistance of the DLIFLC Research Division.
Literature Review
The RAP project was influenced by both cognitive and socio-cognitive theories of
language learning. Concepts such as “cognitive mechanism,” “socio-cultural interaction,”
“internalizing knowledge,” “social contexts,” and “communicative competence,” are
important parts of the intellectual basis of the RAP program.
“Acquisition of language requires extensive use of data” is an aspect of Krashen’s
cognitive theory used in the RAP project. According to Krashen’s “input hypothesis”. . .
we acquire the language only when we understand language that contains structure that is
a little beyond where we are now.” (Krashen, 1981). This means that acquiring language,
which relies on an unconscious cognitive mechanism, occurs when the learner receives
data, or input, somewhat more complex than one’s current ability.
According to Chomsky, “the development of an individual grammatical system
was guided by innate cognitive structure, not behavioral reinforcement. Language learning
was viewed not as “conditional response,” but as an active process of generating and
transforming knowledge.” (Kern & Warschaur, 2000).
Though holding some reservation regarding his theory, I applied Krashen’s
ideas in the RAP program by affording the students maximum exposure to authentic
reading and listening material somewhat higher than their current level. Maximizing
the learners’ knowledge and interaction was realized through cross-reading and cross-
listening, as well as the sharing of information within each group of students and through
the students’ weekly presentations in small groups. In the process of fulfilling their tasks,
the students had to read and listen to a great amount of high level material. My premise
was that this practice, done systematically and methodically, would inevitably enrich their
language; slowly and gradually, with consistent tasking, the learners would foster their
communicative competence and hence their foreign language proficiency.
Initial expectations were reasonably modest. At first the students delivered their
weekly presentations with difficulty and no fluency. According to Krashen, as cited by
Wilson (2006),
...language acquisition does not occur overnight, however, real

language acquisition develops slowly, and speaking skills emerge
significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are perfect.
The best methods are therefore those that supply “comprehensible
input” in low anxiety situation, containing messages that students
really want to hear. These methods do not force early production
in the second language , but allow students to produce when they
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Hussny Ibrahim
are ”ready”, recognizing that improvement comes from supplying
communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and
correcting production. (Wilson, 2006).
Realizing the importance of “comprehensible input,” I ensured the students

received such input through both classroom teaching and tutoring in the MMLL as the
students were exposed to real world material through the Internet.
The socio-cultural approach to learning and development is based on the
concept that human activities take place in cultural contexts and are mediated by
language and other symbolic systems, or what Vygotsky termed “semiotic mediation”
i.e. “ language; various systems of counting, mnemonic techniques; algebraic symbol
systems; works of art; writing; schemes; diagrams, maps and mechanical drawings, etc”
(Mahn, 2006). According to Vygotsky , learning and development are socially situated.
The theory presupposes a dialectical relationship between social context and meaning
negotiation through a cognitive mechanism. As Meskill ( 2000), defines the term “
sociocognitive”:
The term represents a growing attempt to reconcile the social and

affective side of learning with what happens “in the black box” as
it were……”within socio-cognitive framework learners are seen as
dialectically connected to social contexts in a synergistic, two-way
relation. Mediating the relationship is the cognitive realm that is viewed
as marshaling, routing, channeling, and generally guiding the interplay
of the known and the unknown. Meaning in the sociocognitive sphere is
dynamic, never fixed. Its imperative is to capture and value the richness
of this fluidity. Its central tenet that learning and cognition are social
not autonomous acts.
In the socio-cultural theory learning and development are achieved through

internalization of knowledge which in turn is achieved through interaction. The concept
of “Internalization” is therefore vital in understanding the Vygotiscan view of learning
and development. Internalization is defined in Vygotsky’s approach as “an internal
reconstruction of an external operation” (Vygotsky, 1978 , p. 56). Ehrich ( 2006), a
Vygotsky researcher, explains the term in Vygotsky’s theory:
[L]anguage is a psychological tool and the usage of this tool

invariably led to a series of inner or mental transformations such
as the development of higher thought and concept development.
This transformation in thinking is achieved through a process of
internalization in which language is the key ingredient.
Steiner and Man (2006), view Vygotsky’s concept of internalization as a

process in which both the brain and the social context form dynamic reciprocal relations
occurring simultaneously, and through which knowledge, afforded by the social context,
is transformed in dialectical process:
Our concept of internalization recognizes unique human minds which

owe their existence to and are inextricably intertwined with social,
4
The Rap Project
historical, cultural and material processes (including brain activities).
Internalization is conceived of as a representation activity, a process
that occurs simultaneously in social practice and in the human brain/
mind.
Internalizing knowledge thus became a necessary component in the RAP program.

The hypothesis was that the language learning process would be incomplete unless the
learner internalized the knowledge through the “analyzing” portion of the task (i.e.,
concept formation through rewriting the news and composing a commentary; negotiating
the meaning within the group, including the native-speaker teachers; utilizing the social
contexts afforded by the authentic material, etc.). The hypothesis was that if we placed
the students in a relaxed, anxiety-free, supportive environment; then immersed them in an
atmosphere of listening, reading, speaking, and writing with authentic language; offered
opportunities for them to internalize that knowledge by interacting with native–speaker
teachers, they would quite likely advance to a higher proficiency level.
In socio-cognitive learning, according to Hymes (1971), language should not
be learned in isolation from its social contexts but rather as ”socially reconstructed
phenomenon”, as cited by Kern & Warschauer (2000,, p. 6). The goal of learning in the
socio-cognitive theory is to develop communicative competence. Language is viewed
as a social and cognitive phenomenon that develops through social interaction. Learning
instruction, as seen by Warschaur and Kern, “ was oriented towards negotiation of meaning
through collaborative interaction with others, and creating a discourse community with
authentic communicative tasks” ( Kern, & Warschaur, 2000). Human interaction is thus
a pivotal element in learning and development in the socio-cultural theory. As Ehrich
articulates it : “ The quintessence of Vygotsky’s theory of socio cultural development…
is, that all the higher mental functions such as voluntary attention, logical memory, and
concept formation, have their origins as a consequence of human interaction “ (Ehrich,
2006).
It follows, I believe, that since communicative competence is the goal of language
learning, incorporating sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and cultural
competence is necessary to achieve higher degree of communicative capabilities. A key
goal thus is to foster the learners’ communicative competence through developing their
cultural competence. This in turn is achieved through interaction, ideally with native
speakers in their own cultural context.
Yet the persisting question is how to best utilize the socio-cognitive theory in
teaching foreign language outside its natural “social context.” Since “social cultural
interaction” is so essential in learning a language in the socio-cognitive theory, how can
we maximize learners’ socio-cultural interactions to effectively teach a foreign language
outside its original environment?
Immersion activities with simulated “situations” and “socially situated tasks”
may hold the answer in the view of the majority. In my view, maximum exposure to the
authentic materials through the Internet is an ideal alternative to physically being in the
target language region. Proper tasking that affords the learners opportunities to interact
with natives and internalize authentic material is one logical answer.
I use the term “interaction” here to encompass not only the interaction of the
students with native speakers and peers, but also interaction with authentic reading and
listening texts. This stems from my view that reading, for example, is an interactive
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Hussny Ibrahim
process. Through interaction with authentic texts, learners may draw upon the social
contexts afforded by the material. In turn, internalizing knowledge can be achieved
through such processes as rewriting the news and reconstructing it through summary
writing and concept formation.
In a comprehensive study on “Vygotskian Inner Speech and the Reading Process”,
J Ehrich (2006) viewed reading as a process that involves two dynamic dialectically related
components, “ R= D x C , which may be interpreted to mean that reading is equivalent
to decoding times comprehension. (Gough & Wren 1999 p 70, as cited in Ehrich (2006)
). He further elaborates: “…the written text must be analyzed from the interaction of
two contrasting processes, i.e., the analytical particularistic evaluation ( the decoding of
individual units) in conjunction with broader, more global concerns ( the use of context
and inference to establish meaning). ( Ehrich 2006).
Creating a “community” within the two teams where the students share their
own writings and engage in dialogues with their peers and teachers is one attempt to
create a simulated social context, and afford a room for sociocultural interaction. We
attempted to do that through creating a computer Drive within the existing DLI network
we called it Q Drive.
Method
Participants
At the time of graduation Class 505 was composed of 38 students and

distributed in two teams, D1 and D2. All participants were military students, male and
female, ranging in age from 18 to 30. The majority of the students either had no college
experience or had attended for only a semester or two. Their status and military rank
varied. Their proficiency in other foreign languages or previous experience at DLIFLC
was not examined in this study.
It should be noted that the Middle East School II has no control over the initial
selection or assignment of students. Attendance at DLIFLC requires an aptitude test, the
Defense Language Aptitude Battery (DLAB). DLAB results, along with the demand for
linguists, are used to assign military personnel to a specific language.
Middle East School II is organized into teams, with each team consisting of six
teachers. All are native speakers of MSA (1). Teachers are selected for a team according
to their background in Arabic dialects. Efforts are made to create a balance with regard to
gender and the major three Arabic dialects-- Levantine, Egyptian, and Gulf or Iraqi.
Initially, each class is composed of thirty students distributed into three sections.
Throughout the course, students who fail may be recycled to a less difficult language or
may restart the Arabic course. Hence, a team may lose a number of students during the
progress of the course, but it may gain students from other classes as well.
The Arabic course is 64 weeks long; it is divided into three semesters. Semester
1 lasts 29 weeks; Semester 2 lasts until week 48; and the third semester extends until
week 62.
Materials
The material used in the RAP project can be characterized as authentic, current,
and unlimited. All material was written or spoken by natives for native readers or listeners.
The curriculum came from the Internet, which provides a window onto the authentic
social contexts of the language. Though the topics were determined by those used in
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The Rap Project
the traditional curriculum, the RAP focus was on current events. No outdated news was
allowed. News had to come from sources accessible to very large numbers of Arabic
listeners and readers—for example, the Arabic equivalents to the New York Times, the
Washington Post, CNN, etc. Students were encouraged to read and listen to the news in
English during their free time, so they would be familiar with the same news in Arabic
and able to contextualize the meaning, and even understand new vocabulary from context
using knowledge gained through their L1 experiences. The starting point of the program
was to “Google” the term “Arabic News Media.” The teachers could help students identify
the most widely circulated Arabic media ( i.e., Asharq Alawsat Newspaper, the Arabic
BBC out of London, and the major newspapers in Arabic countries, such as Al-Ahram
in Egypt, Addustor in Jordan, and Alhyat in Lebanon.)
Task
The RAP project has three components: Research, Analyze, and Present: First,
each week, students are given a research task. Using the internet search in the MMLL
setting and equipped with proper training, students work in pairs to accomplish the
assignment. Second, the partners analyze the news item selected, discuss it together, and
develop a commentary that may vary from a sentence to a few paragraphs, depending on
the week of the course. Third, students individually present the findings to classmates
in their section, using the Smart Board, audio, and video. Other students in the section
discuss the news item and presentation with the presenter. Everything takes place in the
target language.
Students are required to learn how to use both the technology and the language
needed to select, record, and edit audio passages; to save, archive, and retrieve audio,
video, and written text; and, then, to present the findings using the Smart Board and
available programs. Each student has to write an Arabic summary of the news and have
it reviewed by a teacher. Students also must prepare a vocabulary list including terms,
idioms, expressions, etc., acquired during their investigation; they share these with their
classmates as part of the presentation. Each student has to be prepared to brief the section
in the target language, answer questions, and engage in discussion with the audience.
Each classmate is required to ask at least one question in the target language to ensure
productive discussion and interaction with the texts.
In the first stage of the RAP project students read from a script and used a certain
amount of English. After a few weeks this behavior changed; students were required
to deliver their presentation without relying on a script. This, in fact, motivated them
to seek the help of teachers for rehearsal, which ensured more correct pronunciations
and contextually appropriate use of vocabulary. In the past, pronunciation of Arabic had
always been a challenge for students. Rehearsing with the teachers, according to the
students of Class 505, as well as their teachers, has significantly helped their pronunciation.
Rehearsal has now become mandatory and is considered an integral part of the project.
As the project evolved, the rule to use only the target language was enforced during both
the presentation and the follow-up question period. Though students’ speaking abilities
were often poor in the beginning, with persistent and consistent practice, the students’
speaking performance gradually improved.. This confirmed Krashen’s observation that
speaking ability is demonstrated at a later stage of the language acquisition process.
(Krashen, 1981).
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Hussny Ibrahim
The teachers’ role in the RAP project is a critical one. All of the teachers
available were present, in a ratio of at least one to every five students, in the multi media
lab. These native speakers provided the students in the lab with unique and necessary
cultural and language resources. They contributed greatly to providing an environment
conducive to learning with a curriculum as potentially unwieldy as the Internet. Teachers
checked the students’ selections to ensure they were manageable and within the range of the
I+1 concept. If needed, they explained difficult idioms or expressions or area background
as well as the culture embedded in the language, all of which would have otherwise been
inaccessible to students because of the difficulty level on the ILR scale.
The teachers’ support was also needed in the MMLL to alleviate any sense of
frustration as students interacted with higher level audio and written texts. As student
questionnaires indicate, the project might not have succeeded if the overall environment
had not been supportive.
Through support in the MMLL and in rehearsals, teachers ensured that students’
vocabulary lists and written summaries were sound and that their pronunciation was correct.
The teacher’s job was, in effect, to help the student prepare for the presentation.
Not only did the teachers help students with pronunciation, syntax, and lexicon,
etc., but they also helped explain the culture embedded in the MSA texts, including the
sociolinguistic references, idioms, value systems, and area background such as social,
political and economic systems.
The standards represented by the ILR scale and the Final Learning Objectives
required by the military services provide both students and teachers with clear guidelines
to control and utilize the stream of authentic reading and listening materials on the Internet.
Therefore, the teachers had to be trained on the ILR descriptors, and the faculty needed
to familiarize students with the scale to help direct their efforts to complete the tasks.
The Task is one determining factor in the success of the RAP program.
Designing the task is critical to the success of the project. Unless the task is well-defined
and guided by the teachers, the students could spend hours on the Internet without
achieving the desired outcome.
The first listening comprehension assignment given to the students was to search,
record, and later present the headline news of the day related to the topic of Health and
Science. While some students were listening to advertisements at level 1, some were
listening to talk shows discussing culturally-loaded, superior–level topics. The latter
group could have experienced considerable frustration when trying to work with such
high level materials. These students were immediately redirected to narrow their search
by looking for the key word in a website: AL Akhbar, or The News. Once redirected, the
students started searching through the vast number of news items, which usually range
from level 1+ to 2+. The clear instructions given to the students with regard to the topic,
scope , purpose , and appropriateness for their current level, all helped make the results
promising. The broad topic Health and Science allowed students to produce a variety of
approaches. One student gave a presentation on the benefits of dates to human health.
Another made a presentation on the role of exercise in the health of infants. A third
reported on a study of job discrimination against the obese. Each used his/her own style,
selected his/her own images, and personalized their delivery of the news.
The task aimed at improving three skills--reading, listening, and speaking. While
writing was not a top priority, it later proved instrumental in internalizing knowledge
and in identifying students’ errors in structure and spelling. This prompted us to make
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The Rap Project
writing an essential activity. The teachers sought and realized a balance in promoting all
major skills and avoided promoting one skill while neglecting the others. Students were
encouraged to use three skills during their presentation, as the tasks assigned to them
were equally distributed.
The tasks progressed as the course developed. Semester 2 tasks were less
demanding than those for Semester 3. From the start students were required to report
concrete, factual news items; by Semester 3, they had to add a commentary and express
their interaction with the news. This encouraged the use of MSA to support opinions
and argue the points addressed in the news item. One example was the Danish cartoons
that resonated in the Arab and Islamic world. During their presentations, students
conversed and exchanged ideas using high-level vocabulary learned during their research
and preparation.
Results
The DLPT Results
As stated above, Class 505 had 38 students completing the course. There were
two teams, D1 and D2, and each had six teachers. Though both teams started the course
at the same time and both participated in RAP project equally, each team had its own
dynamics and variables that affected results. Variables included the teachers, the morale
of the class, the role of military class leaders, attitudes towards the learning of MSA,
and attitudes toward the RAP project. For that reason, I analyzed results from both
perspectives— separately by team and collectively.
Looking at each group separately, in general we find that students assigned
to team D2 scored better than those assigned to team D1. Team D2 had 71.4 % of the
students scoring 2+, 2+, 2 in listening, reading, and speaking skills respectively; while
41.2 % of Team D1 students scored 2+,2+,2. 81 % of team D2’s students scored level
2 in speaking in comparison with 52.9 % of those taught by team D1 (see Table 1).
Collectively, the entire Class 505 generated impressive results with 57.9 % of the
students meeting DLIFLC’s objectives planned for 2008 (2+, 2+, 2 in listening, reading,
speaking respectively: 73 % scored level 2+ or higher in listening; 86.8 % scored 2+
or higher in reading; 65.8 % scored level 2 or higher in speaking (see Table 2). The
percentage scoring level 3 was 23% in listening and 50 % in reading; level 3 is actually
the ceiling for the DLPT. The percentage scoring level 2+ in speaking was 7.89 %. 97
% of the students met the current objective of 2/2/1+.
Table 1. Class 505 DLPT Results
Level Listening Reading Speaking

1+ NA 1 (2.6%) 13 (34.2 %)
2 10 (26.3 %) 4 (10.5 %) 22 (57.89 %)
2+ 5 (13 %) 14 (36.8 %) 33 (7.89 %)
3 23 (60.1 %) 19 (50 %) NA
* Total number of students: 38
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Hussny Ibrahim
Table 2. Comparison of Results of Class 505 DLPT to 2005 and 2006 Classes
Meeting Current Goal Exceeding Current Goal

(2, 2, 1+) (2+. 2+, 2)
Class 505 97% 57.9%
2005 Classes 79.5% 26.4%
2006 Classes 89.9% 39.2%
Questionnaire Results
Because of the many variables involved in the students’ progress in learning

MSA, it was difficult to determine the role of the project in the students’ success. As an
additional tool for understanding, a questionnaire was administered to obtain students’
opinion of the effectiveness of the RAP project. Results will be used to identify areas
needing improvement for future iterations of the project. The questionnaire contained 14
statements on a scale ranging from 0 (no opinion) , 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3
(agree), to 4 (strongly agree). Four additional questions allowed students to write direct
comments. The results were very informative.
95.3 % of the students with D2 and 80 % with D1 reported that the project
noticeably improved their reading ability. The vast majority expressed the opinion
that reading off the internet helped them to be faster in skimming. Many reported that
enriched their vocabulary.
71.4 % of the students with D2 and 60% with D1 reported that the project
noticeably improved their listening skills. Most students showed appreciation for the
authenticity and currency of the news. Though the texts seemed harder, they found the
benefits rewarding. Examples of comments included:
It was faster & more colloquial so it exposed me to something new.
I get to hear different speech. It helps to get used to new voices and
unfamiliar accents.
I had to use the word again and again which helped retaining the
vocab.
There is no substitute for authentic listening material. To hear native

speakers interact in real life situations such as radio talk show provide
an invaluable demonstration of not only phrasing but also idiomatic
speech.
Although I expected students to express frustration with reading and listening

materials higher than their current levels, none did. They only acknowledged the difficulty
level and expressed appreciation for the opportunity to select and listen directly from
authentic sources. There was some frustration resulting from occasional malfunctions
of the network and multimedia lab.
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The Rap Project
Almost half of D2 (47 %) and 20% of D1 students reported that they used the
writing skill in their assignments and stated that the project noticeably improved their
writing. The rest of the students reported that they did not write.
Majority of the students (90.5 %) reported the activities of searching the internet
and presenting once a week enriched their vocabulary
In responding to a question about the most effective part of the project, searching
the Internet for material was the most frequent answer, writing a summary rated second,
and giving the presentation came last.
The vast majority of the students expressed appreciation for the currency of the
news encountered during the project. Some of the comments included:
Many of our school materials are extremely outdated so it is nice to be

able to apply our knowledge to things that are occurring now.
The internet search is the most useful-not only are we reading and
listening to new vocab but it also helps us stay current on news which
will help with OPI.
The questionnaire also confirmed the advantage of the project in providing

information about Middle Eastern culture, politics, economy and related material. One
student wrote:
Our curriculum is so centered around the language that we can not

actually learn about politics and current events. This project allows us
to learn about events and ideas so we can use these ideas and thoughts
as a knowledge base for advanced speaking. For example if I am asked
to state my opinion on Geo-politics in the Middle East I may have the
vocabulary, fluency and all necessary language skills , but no knowledge
base to draw from. This program solves that.
Conclusion
As seen in the test results and students’ comments, the project demonstrated
significant progress by students learning a foreign language. Success was due to many
factors, chief among them the teachers’ commitment and students’ morale and positive
attitude. Success was not limited to improving language skills but extended to fostering
student motivation and attitude towards learning a foreign language. Stronger awareness
of and interest in current events was another valuable outcome. In addition, the program
indicated noticeable progress in students’ understanding of Arabic culture and Middle
Eastern area studies, a key component in attaining higher levels in MSA.
Through the project teachers managed to fully utilize the available technology
resources at DLIFLC. This technological environment was fostered and facilitated by
native Arabic teachers. Above all, the project showed how to maintain flexibility necessary
for further development, and the application of better ideas.
The RAP project, I believe, offered a versatile means for students to gradually
build a solid foundation in the language, from which they can attempt to reach higher
levels.
11
Hussny Ibrahim
Yet, many steps need to be taken to improve the RAP project. All teachers and
students should be trained on the ILR descriptors and appropriate texts for each level to
help identify the relevant texts among the vast offerings on the Internet. To encourage
maximum participation of teachers during the Internet searches, the faculty should receive
hands-on orientation in the MMLL. All available team members should be present in the
lab to tutor and guide through the virtual Arab world. For that reason both teachers and
students should be trained to use the available software, i.e. power point, U-lead, movie
maker Adobe Audition, etc.
There should be clear written guidelines detailing the role of the students and the
teachers. The specific weekly tasks should be distributed to both students and teachers
to ensure organization and communication.
It should be explained to students early that they must approach the Arabic
media as researchers and reporters and demonstrate the ability to listen to, read, report,
and react to the news in an analytical, mature manner. Dismissing the authentic material
as propaganda will impede progress in the project and overall language learning.
The second point that needs to be addressed concerns the future of RAP within
the CALL, or Computer Assisted Language Learning in general. A natural next step of
the RAP is to take the concept of “Interacting with authentic material” one step further
towards “Interacting with other native speakers” in their own distant environment via the
Internet. I believe that in the future, such an approach will surely be dominant in some
settings to further learners’ communicative competence. This seems a possible outcome
of the socio-cognitive view of language learning. According to Warschauer (2004),
technology does not automatically cause the outcome or change, but “it can create new
social contexts that shape, or enable processes and outcomes.” Just as the invention of
the printing press created social contexts through which notions of teaching and learning
were dramatically altered, today’s technology will ultimately help shape the future of
learning foreign language. We must keep this notion in mind when we develop curricula
or adapting teaching techniques.
I hope that the concept of the project, the use it makes of technology and the
positive outcomes will tempt others to carry this work further.
References
ACTFL Foreign Language Standards Writing Team. (2002). Program standards for the
preparation of foreign language teachers. Alexandria, VA: ACTFL. Retrieved
August 1, 2005 from http://www.actfl.org
Anderson, N. (1991). Individual differences in second language reading strategies. Paper
presented at the 25th Annual TESOL Convention, New York.
Byrnes, H. (1984). The role of listening comprehension: A theoretical base. Foreign
Langauge Annals 17:317-29
Chamot, A.U. & Kupper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction.
Foreign Language Annals, 22(1), 13-24.
Chamot, A. U., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P. B., & Robbins, J. (1996). Methods for teaching
learning strategies in the foreign language classroom. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.),
Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp.
175-187). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
12
The Rap Project
Chinnery, G., M, January 2006. Emerging Technologies, Going to the MALL: Mobile
Assisted Language Learning. Language Learning and Technology 10(1).
Chun, D.C, & Plass. J.L. (2000). Networked multimedia environment for second language
acquisition.
Ehrich, J., F. (2006). Vygotsky. Inner Speech and Reading Process. Australian Journal of
Educational & Developmental Psychology 6, 2006, pp 12-25 [website: http://
www.newcastle.edu.au/group/ajedp/
Kern, R., & Warschauer, M. (2000). Theory and practice of network-based language
teaching. New York: Cambridge University
Krashen, S. (1981), Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
Meskill, C., & Rangelova, K .(2000). Relocating the “cognitive” in sociocognitive views
of second language learning. London: Peter Lang-Verlag.
Malone, M., Christian, D., & Johnson, D. (2005). Attaining high levels of proficiency:
Challenges for foreign language education in the United States. Center for
Applied Linguistics, Benjamin Rifkin, Temple University. http://www.cal.
org/resources/digest/attain.html
Omaggio, Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context (3rd Ed.) Boston: Heinle and
Heinle
Simon, P. (2001, October 23). Beef up the country’s foreign language skills. The
Washington Post.
Vandergriff, Ilona ( January 2006) : Negotiating common ground in computer-mediated
versus face to face discussions. Language learning & Technology ,10(1). San
Francisco State University
Vandergrift, L. (2006). Listening: Theory and practice in modern foreign
language competence. http://www.LLas.ac.uk/resources/goodpractice.
aspx?resourceeid=67
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1991). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Warschauer, M., &, Kern, R. (2000). Theory and practice of network-based language
teaching. New York:Cambridge University.
Warschauer, M. (2004). Technological change and the future of CALL. In S.Fotos &
Brown (Eds.), New perspectives on CALL for second and foreign language
classrooms (pp.15-25). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wilson, R. (2006). A summary of Stephen Krashen’s “Principles and Practice in Second
Language Acquisition”. Language impact http://www.languageimpact.com/
articles/rw/krashenk.htm
Acknowledgment
I am grateful to Dr. Martha Herzog for editing this paper, and for her invaluable
insights and advice throughout. I thank Dr. Gordon Jackson in the Research Division at
DLIFLC for his support in administering the students’ questionnaire. My gratitude also
goes to the teachers of department D in Middle East School II, especially the teachers
of D1 and D2 teams. Without these exceptional teachers the project would not have
succeeded.
13
Hussny Ibrahim
Author
HUSSNY IBRAHIM, Department Chairperson, Middle East School II, Defense Language
Institute Foreign Language Center, Presidio of Monterey, CA 93944-5006.
Specializations: Development of DLPT5, Target Language Expert in the joint
DLI/MIT Machine Translation Project, language analysis.
14
Russian Arms Control Speaking Proficiency Course
2007, Vol. 18, Nos. 1 & 2, pp.15-25

in Defense Threat Reduction Agency
Valentina Freeman, Elena Krasnyanskaya

School of Continuing Education, Defense Language Institute, California
Wesley Reed
Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia
Given the needs and requirements of the Department of Defense to

develop foreign language and cultural expertise among the military, the
faculty of the Defense Threat Reduction Agency Russian Arms Control
Speaking Proficiency Course turned to development and implication
of the 47-week intensive advanced course. This program can motivate
students to develop their language skills in order to fulfill their duties
in the Agency. This article describes this course, which is still being
developed and modified, and certain principles of its development.
However, the core portion of the course has already been designed and
implemented. Drawing on this experience, this article addresses the
value of such a course to foreign language curricular development, in
part, to meet the requirements of the Defense Language Transformation
Roadmap.
Introduction
The review of “The Defense Language Transformation Roadmap” recently

published in the Foreign Language Annals (2005), emphasizes that the Department of
Defense (DoD) is paying much attention to the quality of military linguists, especially to
those who study “critical” languages, including Russian. This language has been taught in
Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) since 1991, and DTRA military interpreters
are widely recognized as being among the finest military linguists in the DoD. As
evidence of their abilities, Agency teams have remained undefeated since the inception
of the Worldwide Language Olympics (now known as “Language Competition”) in 1992.
But, more important is the stellar reputation DTRA enjoys within the U.S. Government
for its ability to put a large number of extremely capable Russian experts on the ground,
wherever they are needed, sometimes at a short notice.
The primary mission of DTRA military interpreters is to provide interpretation
and arms control inspection expertise on U.S. inspection, escort and monitoring teams.
As members of these arms control teams, they have actively participated in ridding the
world of thousands of nuclear missiles and millions of tons of chemical and biological
agents. Due to their high level of expertise, Agency linguists are also called on to conduct
a wide variety of other missions for the U.S. Government. One of the first such missions
came when the Soviet Union fell, in 1991, and teams from the On-Site Inspection
15
Freeman, Krasnyanskaya, and Reed
Agency (a DTRA legacy organization) were assigned to support Project Provide Hope.
Under this Department of State humanitarian relief program, teams were sent to each
of the 15 former Soviet Republics to deliver medicines and other humanitarian aid.
They were among the first (in some cases the first) Americans ever to set foot on the
free soil of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). DTRA linguists have since
conducted hundreds of various challenging “adhoc” missions. Each linguist assigned
to DTRA has the opportunity not only to see history in the making, but to play a key
role in the actual events themselves. For those linguists who have been selected by
the DTRA Linguist Recruiters, the road begins at the Russian Arms Control Speaking
Proficiency Course (RACSPC) at the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language
Center (DLIFLC), Monterey, California.
The RACSPC Program was originally established in 1990, as the Intermediate
Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty Course. For more than a decade, it would see few major
changes. The course incorporated many of the features that continue to make the
RACSPC so successful: low student-to-teacher ratio; mission-focused training; real-
world activities, such as interpreting excursions, etc. However, by 2002, for various
reasons, it became clear that a general restructuring was in order. These are some of the
key changes made to the program:
• Course extended from 32 to 47 weeks adding a 15-week Refresher Program, focusing

mainly on grammar skills and vocabulary building; this extension allows allotting
15 vs. 8 weeks to review grammar and vocabulary. A more comprehensive grammar
review course containing a new DTRA RACSPC grammar review textbook has been
developed and a number of commercial textbooks are used.
• The most fundamental changes to the curriculum were increased emphasis on
speaking skills (including 1-on-1 Conversation) and support / reinforcement of a
broad (weekly) topical theme in all classes; a new topic is introduced each week, and
Conversation, Listening Comprehension, Reading Comprehension, Interpretation,
Translation classes, and Roundtable discussions are centered on that topic during
this week, which allows to reinforce students’ vocabulary and skills of grammatical
structures, and to raise their speaking proficiency level; the topics being repeated at
a higher level during the third trimester, adding the interpreting tours into the mix to
further reinforce and strengthen the students’ cultural knowledge and language skills
in all the modalities.
• Extension of the amount of time to teach Consecutive Interpreting techniques. The
Interpreting Course has been developed to compliment the DTRA Consecutive
Interpreting Training (CIT), and provides students with a better foundation for
developing interpreting skills. It also incorporates a number of off-post excursions
course to give the students experience of consecutive interpreting in real-world
situations.
• Special selection procedures established to assemble highly-trained professional
faculty
• Course development and complete scrub / update / enhancement of all course
materials, replacing the vast majority of the obsolete and ineffective materials
• Wide use of technology (and the understanding that it does not replace quality
instructors.)
16
• Improved standardization, establishment of, and adherence to, the Curriculum and
Syllabi.
• The Diagnostic Assessment (DA), which gives a more comprehensive look at linguists’
strengths and weaknesses, is conducted three times per course, in addition to the Oral
Proficiency Interview (OPI)
• Homework load specifically identified and tightly controlled
A RACSPC-Prep Program has also been devised, in order to ensure students
have the best opportunity possible to be successful in the course. From the time our
recruiters identify future students until they arrive at DLI can be over a year. A member
of our staff at DTRA engages these linguists and offers them various training materials
they can use to prepare in advance. In the near future we will begin using a web-
delivered training platform to “push” this training out to the field. The RACSPC Staff
is creating the course materials (texts, digital audio for listening comprehension, tests,
etc.) that will be loaded into this system.
In the DTRA Language Training Program, we are always looking for new and
better ways to train our military linguists. We remain on the cutting edge in the use of
technology, and are helping to drive some the most promising and forward-thinking
initiatives in language education, including Diagnostic Assessments. This, combined
with steadfast adherence to sound methodologies (with emphasis on fundamental skills)
has resulted in our program being widely acclaimed as the “Model Program for DoD”.
The RACSPC is our flagship program and proof of what can be done when DLI faculty,
agency participation and the proper support, including funding, are brought to bear on
real-world requirements. Thanks to the efforts of the RACSPC Staff, I am confident
that we will continue to enjoy the success we do today. In the following articles, their
expertise and professionalism are evident, as in all they do.
RACSPC Purpose
To train military members to entry-level qualifications for military duty at the

DTRA as English-Russian consecutive interpreters in support of arms control treaties
and agreements.
Course Description
Our course focuses on training in the active communication skills and lasts
235 training days. This equates to 47 weeks of training for five days each week.
The graduation requirements are 2+ in Listening Comprehension / 2+ in Reading
Comprehension, successful completion of the Diagnostic Assessment, and the DTRA
approval.
A specialized program consisting of 300-level courses designed to prepare
select students for the mission of working as English-Russian interpreter-inspectors,
interpreter-escorts and interpreter-monitors for DTRA, On-Site Inspection Directorate,
under the provisions of current and future arms control treaties and agreements.
17
The course comprises five upper-level subjects corresponding to the following

credits:
• Communicative skills including one-on-one conversation for at least one hour each
day, discussions of current news, and round table discussions: FL 364 Communicative
Skills (5 Credits): Conversation (1:1), News, Round Table Discussions
• Interpreting and Translation, including real-world interpreting activities in the
local area: FL 365 Interpreting and Translation (5 Credits): Real-world Interpreting
Training
• Extended Grammar: FL 370 Grammar (2 Credits)
• History and Area Studies: AS 383 History and Area Studies (3 Credits)
• An overview of Treaties and Agreements: MS 384 Treaties and Agreements (3
Credits)
Our graduates receive a total of 18 upper-level college credits for their 47-week
course work.
Course Development
In 2002, when for various reasons, it became clear that a general restructuring
was necessary, a new course development program was worked up and it is now
approaching its completion. It does not mean that DTRA RACSPC faculty will stop
this program. All the textbooks and other materials will be updated and modified
continuously. The core materials have already been developed in all the courses, the
textbooks for the instructors and students have been published in Vocabulary, Speaking,
Listening Comprehension, Consecutive Interpreting, Geography of Russia. In addition,
a commercial textbook has been selected for History of Russia.
The DTRA system of instruction materials (SIM) consists of the ranked
multitude of interconnected elements of the structure. These elements are distinguished
on the basis of certain characteristics, united by their general function, control, and
interaction with the environment. Ilyina (1972) considers that all the SIM’s possess a
certain structure that characterizes the way these elements are organized into a system.
Thus, this structure presents a stable combination, mutual influence, and interaction of
the elements of the integral system.
In compliance with general principles developed by Lyakhovitsky (1972),
the SIM in the DTRA RACSPC contains two subsystems: 1) a subsystem to organize
instructor’s work; 2) a subsystem to organize student’s work. Both subsystems are united
into the SIM to teach Russian as a foreign language (RFL) that is defined as a complex of
didactic means to teach and to learn RFL These two subsystems are interconnected and
function on the basis of the goal and content of instruction, methodology, approaches
and techniques in the teaching / learning process.
18
The instructor subsystem The student subsystem

curriculum textbooks
syllabi dictionaries
textbooks books for reading
methodological recommendations computers
tapes, CD’s, DVD’s, video iPods
grammar charts portable recorders
sets of pictures (diagrams, clips, etc.) tapes
additional handouts CD’s
movies grammar charts
books for reading additional handouts
The student subsystem is subordinated to the instructor one, but within each subsystem,
its elements are coordinated with each other.
For the purpose of development, the elements of the SIM to teach RFL were
considered mainly from the logic point of view that stipulated the sequence, nature
and interconnection of the SIM components. However, selection and organization of
language material and its comprehension be the students, development, reinforcement
and realization of their skills in different modalities were considered from linguistic,
psychological, and pedagogical points of view.
Basic Principles of SIM Development
The general principles developed by Lyakhovitsky (1972) were modified to

create an effective SIM for the intensive advanced DTRA RACSPC (Krasnyanskaya,
2006).
I. Systematic design and completeness define: 1) systems of vocabulary and
grammar (language aspects) exercises and tasks as well as exercises, tasks, and activities
in different modalities (speaking, listening comprehension, reading comprehension,
consecutive interpreting, and translation) in accordance with the adopted typology;
2) sequence and succession in methods and techniques of teaching and testing; 3)
availability of all the materials that an instructor and a student should possess.
II. Taking into account the peculiarities of each phase of training (trimester)
determines not only different amount of time and different volumes of instruction
materials, but also the following parameters:
1. correlation of different modalities in each trimester: the DTRA RACSPC

Syllabus (2005) contains a strict distribution of the aspects of language and modalities
correlated with different courses and time allotted to them in each trimester;
2. characteristics of the course material: trimester I: grammar (phonetics,
extended morphology and syntax); authentic materials for reading and listening on
levels 1+ - 2+ in compliance with “Interagency Language Roundtable”(ILR) (1985);
speaking: topics of level 2 in compliance with ILR (1985) – concrete themes (narrations
in the past, present, and future); description of a human or physical object; giving
direction; giving instruction; stating facts (current events); role-plays with “tourist”
survival situations with complications reflecting personal life experience of the speaker
19
without involving personal feelings and emotions, however, requiring limited socio-
cultural competence; text produced – two-three full paragraphs; trimester II: grammar
(revision and reinforcement of elaborate morphological and syntactical structures);
authentic materials for reading and listening on levels 3-4 in compliance with ILR
(1985); speaking: themes of levels 2-3 in compliance with ILR (1985) – abstract
topics (discussing societal issues, formulation, clarification, explanation, and support
of an opinion on the societal issues; formulation and support of hypothesis); role-
plays presenting complicated or conflict situations that occur in the societal everyday
life reflecting speaker’s societal experience without personal feelings and emotions,
but requiring appropriate socio-cultural competence; text produced – three-four full
paragraphs and extended discourse; trimester III: grammar (revision and reinforcement
of elaborate morphological and syntactical structures); authentic materials for reading
and listening on levels 3+-5 in compliance with ILR (1985); speaking: themes of
levels 2+-3 in compliance with ILR (1985) – abstract topics (discussing societal issues,
formulation, clarification, explanation, and support of an opinion on the societal issues
and human values; formulation and support of hypothesis; participation in discussions);
role-plays presenting complicated or conflict situations that occur in the societal and
personal life of an individual reflecting speaker’s societal experience with or without
involvement of personal feelings and emotions, and requiring extended socio-cultural
references; text produced -- extended discourse and discussions;
3. linguistic and methodological characteristics of grammar and vocabulary
to be studied that were taken into consideration while developing exercises and tasks
to create and reinforce knowledge and skills of the language aspects and to develop,
reinforce and realize skills in different modalities in each trimester; it should be noted
here that Russian is, in fact, one of the most “grammar-oriented” languages with a very
rich and detailed vocabulary;
4. psycho-physiological peculiarities of the students, on the basis of which the
rational and effective modes of instruction were developed for each trimester.
III. Succession of all the instruction materials (IM) concerns selection

and organization of the language material (aspects of the language and modalities) in
the exercises, tasks, and activities that are included into textbooks for each trimester,
succession being ensured between the initial Basic Course of RFL and trimester I,
between trimesters I and II, II and III of the DTRA RACSPC, III of the DTRA RACSPC
and DTRA CIT; as well as between weekly cycles in each trimester.
IV. Taking into account peculiarities of English (native language) and
conditions of target language environment (Russian) requires explanation of certain
linguistic phenomena and concepts in English (native language) and Russian (target
language) at the beginning of the course and in certain classes during the course,
especially such linguistic and socio-cultural phenomena and concepts that do not exist
in one of the languages or differ greatly.
V. Science-based approach to selection of IM and its rational distribution
in the intensive advanced DTRA RACSPC in accordance with the levels of different
modalities described in the ILR (1985) and adopted in U.S. government agencies,
which ensures selection of language materials (aspects and modalities) on the basis of
the following principles: а) topical, b) linguistic-statistical, c) frequency in authentic
materials; d) correspondence to a certain level in a certain modality; and criteria:
20
а) semantic value, b) word formation value, c) collocation ability, d) frequency in
usage, e) correspondence to the goals and tasks of each trimester, f) typical use in each
modality; that have already been developed, tested, and applied by Krasnyasnkaya
(1985), Barcroft (2004) and others in the USA and abroad.
VI. IM modality orientation stipulates that all the textbooks (except “History
of Russia”, “Geography of Russia” and “Government Structure of the Russian
Federation”) for each trimester provide students with the appropriate tools to develop,
reinforce, realize their skills in different modalities within a framework of a specific
topic, the theme being the same, but materials being different and diverse for speaking,
listening comprehension, reading comprehension, and consecutive interpreting in each
weekly cycle.
VII. IM concentric lay-out and cyclic structure of exercises, tasks, and
activities in the textbooks are accepted for introduction, reinforcement, and realization
of any materials. The chapters of a textbook are characterized by the cyclic structure,
i.e., weekly cycles corresponding to certain topics are stereotyped in their structure, but
inside each weekly cycle maximum possible diversity and number of exercises, tasks,
and activities are offered.
VIII. IM variability provide rational differentiation of instruction, i.e., two or
more variants and volumes of IM in a textbook for specific conditions of teaching RFL
taking into account the level of student preparedness.
IX. Natural combination of all the forms of classwork and homework RFL
instruction presupposes strict coordination of classwork, homework, individual and
additional tasks for the students. All these forms of instruction are integral because the
homework is a continuation and consequence of the classwork, additional tasks being a
necessity for the students with lower linguistic skill, levels, while individual tasks, being
used for the advanced students, are designed to raise their linguistic levels higher than
the program requirements.
Х. Intensive, rational, and proportional application of all the IM’s in all
the links of the instruction process provides high efficiency of training and proves
systematic nature of RFL teaching process. Unconditionally, the key IM is a properly
developed textbook, since it is a textbook that represents a principal component of
the instruction process and functions as an intermediary in the “student – textbook –
instructor” didactic system.
The students’ reaction to this course is reflected in their ESQ’s: “All aspects of
the course were great and challenging.”, “The course materials are unique and effective.
The curriculum is challenging, but effective, and the teachers’ skills are of high caliber.
They are tireless and professional”, “It is hard to criticize this course. I think that the
teachers are probably the best at DLI, and as far as the materials are concerned, I think
that we had all what we needed.”
As a result of training, the DTRA RACSPC graduates not only meet the
requirements of the Agency in their proficiency (2+ / 2+ / 2), but also receive higher
scores.
Conclusion
If designed carefully and professionally, any course of RFL can become a vital
means of fulfilling a specific foreign language education mission for the DoD. Recent
21
changes and developments in the DTRA RACSPC underline the importance of: a)
special selection procedures established to assemble highly-trained professional faculty,
and b) professional, thorough, systematic, and science-based approach to the course
development. When students are given a tool they need and can easily use, they can
fulfill their tasks confidently and with higher motivation, the direction of this motivation
being the same for the students.
A properly designed textbook in hard copy as well as available in soft copy
stipulates application of tapes, CD’s, DVD’s, videos, movies, grammar charts, role-
play scenarios, etc. to develop, reinforce, and realize, language skills in the appropriate
modalities as well as to check up on them at any stage of the instruction process. This
allows an instructor and students to intensify the process of teaching / learning RFL, to
use time rationally and effectively, to make this process omnigenous, to raise motivation
of both instructors and students.
As a whole, curriculum, syllabi, SIM, and the entire instruction process in DTRA
RACSPC can address today’s pressing need to improve foreign language expertise of
the military and civilians to meet the requirements of the DoD and can serve as a model
for advanced-level foreign language training with specific cultural work focus in other
languages.
References
The Defense Language Transformation Roadmap. A Major Government Initiative to Im-

prove Foreign Language Expertise. (2005) Foreign Language Annals, 38(2),
297, 300.
Ilyina, T. A. (1972). Systematic Structural Approach to Organize Education. Moscow:
Znaniye Publishers. (Russian)
Lyakhovitsky, M. V. (1972). Main Principles of Development of the Textbooks in For-
eign Languages. Methods of Teaching Foreign Languages, 7, 73-83. (Ukrain-
ian)
Krasnyanskaya, E. N. (2006). The System of Instruction Means in the Defense Threat
Reduction Agency Russian Arms Control Speaking Proficiency Course. The
Russian Language Abroad, 3(197), 94-100. (Russian)
Interagency Language Roundtable. Language Skill Level Descriptions. Speaking. Lis-
tening. Reading. Writing. (1985). Department of Defense, Department of State,
Central Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, Department of Inte-
rior, National Institutes of Health, National Science Foundations, Department
of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Federal Bureau of Investi-
gation, ACTION / Peace Corps, Agency for International Development, Office
of Personnel Management, Immigration and Naturalization Service, Depart-
ment of Education, US Customs Service, US Information Agency, Library of
Congress.
Krasnyanskaya, E. N. (1985). Complex of Vocabulary Exercises to Develop Skills of
Reading Job-Related Military Technical Texts at the Military Educational In-
stitutions. Doctoral dissertation; National Linguistic University, Kiev, Ukraine.
( Russian)
Barcroft, J. (2004). Second Language Acquisition: A Lexical Input Processing Approach.
Foreign Language Annals, 37(2), 200-208.
Krasnyanskaya, E., Freeman, V., Novitskaya, A., Kovalev, A. (2006). Defense Threat
Reduction Agency Russian Arms Control Speaking Proficiency Course. Syl-
labi. Trimester 1: 15-week 450-hour focus-on-form refresher course. Trimester
2: 16-week 480-hour course. Trimester 3: 14-week 420-hour course. Defense
Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Monterey, California.
22
APPENDIX A
Courses in Trimesters 1-3

No Courses in Trimester I Hours Weeks
1. English Grammar (for Russian learners) 12 1
2. Russian Grammar 138 1-15

1-8 / 9-
3. Vocabulary 94
15
1-8 / 9-
4. Listening Comprehension 68
15
5. Speaking 75 1-15
6. Reading Comprehension 14 9-15
7. Consecutive Interpreting 28 9-15
8. Translation 21 9-15
No Courses in Trimester II Hours Weeks
1. Russian Grammar (revision and reinforcement) 32 16-31
2. Vocabulary 31 16-31
3. Listening Comprehension 64 16-31
4. Speaking 80 16-31
6. Consecutive Interpreting 64 16-31
Geography of Russia. Revision of CIS Members

8. 26 16-28
Geography (in Russian)
Government Structure of the Russian Federation (in

9. 4 28-31
Russian)
10. History of Russia (in Russian) 35 16-31
11. Round-table Discussions 32 16-31
12. Treaties and Agreements 32 16-31
23
No Courses in Trimester III Hours Weeks
1. Russian Grammar (revision and reinforcement) 28 32-45
2. Vocabulary (revision and reinforcement) 14 32-45
3. Listening Comprehension (Russian TV, live) 42 32-45
4. Speaking (revision and spiraling up the level) 70 32-45
Consecutive Interpreting (interpreting tours and

6. 70 32-45
reports)
8. Round-table Discussions 14 32-45
Government Structure of the Russian Federation (in

9. 6 32-34
Russian)
10. History of Russia (in Russian) 64 32-45
11. Treaties and Agreements 42 32-45
Graduation tests in speaking, treaties and agreements,

12. consecutive interpreting, translation, and a graduation 46-47
ceremony
APPENDIX B
The score reports (a new DLPT-5 and OPI as of 02/16/06 and 06/19/06)
Student Listening Reading Speaking
0192 3 3 2
0455 3 3 2
1232 3 3 3
3849 3 3 2
4427 3 3 3
4519 3 3 2+
7319 3 3 2
8110 3 3 2+
8792 2+ 3 2
9028 3 3 3+
24
Student Listening Reading Speaking

Student N. 2+ 3 2+
Student M. 3 3 2+
Student Sh. 3 2+ 3+
Student O. 3 2+ 2+
Student W. 3 2+ 2+
Student T. 3 3 3
Student J. 2+ 2+ 2+
Authors
VALENTINA FREEMAN, Associate Professor, Defense Threat Reduction Agency

Russian Arms Control Speaking Proficiency Course, Branch Chief, Directorate
of Continuing Education, Field Support Division, Defense Language Institute
Foreign Language Center, DoDCMB, 400 Gigling Rd., Seaside, CA 93955.
Specialization: methodology of teaching foreign languages, management and
leadership.
ELENA KRASNYANSKAYA, PhD (Education), Associate Professor, Defense Threat
Reduction Agency Russian Arms Control Speaking Proficiency Course,
Directorate of Continuing Education, Field Support Division, Defense
Language Institute Foreign Language Center, DoDCMB, 400 Gigling Rd.,
Seaside, CA 93955. Specialization: methodology of teaching foreign languages,
interpretation / translation, curriculum and course development.
WESLEY W. REED, Program Manager, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, 8725
Kingman Rd., Ft. Belvoir, VA 22060-6201. Specialization: translation,
interpretation, management and leadership.
25
Development of Interactive Listening Lessons
2007, Vol. 18, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 27-38
Toward an Integrated Approach to the Development of Interactive

Listening Lessons
Maria Ortenberg
Abdelfattah Boussalhi
Curriculum Development Division
The political and social consequences stemming from such phenomena as

globalization, the fast development of technology, and the interpenetration of cultures
create an ever increasing demand for higher-level language specialists.
For the past three years DLI’s Global Language Online Support System (GLOSS)
has been providing linguists with higher level (L2 and up) reading and listening materials
based on authentic sources covering 10 topical domains, and featuring a combination of
real-life and linguistic objectives. At present GLOSS contains more than 1000 online
lessons in 9 languages.
During the first three years of work devoted exclusively to developing online
reading lessons, a methodological foundation for GLOSS has been built. However, a
reevaluation needed to be conducted of all the components of the methodological approach
from the point of view of their applicability to teaching listening skills. The GLOSS
task force team has done considerable reading and research on listening comprehension
issues and has come up with some ideas that have established a foundation for GLOSS
listening lessons.
In language teaching lore, listening is sometimes described as the most elusive
of all the skills. In many instances, listening is treated as the aural counterpart of reading.
As a consequence, the same reading activities and often the same texts in voiced form
are used for teaching listening comprehension. This could be due to the notion prevalent
in traditional language teaching approaches that considers the acquisition of grammar
as the cornerstone skill, and all other skills as mere manifestations of grammar. Within
the communicative and proficiency approaches, the differences between the reading
and listening skills have been more emphasized. But practitioners of Communicative
Language Teaching sometimes tend to overemphasize the speaking skill to the detriment
of listening comprehension.
This article is an attempt to capture what we already know about listening, and
to propose an approach to teaching listening. The approach we advocate is based on
classroom and online applications. We will attempt to answer some of the fundamental
questions about teaching listening: what is distinctive about listening; how we should
approach a listening text; what it is that we need to focus on, so that we are presenting
students with better learning opportunities; and on what basis we should make our
choices.
We need to make one qualification, before we proceed any further, namely that
isolating the listening skill here does not assume that listening, reading, speaking or
27
Maria Ortenberg and Abdelfattah Boussalhi
writing need to be taught separately. Whether the particular teaching environment we are
working within supports integration of skills or not, the same teaching rationales apply.
This deliberate emphasis on listening in this article aims to highlight the particular issues
involved in teaching listening, whether integrated or taught separately.
Thus, this paper attempts to analyze the inherent difficulties of listening
comprehension and to find some practical ways to help learners overcome them.
Overview of Listening Comprehension Teaching Theory and Practice
During the past decade listening comprehension has been transformed from
the stepchild of language teaching into its most favored offspring. Many scholars have
been researching the phenomenon of L2 listening from many different angles, trying to
find pedagogically effective ways of taming this whimsical and psychologically illusive
child. And although a lot of progress has been made in pinpointing some of listening
comprehension’s most important characteristics, there is still a long way to go before
effective methods of teaching this skill will find their way into the classroom.
The Basic Issues
Why should the listening skill be taught as a separate modality and why can’t
it be acquired through communication as part of the speaking practice? What are the
characteristics of oral input, and how is it different from written input? What are some
of the specifics of the cognitive processes involved in listening? And finally, how can
answers to these questions facilitate teaching learners to become better listeners?
These are the basic questions which form the foundation of the present day
research on this topic.
The Role of Listening in Communication
Listening is an integral part of communication. Wilt (1950) found that 30 percent

of communication time is spent speaking, 16 percent reading, 9 percent writing, and 45
percent listening.
Listening plays a critical role not only in communication, but also in language
acquisition (Morley, 1991). It is the first language mode a child is exposed to and acquires.
However, it is one of the most difficult skills for a FL learner to acquire.
Very often it is much easier to ask a question than to understand the answer.
Therefore, it is important to analyze and understand the psycholinguistic processes that
constitute listening, to enable teachers to select appropriate materials and develop effective
strategies and approaches to meet the needs of their students.
The Underlying Processes Defined in the Literature
“Listening is like a popcorn popper. Like popcorn, words change when they
hit the hot coil (the listener accomplishes the change)” (Michael Rost, 2003). What we
retain as a result of listening will always be our version of what we heard. How close
this version is to the speaker’s intent depends on our ability to process audio information,
which in its turn is affected by multiple factors.
28
“It is not so much that speech sounds contain meaning; it’s rather that speech
sounds trigger meaning in the mind of the listener” (James Nobblitt, 1995). As listeners,
we rely on support from our general intelligence and measure meaning against our inner
“cognitive map.”
“Information that does not fit the cognitive schemata of the listener is simply
not processed” (James Nobblitt, 1995). How can FL learners compensate for missing
cultural schemata, and how can teachers provide a learning environment that can help
the learners to bridge this gap?
Both top-down and bottom-up processing take place simultaneously, due to the
interactive nature of the listening process. While top-down processing (compensating
with real-world knowledge for the inability to decode unfamiliar input) has become
the most used approach in pedagogy, bottom-up processes “such as linguistic decoding
and lexical access that take place when the auditory speech signal is first encountered”
(Catherine Doughty, 2003) seem to be of primary importance for successful listening at
higher level.
Debra Hoven (1991) suggests a classification of the three interrelated aspects
contributing to the difficulty of listening comprehension:
1. Text features – features of the text language, discourse organization, and

content;
2. Task features – including classification of task types and response
demands;
3. Context features – paralinguistic features of the text (could be speaker-related
gestures, mimicry, or world-related/situational factors), level and nature of support,
processing load.
How Oral Speech Differs from Written Language
It is of paramount importance to understand that oral speech is radically different

from the written language. Speech consists of sounds, and every language has its own
sound system, pronunciation rules, and its own ways of changing sounds in fast speech.
Each language has a variety of accepted accents.
Whereas written language consists of complete sentences, speech consists of
idea units, which sometimes may be complete sentences and sometimes not. Spoken idea
units are normally shorter than written. Grammar may be simpler, but the difficulty may
lie in distinguishing word boundaries, or singling out endings and prepositions. Spoken
language is characterized by a lot of false starts, filler words, and unfinished sentences.
It uses its own auditory markers, such as tone and intonation. Dialect words, slang, and
colloquialisms find their way into the spoken language more easily.
Teaching Listening
All of the above-mentioned factors should help teachers select materials and
provide tasks that will create a challenging learning environment, not setting up students
for failure, while guaranteeing some degree of success.
29
More Is Not Necessarily Better
There is no doubt that in order to become a better listener one has to listen more.
But more is not necessarily better. “Much of the academic listening to which learners are
exposed is more like written texts than spoken, with the structure of the formal written
paper underlying it” (Debra Hoven, 1991). Acoustically enhanced recordings, which are
commonly used in the classrooms, “and which are useful for establishing norms… do not
provide practice in dealing with the redundant signals of everyday, situational, listening
comprehension” (James Nobblitt 2003).
It is now generally understood that authentic materials should be used in the
classroom in order to recreate the social and cultural schemata much needed for enhancing
listening skills. Authentic recordings of news, which have been a popular teaching tool
for many years now, are only one facet of all the available text types and all the variations
of spoken language. On the other hand, authentic materials alone are not a panacea, and
may lead to frustration and failure, if not used judiciously.
Supporting the Learning Environment
James Nobblitt (2003) suggests that an adequate learning environment requires

support of at least three modes:
• The sequential mode: linear presentation of information that takes the students
to areas that would not be discovered by browsing or other adventitious means;
• The relational mode: access to relevant reference materials such as
dictionaries;
• The creative mode: learning by doing, stressing communicative
competence.
Lexical Difficulties and Bottom-up Processing
Several scholars (Craig Chaudron, Catherine Doughty, Michael Long)

participating in the NFLC Listening Symposium 2003 have pointed out that lexical
difficulties are among the most often cited, and have stressed the importance of
automaticity of vocabulary acquisition and the enhancement of bottom-up processing
skills. They also suggest some strategies to help facilitate this process:
• Elaboration: rather than simplifying the text, explication of vocabulary by

means of redundancy;
• Teaching synonyms and multiple meanings of words;
• Simple repetition of the same item;
• Repeated practice with auditory materials under differing listening conditions
but within a lexically controlled domain;
• Metric segmentation: identifying where words begin (Michael Rost);
• Meta-cognition, which facilitates reflection on the comprehension process,
utilizing explanations on how to listen, including comments on accents, dialects, and any
other listening-specific issues (Larry Vandergrift and Craig Chaudron);
• Advance organizers recreating cultural schemata, social context, and activating
topical vocabulary.
30
Genuine Texts with Genuine Tasks
And last but not least, the importance of accompanying genuine texts with
genuine tasks is continually stressed in the literature, such as critiquing, summarizing
(Rubin), and providing the purpose for listening (Doughty). All researchers agree that
computers provide “an excellent medium for balancing the analytic or form-focused study
of language with synthetic or content-focused learning environment” (James Nobblitt).
Computers also combine auditory, visual, and textual information with interactivity. All
of this helps recreate context, provide conceptual support, and reduce stress by allowing
students to work at their own pace.
Translating Theory into Practice
Listening Text Issues
In this section, we propose a synthesized framework for approaching the

listening text as a teaching and learning resource, based on our current understanding of
the listening process.
We propose that there are three main levels to an audio text, all of which
contribute to the degree of difficulty for the non-native listener. These levels of access
attempt to capture the different aspects of the audio text that the listener has to deal
with, starting with 1) delivery or audio processing features, 2) listening-specific textual
features, and 3) core textual features. Delivery concerns more the features that compound
the initial auditory processing of a text, whereas the other two levels concern more the
linguistic features of the text.
Fig. 1. Levels of Access to the Listening Text
31
Delivery/Auditory Processing Features
When teachers and curriculum developers think of listening as a different skill,

they usually think of delivery, which they often view as what separates listening from
reading. Likewise, delivery is viewed as the biggest challenge to acquiring listening
proficiency in a foreign language. Before we look at the impact of delivery on the
acquisition of listening proficiency, we will try to define delivery, and what it entails.
We will use delivery to mean all environmental and individual voice
characteristics that mark an utterance along its path from speaker to listener. You can
envision this as an outward manifestation of sound in the same way that handwriting
or quality of ink or paper is a manifestation of writing. Under this definition, we would
include the following speech characteristics:
Para-linguistic Aspects of Delivery. These are the factors external to the speaker,
but which still affect the way utterances sound to the listener, and include a) acoustics,
or physical factors surrounding the speaker and the listener as they communicate using
speech, such as speaking from a distance or through a loud speaker; b) background
noise, such as conversation in a crowded room; and c) situational factors, referring to the
manner of the interaction between the speaker and listener, and degree of involvement
of the listener, such as whether the speaker is visible or not, or if the listener is expected
to respond or not.
Linguistic Aspects of Delivery. The other aspects of delivery are linguistic in
nature, in the sense that they are integral to speech, and that they affect the production
of speech rather than its transmission or reception. Linguistic aspects of delivery include
speed, voice quality, and individual pronunciations. Idiosyncratic accent and intonation can
be also included in this list, since they may compound the auditory processing of speech.
However, it may not be as easy to determine when an idiosyncratic accent ends and where
the societal dialectal accent begins. At the same time, there are individual differences in
speed, voice quality, accent and intonation that may not be accounted for in terms of the
systematic rules of the language in question, and may be more universal in nature, such
as high/low voice or idiosyncratic pronunciations of sounds, etc. All of these compound
auditory processing and make it difficult for students to get into the text.
Listening-Specific Textual Features. Beyond the initial interaction with the audio
text is the vast domain of aural linguistic features. This domain includes all the vocabulary,
utterance structures, discourse elements, and schemata underpinnings particular to aural
communication. This is one of the most neglected areas in foreign language teaching.
Students are often exposed to skill-neutral texts, where the linguistic features are applicable
across all skills. Obviously, there is nothing detrimental about this approach, but what is
not covered in these materials is equally important. We know well that not all authentic
speech is prepared or structured in the way text books present it. Aural speech is different
from the printed one in its lexical, structural and discourse composition.
Lexical Features. One of the elementary lexical challenges of listening is the
lack of word boundaries. Unlike reading, there are no visual clues to delineate words.
In listening, words blend into each other, making it harder for the learner to identify the
uttered words. We have observed in face-to-face diagnostic interviews students who fail
to recognize aural words, but who would recognize the same words when presented with
them in printed form.
32
In the process of acquiring a foreign language, students may also develop a
habit of attributing their own pronunciation to certain words, following their own native
language patterns in the case of cognate languages, or other dominant foreign languages
they have learned. This attributed pronunciation may act as a filter when listening to
the same words used by native speakers, and thus students miss words that they would
otherwise know.
Oral speech does not necessarily draw from the same registers as written speech,
and thus also includes lexicon that is listening-specific. In spoken communication, speakers
tend to use or borrow more dialectal usage. A typical foreign language student is mostly
exposed to the standard variety of the language in question, thus being sheltered from a
whole spectrum of dialectal and register variation. This does not mean that a student should
be exposed to all varieties of a particular language, but rather to the typical variations
occurring across topical domains at the desired proficiency levels.
Syntactical Features. Syntax may not necessarily present more difficulties in
listening, but may present rather different ones, and in some cases, syntax may be less
of a challenge in listening. One reason for this comparative advantage is that syntax in
listening tends to be minimally embedded, particularly in speech that originates in informal
or unrehearsed situations. Speech that is delivered from prepared notes is usually similar
in syntactic structures to written texts.
Another advantage that listening may provide in terms of syntactical features
concerns those features whose functions are not marked by visible forms in reading texts,
but are rather determined by contextual meaning. In this case, the listener is spared the
misconstruction, and is given immediate access to the right pronunciation, and therefore
to the functional meaning of the word. One example can be found in Arabic, where the
passive verb form is not marked in the written form, and as a result, a struggling reader
may misunderstand a sentence, because he may read the verb as active. In listening,
this difficulty disappears, since passive pronunciation is distinguishable from active
pronunciation. On the other hand, syntactical markers that have written forms do present
more difficulties in listening. Case suffixes, and number or gender markers, for example,
may not be easily detectable in aural form, particularly for beginning and intermediate
proficiency levels.
The biggest syntactical challenge in listening is that conversational speech
does not necessarily follow standardized (written) syntactical structures. If a student is
looking for a sentence that has a standardized beginning and end, he may not always be
successful. Oral speech is full of so-called incomplete sentences and false starts. A speaker
may start an utterance, but may stop midstream, or restart his utterance in accordance
with his thinking process or the dynamics of the interaction. Unprepared speech may also
be characterized by non-standard grammatical features, where word order may change
or “sentence” components get deleted, such as asking a question in declarative form or
without an interrogative particle.
Discourse Features. Coherence in aural discourse is attained through a variety
of means, both in terms of the linguistic devices and the underlying text organization
used. Listening texts do use common cohesive devices found in written texts, such as
conjunctions and pronominal references, but they also rely on other cohesive devices
specific to verbal communication. Similarly, frequency and meaning of cohesive devices
common also to written discourse are different in listening. In English, for example, “as
I said” or “actually” are more common in verbal interaction.
33
Fillers constitute another element of discourse coherence in aural speech.

Contrary to popular belief, fillers are not meaningless “fillers” of dead time or an indication
of a speaker’s level of fluency or inarticulateness, but are rather an integral part of discourse
that shape the coherence and meaning of the text. Fillers also carry significant cultural
content that constitute one of the content layers of the listening text. In both their breadth
and function in verbal communication, conjunctions and fillers serve to break continuous
speech into meaningful and manageable units.
Prosodic features also help structure verbal discourse. In listening, prosodic
features replace the clues visible in written texts. Stress and intonation replace periods
and paragraphs. The successful listener will need to understand the usage and meaning
of these prosodic features to be able to follow an utterance.
While many of these discourse elements are comparatively identifiable, there are
some other types of listening texts whose coherence may depend less on the use of such
explicit markers but more on the implicit structural pattern of the interaction. Recurring
verbal communication often depends on predictable exchange structures. By virtue of the
characteristics of a situation and its embedded assumptions, two or more interlocutors
will engage in an interaction that would seem meaningless to the novice non-native
interlocutor or listener. Predictable situations include, for example, daily transactions, such
as shopping or banking. These transactions typically follow a certain order of exchanges
that usually fall with the interlocutors’ expectations with minimal personalization. In
second language teaching, raising student awareness of these predictable patterns will
provide students with a tool to navigate these types of aural texts.
Core Textual Features
Any text, be it written or spoken, draws from the same linguistic code. The code
may branch out at certain points, but the code is sustained by a core of items, functions
and relations. If you take a written text from a language and an aural one from the same
language, you are bound to find similar lexical items, sentence structures and cohesive
devices in these two texts. Such uni-skill features form the core textual features, which are
also found in listening texts. In typical traditional teaching materials, much of the focus
in aural materials is on the core textual features, leaving out large elements of listening
text features. This targeting of core textual features also affects teachers’ selection of
materials, as they focus more on edited aural texts and on carefully delivered texts.
For a well-rounded set of listening materials, students need to be exposed to all
types of authentic listening texts, and be made aware of the major delivery and listening-
specific textual features.
As Figure 1 shows, the listener in his encounter with the listening text has to deal
first with the delivery features. If the listener is not familiar with the particular delivery
features he has to deal with, he will not be able to access the actual content. Delivery
constitutes the first layer of the text a listener has to deal with, once the delivery issues
are clarified, after which content will become more accessible.
But the majority of learning will need to take place in the middle layer, where
all the listening-specific textual features come to light. The role of the teacher and the
materials developer is to highlight the language of speaking and listening in all of its
lexical, structural and discourse elements. One of the challenges in this area is that the
34
teacher will have limited resources to address these particular listening-specific features,
and she may need to do her own analysis of authentic texts.
This does not mean that listening materials should not target core textual features.
Core textual features are present in every text, and need to be addressed in accordance with
the teaching objectives. But the lesson that we can take from this layer image of listening
is that raising proficiency levels in listening would need to pay particular attention to the
distinctive textual features of listening, as the other features can be addressed through
other skills.
The Importance of Appropriate Material Selection for Successful Teaching
We believe that material selection plays a very important role in effective FL

teaching and learning. If we want our students to be able to function in different social
and cultural contexts we need to provide the environment where they will be exposed
to a variety of topics and speech samples reflecting multiple social and cultural settings.
Whereas everybody agrees on the main topical domains*, the issue of text type is not
always addressed in modern day classrooms. Here are some examples of audio text
types that should be considered for teaching listening comprehension: announcements,
commercials, news broadcasts, interviews, talk shows, personal conversations, personal
stories, telephone conversations, narratives.
The level of the text/audio piece offered to the student is of paramount
importance. Thus, it would be totally counterproductive to offer an opinion piece to a L1
student who can only function at sentence level, or to continue feeding factual narration
to a L2 student who is striving towards L3.
The audio pieces should present a challenge to the students, but at the same time
they should not be overwhelming. If we want a strong L2 student to eventually be able to
listen to opinion pieces and discussions on abstract topics, we should start to gradually
introduce them to the features typical of those types of discourse, such as long or run-on
sentences, abstract vocabulary, idioms, specific discourse markers preceding opinion,
etc. The word “gradually” is the key, since it means that we have to find materials that
are half-way between the factual and the abstract domains.
In text/audio selection we are being guided by the theory of text modes by James
Child, according to whom there are 4 basic text modes corresponding to 4 proficiency
levels*:
• Orientation mode-L1;
• Instructive mode-L2;
• Evaluative mode-L3;
• Projective mode-L4.
Child addressed the linguistic qualities of written texts representing each mode,
making it easier to define language-specific features for each level. At the same time the
linguistic and non-linguistic specifics of oral speech that a listener may be exposed to
remain unexplored. The above research is an attempt to define listening-specific language
features across languages, and the actual development of listening lessons for GLOSS
has provided us with rich data concerning language-specific features for each mode for
a variety of text types.
35
As a result of our research we have concluded that we can successfully apply
the text mode theory to listening materials, while understanding that the linguistic
descriptors of each mode will be drastically different from those characteristic of reading
materials. The most obscure issue remains the issue of delivery – both its linguistic and
para-linguistic aspects.
According to the ILR, delivery issues are addressed only above L3*. Up to L3
the listener is only supposed to deal with normal rates of speech, no interference, and
standard dialects. While it may be fair for a testing setting, it is not very helpful for a
real-life situation. We are convinced that for teaching purposes we should start exposing
our students to delivery issues from the very beginning. We should certainly use good
judgment and common sense in selecting only the most typical and common occurrences
of speech samples for each text mode and text type.
Skills, Knowledge, and Abilities
Based on all the characteristics of audio texts, the following deciphering skills
are crucial for a successful listener: ability to decode the auditory stream, ability to hear
idea units, automatic access to a wider range of vocabulary, spontaneous knowledge of
schemata, and effective compensatory strategies.
Developer/Teacher’s Tool-Box
In addition to all the usual tools used by the developers of reading lessons
such as linguistic explanations, area study notes, tips, hints, and detailed feedback,
some additional tools are necessary to address the difficulties associated with aural
comprehension: paraphrasing, providing a slower version, a clearer version, a standard
(dialect) version, and parsing. How to facilitate instruction using these tools in the body
of the lesson is up to the developer’s judgment, but the main goal is to teach students
useful strategies, to give them the necessary understanding and knowledge to deal with
unabridged, unedited authentic audio texts, and to help them transfer the acquired skills
into real life situations.
Developer Pitfalls
There are some pitfalls that materials developers have traditionally fallen into.
One of these pitfalls is to plan a listening a lesson on the basis of a transcript of the audio
instead of using the actual audio as the basis for the planning. The problem with transcripts
is that, while they provide easy access to the content of the text, they reveal little about
auditory processing problems or listening-specific textual issues. Solely relying on the
transcript, a developer would miss a variant pronunciation of a word, for example.
Another common pitfall in developing listening lessons is solely concentrating on
core textual features found in other skills, such as core lexical meaning or core structural
uses. While this is naturally of value to the learner, audio text will be better used if focus
is extended to the special textual challenges of listening texts, such as spoken idioms or
spoken discourse connectors.
The last pitfall that we will include here is common to the development of
materials in all of the other skills. It concerns the tendency of developers to establish
36
priorities in selecting linguistic features to cover in their resource on the basis of pre-
determined lists, be it textbooks or individualized list of priorities, rather than on linguistic
features that arise from the texts themselves. This is particularly relevant if the organizing
principle behind a course or a set of materials is driven by textual difficulty and not by
grammar topics. If linguistic features are explored by the developer as they arise from
the text, and if enough topics are sampled at each incremental level of difficulty, a more
realistic distribution and categorization of linguistic features will emerge.
At the end of the day, feedback in the form of developer input or commentary
on the text earmarked for the learner should integrate all the of the layers of the audio
text, but in the order of the priorities that occur in the text and in dozes (through different
activities). It is possible that a particular audio segment is so standard in all of its aspects
- in delivery and in linguistic choices - that all a developer can draw attention to are
core textual features, such as one would encounter in a prepared speech. Nevertheless,
a rich listening resource should sample as many listening text types as possible. With
such sampling, a learner would be exposed to a variety of listening challenges across the
functional and topical spectrums.
Conclusion
Our purpose in presenting this article is to advance an approach to the listening

text as a teaching resource. Our approach to developing lessons around authentic listening
texts is based on our synthesis of the general trends in the literature and our on-the-ground
experience with developing Web-delivered lessons for GLOSS.
From the last discussion of developmental pitfalls, you may have already realized
that developing a good resource for teaching listening requires some courage in going
beyond the conventional textbooks, as well as assuming the role of researcher, since
a teacher or developer would find a paucity of references that touch on the previously
discussed listening–specific issues. We believe that small-scale exploration of authentic
listening texts will yield a growing insight into listening, and will ultimately lead to the
enrichment of any listening resource.
As technology is a major component of GLOSS, we can report that in listening,
we can perhaps see that technological innovations have a more useful role to play, rather
than technology merely fulfilling a complimentary role. With all the layered intricacies
of the typical authentic listening text, and the demands it exercises on our cognitive
processing, today’s technology can provide us with various tools to break down the
process of listening into meaningful and manageable doses, from players that can slow
down speech or loop selected portions, to speech-editing software that can allow you
to develop an infinite array of activities. The goal should always remain facilitating the
learner’s access to the original listening text.
37
References
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Hoven, D. Towards a cognitive taxonomy of listening comprehension tasks. .
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Noblitt, J. S., Ph. D Cognitive approaches to listening Comprehension. Available [Online]:
http://www.unc.edu/cit/iat-archive/publications/noblitt/noblitt3.html.
Peckham, B. The Global Project, University of Tennessee. Listening comprehension:
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on Language Instruction, 16 (1 & 2).
Rost,M.(1991) Listening in Action: Activities for developing listening in language
teaching. New York: Prentice Hall
Rubin,J. (1994) A review of second language listening comprehension research. The
Modern Language Journal.78(2),199-221. In NFLC Listening Symposium
Materials, 2003.
Morley, J. (1991). Listening comprehension in second/foreign language instruction.
Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed) Boston: Heinle and
Heinle.
Authors
MARIA ORTENBERG, Academic Specialist for Online Development, Curriculum

Development Division, Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center,
Presidio of Monterey, CA 93944-5006. Interests: FL teaching and testing.
ABDELFATTAH BOUSSALHI, Online Diagnostic Assessment, Curriculum Development
Division, Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Presidio of
Monterey, CA 93944-5006. Interests: Applied linguistics, teaching Arabic as a
foreign language, language testing.
38
How to Enhance Students' Proficiency through Movies
2007, Vol. 18, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 39-48
How to Enhance Students’ Proficiency through Movies
Kyung Sook Lee

Korean School
This article discusses how to use movies in foreign language education,

particularly in intermediate and advanced courses. It consists of four
parts: (1) An introduction to the author’s contention that the techniques
of either guessing or scanning/skimming focused on factual as well as
contextual comprehension of any text on the lower level will not do
the job of leading students to go beyond Level 2; (2) Three cautionary
remarks in leading students to achieve such goal, while using high tech
materials such as video or internet scripts: instructions for preparing
a movie showing; rationale for choosing comprehensible input;
and outlining the contents of three selected movies; (3) A summary
along with students’ results from using movies; and (4) An appendix
containing one sample task sheet as part of the process of showing a
selected movie in the classroom.
It is now a usual practice with the DLI faculty and students to use multimedia to
enhance students’ proficiency on all skill levels from Basic to Advanced. This practice
started just a few decades ago from merging Internet materials on to video or cassette
tapes, as well as CDs or DVDs, initially taking authentic materials from real-time SCOLA
programs. Tovar and Barbudo (2002) have well traced this trend.
My experience with basic course students, especially when dealing with high
tech materials, has shown me that at best the use of video or internet scripts has been
tantamount to either a guessing game going from known to unknown, or a scanning/
skimming technique focusing on comprehension of the context. On the other hand, my
experience in the advanced course tells me that such contextual or factual knowledge
alone will not lead my students beyond Level 2, precisely because they already have
reached that level. These students are now required to upgrade themselves to Level 3
or above, which requires them to deal not just with the hypothetical, interpretative, and
evaluative, but with area studies, as well. How do I, or for that matter, my students handle
the pressure thus imposed on us to get to the higher level? The following discussion is
an attempt to answer such a perennial, though self-imposed, question in the upper levels
of foreign language education.
The actual answer, however, can be found in results shown by my students who
have gone through the process of getting to the higher level.
39
Kyung Sook Lee
Preparing a Film Session
There are several points you must keep in mind before you use a movie as
teaching material in your drama hour:
1. Beyond fun. You are likely to finish the entire hour just in fun. “Wow, we had
a lot of fun watching that movie! That’s a thriller!” Your students might make statements
such as these, as though they had been in a movie theater and learned nothing—language-
wise, that is. Since students can grasp the content, however vaguely, only through the
scenes on the surface of the screen, they will want to watch the scenes without interruption.
Most students find interrupting the movie annoying. The question arises as to how not
to lose your students in the entertainment aspect of the movie. You will need to know
how to lead your students to those not-fun parts, so to speak, that are made of images,
color-tones, effects of music, sound or even noises, whether in the background or out
front, facial expressions and gestures of the performers and their dialogues, all of which
in fact make up the total scenario. These parts, in my judgment, play a crucial role in
mediating between the linguistic meanings and contextual situations, especially when
the movie is action-oriented such as the movie Shiri. Perhaps, the nonnative audience
such as our students, although on a higher level of foreign language education, have
to rely heavily on these nonlinguistic parts, or the “fun” parts, in order to savor the
“actions” to their heart’s content. Even so, the actions should be educationally valid for
any serious language students who are, by definition, not an audience whose goal is to
be entertained only. In other words, serious study can be compatible with fun, but not
with sheer entertainment.
2. Choosing comprehensible input. Before you select a movie, get a general
idea of the proficiency level of your class. This seems a plausible task; yet if you neglect it,
the result will be disastrous: if the text is far above their level, you will violate Krashen’s
formula (i + 1), and your students will lose their interest. If the text is below their level,
no doubt they will get easily swept into the very entertainment aspect, and become bored.
Either way, the minds of students are coaxed into an easy going attitude which ends up in
an urge to get over with the hard job of learning. I, personally, witnessed this happening
in many classes, and the students never made Level 3. Perhaps, American students
learn better, while “having fun”; but I am not too sure that applies to any higher level of
education, even in America and in particular at the Institute as it is seriously engaged in
foreign language education and with a highly intensive curriculum.
3. Language-specific situation. The merit of showing a movie, as we all know,
lies in exposing our students to colloquialisms, slang, and dialect and, at the same time, to
current terms, which reflect changes in the target language and culture. However, we must
understand that our students in learning Korean, a Category IV language, have to acquire
an extra language system, if they are to achieve Level 3 or above, i.e., the Sino-Korean
words that are embedded in the dual system of Korean, (and for that matter, of Japanese,
as both languages are historically tied to the Chinese culture): Without understanding this
complex language situation, our students cannot possibly acquire, the Korean language at
the level of 3, 2+, or even 2. Additionally, this situation extends to spoken language such
as daily exchanges on the street, over the radio and on TV. It literally takes an intense
study to master this complex, authentic system of language.
4. Movie as a rich medium. My last point is how to utilize the rich media of
communication, movies, in our rather rigid classroom environment. Fortunately, a lot
40
of award winning and internationally acclaimed movies have been exported to the U.S.
from Korea these days. These movies are certainly facilitating our method for teaching
the Korean language, furnishing our students with a superb means of study.
In the following sections, I will share how I made use of movies, specifically
presenting sample task sheets to demonstrate the process of watching the whole movie—
from silent to voiced, from one segment to another, and eventually in its entirety, ending
with the student’s commentary or summary. The homework and research presentation,
which students complete is also described.
Selecting Three Movies
One academic year of 47 or 63 weeks is a period during which you can handle at
most three or four movies. The first step is the selection of movies in a gradual sequence
of proficiency levels. If you are to raise the level of the movie text from entry levels of
2/2+ in intermediate/advanced courses to levels 2+/3, you have to deal with the Sino-
Korean language.
In other words, in order for students to acquire the higher level of Korean mixed
with Sino-Korean script (not necessarily the Chinese characters), they must receive
intense training.
1. Shiri is a good movie to start, because it is simple in terms of content and
one of the first Blockbusters in Korea. It is packed with “actions” and based on a love
story between a girl and a boy in the intelligence business from respectively the North
and the South. This theme certainly suits the common interest and sentiment of DLIFLC
students. What is really important, however, is the deluge of over 400 Sino-Korean words
in this movie; yet students are not likely to have any problem in absorbing them, simply
because they soon get immersed in the thrills and suspense of the movie (until all the
actions entwined with intrigues reach the denouement, the meaning of the code name
“Shiri” is never revealed).
2. The Hourglass, in this movie, the drama turns to a social problem dealing with
college students and citizens alike who had no choice but to fight against their repressive
regime. In the meantime, the real tragedy impinges on two old chums who confront
each other as enemies—one is a political thug and the other a serious law student who,
following an infamous event, prevails in a court of law.
The theme of this movie can be seen from the same perspective as that of the
previous, Shiri—a bipolarized psyche of the Korean people as yet politically divided.
Also, the linguistic forms of both movies lie in a similar vein: straight talk, and simple
expressions, though the second movie contains an enormous amount of colloquialism
together with dialects containing regional differences.
Again, the linguistic pool is huge, full of those idiomatic expressions that are
necessary for the students of Korean at the advanced level, namely the four-character
composition of idiomatic phrases in classical Chinese, i.e., Sino-Korean words, proverbs
and maxims, or even riddles. In this fashion, my students certainly were able to easily
acquire the skills of listening, reading, and even speaking in contextual depth.
3. Joint Security Area (JSA). After watching a long series of scenes on the
Hourglass, my students come to have a strong grip with the miserable situation of present
day Korea, which the movie JSA superbly depicts in a high drama of tragic-comedy. It
is here, with the production of this movie, that the director and the writers alike prove
41
Kyung Sook Lee
themselves to have overcome adversity transforming it into the beauty of human comedy.
Students must comprehend this notion if they are to understand the true picture of their
target area; otherwise, they will never become good linguists. The film introduces a Swiss
team of international observers who are politically neutral, yet incapable of resolving the
deadlock caused by soldiers on both sides committing the error of humanely possible
comedy of compassion, which has turned out to be a grand illusion.
I, as teacher, must elevate the competence of my students in area studies
in addition to the language, to the level where they can comprehend, through this movie,
the sarcasm and cynicism prevalent in Korean society today. In the end, my students will
surpass proficiency Level 3 and will freely demonstrate their skill of ‘supporting and
opposing opinions’.
Summary and Results
At the outset, the fun approach was characterized as insufficient in that it stops
short of leading students to the required proficiency Level 3 in all three skills. Although
the selection of comprehensible input after checking the proficiency level of the class is
said to be desirable, the language situation specific to each target language, Korean in
our case, demands special attention to its unique Sino-Korean dual system.
The subtleties contained in the details as revealed in the process of analyzing
scenarios along with student task sheets actually make up the authenticity of the material.
Watching a movie, especially for acquisition of a second language, is virtually a listening
exercise, while reading the scripts or events in the play or even players’ expressions
follows suit; and thereupon students step up to the higher level of proficiency.
And, most importantly, my students, after being exposed to those approaches
that I have designed by way of fitting movies to classroom teaching, have shown me
their positive results:
I was amazed to see that none of my students were showing any sign of boredom,
not a single student dozing, or doing wayward things, and that all were absorbed in
watching the movie, not only out of curiosity, but also with keen interest in their present
work; and at the end of every movie hour, many said “Time went too fast for us.”
They had no problem in memorizing about 400-450 words of Sino-Korean, which
was the natural effect of their intensity and concentration, not a result of their unnatural
and mechanical exercise on rote-memorization.
Each student, when acting out a role in the play, did a perfect job of imitating
the actor’s tone of speeches such as intonation, pronunciation, pitch, as well as facial
expressions and gestures, that were real and lively. Finally, students lost no time in quoting
certain phrases from the play and made quick-witted use of them for daily exchanges with
their teachers; for instance, when they were given a heavy homework assignment:
Student A: [Quoting literally from Shiri, Act. 4, Scene 3] “Teacher,
have you lost your mind?” (선생님, 지금 제정신이야?)
Teacher: [Quoting from the next line in the same scene] “I am just
fine.” (응, 나 아주 멀쩡해.)
Student B: [Quoting an idiomatic expression]: “I won’t do it even if

Heaven and Earth were recreated.” (천지개벽이 일어나도 난 못
해!)
42
Students were enthused to watch the vivid scenes of social, political and historical
events through cinematic representations, without the teacher’s dry lectures on such events
as though they were separable from linguistic matters.
APPENDIX
Sample Task Sheet

Shiri
Act 4, Scene 3: CTX Transport Truck
Task 1. �: Discuss the scene you viewed yesterday, talk freely about the characters and
their dialogs, when and where their actions were taking place, etc.
Task 2. �: Today you will view the next scene. After watching the scene once,describe
what happened.
Task 3. �: Check the list of new words on the last page of this task sheet to preview
today’s scene.
Task 4. �: You will view the same scene once more, focusing on listening. Write in the
box below what you hear: the known or unknown words, numbers, proper nouns, loan
words, idiomatic phrases, etc., as many as you can remember. Compare your work with
your neighbor’s.
Words Phrases
43
Kyung Sook Lee
Task 5 �: You will see the same scene once more. This time, try to understand the content
of the entire scene and summarize the entire story.
Summary
Task 6. �: Write your summary on the board.
Task 7. �: Point out any errors in grammar, spelling, sentence flow, etc., and correct
them.
44
Task 8. �: Now, listen to the dialog without watching the scene. While listening, fill in
the parentheses below.
소령: [짚차 안에서 앞쪽을 보면서] 왜 갑자기 서라 마라

( )게 구는 거야?
부관: 기간 요원인 것 같은데 이 차량을 ( )시킬 모양입

니다.
소령: 기간원? 아, 걔들은 왜? [터널 저쪽에 길을 막고 서 있는 군

인들을 보면서] 저건 또 뭐야?
박: 짚차에 다가서면서] 단결! 잠시 ( )이 있겠습니다.
소령: 보고 받은 일 없어! 무슨 일이야?
박: 무장병들의 CTX( ) 정봅니다. 이송( )과 신분증

( )해 주시죠.
소령: CTX는 잘 있으니까 염려할 것 없어. 어서 길이나 ( )!

내 말 안 들려?!
소령: [짚차 문을 확! 열고 나오며] 너 지금 제 ( )이야?!
박: [조용히, 아주 침착한 태도로] 아주 ( )해.
소령: [박을 이리 저리 훑어 보며] 완전히 갔구만! [발로 차며] 네

( ) 풀어라, 이 새끼야! 이거 ( ) 새끼 아냐?! [박의
주위를 빙빙 돌며] 어~라? 머리까지? [박의 머리 털을 움켜 쥐며]
야! 이 자식아! 너 소속 부대가 어디야?!
박: [무게 있는 낮은 목소리로] 조선 민주주의 인민 공화국! [순간,

칼로 소령의 배를 푹 찌른다. 소령의 피가 박의 얼굴에 튄다.]
45
Kyung Sook Lee
(Task 8: Glossed in English.)
MAJ: [seeing soldiers way out of the tunnel…] Why are these guys
always (messing) with us. “Stop. Go.”…What do they want?
ADJ: Looks like agents; seems like we’re gonna have to (stop).
MAJ: Agents? Geez…why do they do this?
CAPT: Unit! This is a (security check) point. Please cooperate,

sir.
MAJ: You have no need to check. What is this all about?
CAPT: We have some information that someone (took) some CTX.

Please show me your (papers) and (ID).
MAJ: CTX is fine, and it is none of your concern. Just (get out of
my way)! Can’t you hear me?
CAPT: Didn’t I tell you to (show) me your (papers) and ID?
MAJ: Come on. Captain. I don’t have time for this (idle chit-chat)!
If you need my paper, I (will) fax you (a copy).
CAPT: If you continue to (reject) me, I will (be forced to arrest)

you.
MAJ: What? What did you just say to me?! Say it again!
CAPT: I said I’d (arrest) you. That aside, I could (shoot) you too.
MAJ: Have you (lost your mind)?
CAPT: I (am just fine).
MAJ: Oh, this is perfect. I’ll (grant your wish), you bastard!
[kicking on Captain’s leg] You (f***in weirdo)! What’s this? Hair
like this? Ok, little bastard! What unit do you belong to?
CAPT: [Solemnly in a low voice] Democratic People’s Republic of

Korea! [stabs Major in the belly and blood splashes on his face.]
46
Task 9. �: Discuss and exchange your opinion with your neighbor on the questions
below:
1. Describe briefly what happened in the scene.

2. What is the fight about between MAJ and CAPT?
3. Listen carefully to the changing process of the verb endings, and check how the verb
conjugation influences the relation between the two people.
Relation Who and who Verb-ending Conjugation
Equal
Superior & subordinate
Hostile
4. You will hear many curse/vulgar words, slang, dialect in the scene. Write down
those words you hear.
_____________________/____________________/____________________
_____________________/ ____________________/ ___________________
5. Students, as a class, discuss/debate on a topic selected from the content of the

scenario, and express/support their own opinion.
Task 10. �: The entire class participates in the scene and acts it out imitating the
actor’s/actress’s tone of voice, accent, facial expression and gesture. Keep in mind that
language is not just language by itself. You must use your body to achieve successful
communication.
Task 11. �: For your homework tonight, transcribe a piece of scenario that you think is
interesting and translate it in English. Make it a meaningful translation, not a word for
word/sentence by sentence translation. Turn it in by tomorrow morning!
47
Kyung Sook Lee
LIST OF NEW WORDS (Shiri, Act 4, Scene 3):
놓치다: 손에 든 것을 떨어트리다; 실패하다; 기회를 잃다.

기간요원: 필요한 직원; 간부.
귀찮다: 귀엽지 않고 성가시다.
동승: 차에 같이 타다; 태우다.
굴다: ─게 행동하다; “귀찮게 굴다”, “밉게 굴다”, “귀엽게 굴다”.
탈취: 빼앗다.
단결: 많은 사람들이 한데 뭉치다; 힘을 한데 모우다.
제시하다: 내 보이다.
노닥거리다: 별로 중요하지 않은 이야기를 하며 시간을 보내다.
비키다: 있던 곳에서 물러나다.
멀쩡하다: 흠이 없이 깨끗하고 온전하다; 완벽하다.
원: 소원; 바라는 것.
원을 풀다: 바라는 것을 이루다.
만만하다: 부드럽다; 다루기 쉽다.
만만치 않은: 쉽지 않은; 다루기가 아주 어려운; 두려운.
References
Krashen, S.D. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and implications. Harlow:
Longman.
Romaine, S. (1994). Language in society: An introduction to sociolinguistics. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Tovar, D., & Barbudo, C. (2002). Integrating video and the internet into the classroom.
Dialog on Language Instruction, 15,(1&2), 35-45.
Author
KYUNG SOOK LEE, Associate Professor of Korean, Defense Language Institute, Foreign
Language Center, Presidio of Monterey, CA 93944-5006. Specializations:
Acquisition theory in applied linguistics, immersion practice that completes the
process of acquisition, and the task-based approach to proficiency teaching.
48
The Role of Aptitude in Foreign Language Learning
2007, Vol. 18, No 1, pp.49-56
Marina Cobb
Faculty and Staff Development
Aptitude and Proficiency Enhancement Program at DLIFLC
In fiscal year 2006 the Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center
began implementing its Proficiency Enhancement Program whose major goal is bringing
the language proficiency of the institution’s Basic Course graduates to the ILR Levels
of “2+” in Reading and Listening and Level “2” in Speaking. The institution is planning
to achieve this goal by lowering the student-teacher ratio in the classroom, improved
instructional techniques and curricula, ongoing academic support for students, and
ongoing faculty development.
Another planned aspect of DLIFLC’s PEP is raising the entering students’
aptitude scores as measured by the DLAB (Defense Language Aptitude Battery) which the
majority of DLIFLC students take before they can be enrolled in a basic language course.
A minimal score is established for each of the four language categories DLIFLC teaches.
Much to the delight of the faculty, these minimum score requirements are expected to
be raised in the near future by 10 points for each category. Like all aptitude tests, DLAB
comes under a great deal of scrutiny and a discussion about the next generation of this
aptitude test is under way. However, even the best designed aptitude test can only be a
more or less reliable predictor of language learning success for groups of students, but
not necessarily for each individual student. Too many other important factors come into
play and influence each individual learner’s success, i.e. motivation, maturity of learning
strategies, etc. (The formula for determining each of DLIFLC’s teaching teams TSI (Team
Success Index) when the team graduates a class of students takes into account the average
class DLAB score as compared to the average class score for each language, in addition
to the graduates’ proficiency results, class attrition rate, etc.)
Classroom teachers often believe that they are capable of recognizing foreign
language aptitude, or lack thereof, in their students. However, they often find it difficult
to articulate what cognitive and other characteristics they associate with the perception of
aptitude. In light of PEP, it appears particularly worthwhile to find out how the literature in
the field of second language acquisition defines language aptitude and its components.
What is Foreign Language Aptitude?
In his article entitled “Twenty-five years of research on foreign language

aptitude,” Carroll (1981) defines aptitude (not foreign language aptitude specifically) as
a notion that “in approaching a particular learning task or program, the individual may
be thought of as possessing some current state of capability of learning this task - if the
individual is motivated and has the opportunity of doing so” (p. 84). In the same source,
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Marina Cobb
the author further clarifies that he does not believe motivation to be a component of
aptitude and emphasizes a distinction between aptitude (as potential capability to master
a task) and achievement (as evidence of this mastery). In relation to classroom learning,
aptitude can be defined as the ability of a learner to benefit from good teaching and a
well-designed curriculum (Ehrman, 1990).
Review of relevant literature reveals a very important premise: all people are
assumed to be capable of learning a foreign language under the right conditions and in
the absence of serious cognitive deficiencies. Aptitude is only believed to denote the
ease and rate with which successful language acquisition would occur in a particular
individual (Carroll, 1981). Even though all individuals may arguably be able to achieve
success with a foreign language, those with lower aptitude may only be able to do so
with a great degree of difficulty and over a longer period of time.
Aptitude and IQ
Mitchell & Myles (1998) state that learners who score above average on formal
measures of intelligence and in general academic attainment, generally tend to do well in
learning languages. However, research shows only a moderate positive correlation between
general intelligence, as measured by IQ tests, and foreign language aptitude. Skehan (1998)
reports that correlational studies and studies involving factor analysis show a correlation
at the .43 - .44 level between the subjects’ IQ and language aptitude. Known studies of
exceptionally good individual language learners, on the one hand, and individual poor
learners, on the other hand, indicate that these learners do not necessarily show markedly
high or markedly low IQ scores respectively (Ioup et al, 1994; Schumann, 1976).
Basic Assumptions about Language Learning
Skehan (1998) analyzes some basic assumptions generally made about language
aptitude in literature, such as:
1. Assumption of specificity that purports that a talent exists which is specific to

language learning (a contrasting viewpoint states that abilities which facilitate language
learning are the same as for any learning in any field, which is consistent with the theory
of general intelligence);
2. Assumption of stability and untrainability that basically affirms that language
aptitude is stable, not susceptible to easy training, and is not environmentally influenced
to any significant degree, once the individual has passed the early years.
These theoretical foundations, or assumptions, for aptitude research have been

criticized by some authors, most notably Krashen (1981), who contests that the whole
discussion of language aptitude issues is irrelevant to naturalistic unconscious acquisition,
and that so-called language aptitude tests measure the person’s ability to consciously
learn individual elements of the language. The Krashenists’ point of view is that all
adult individuals possess ability to acquire a second language under the right holistic,
acquisition-rich conditions that promote natural development of language, provided that
the individuals’ affective filter is down (and thus allows acquisition). Krashen (1981)
50
argues that only attitudinal factors, not aptitude factors, can serve as predictors for
language acquisition success.
Even though motivation and other affective factors arguably are important for
successful language acquisition, most researchers appear to oppose Krashen’s view. It is
generally recognized that language learning aptitude plays a part under both natural, or
untutored, and formal (classroom) learning conditions.
Recognized Components of Foreign Language Aptitude
The three components of foreign language aptitude that are generally recognized
in the literature are:
1. phonetic coding ability, or the ability to discriminate between and retain sounds
and pitch variations of the language and the ability to associate them with meaning;
2. memory ability, or the ability to make associations between the verbal stimuli
and their referents sometimes referred to as associative memory;
3. linguistic analytic ability, or the ability to infer and generalize about structural
encoding of meaning (Skehan, 1998).
Some authors (Carroll, 1990) split the third component, linguistic analytic
ability, into two subsets: grammatical sensitivity (ability to recognize grammatical and
syntactic functions that words fulfill in a sentence) and inductive language learning ability
(ability to infer structural patterns form the language input, to induce rules and to make
predictions about how the new material may be encoded on the bases of these inferences;
ability to generalize about structural encoding of meaning and to produce language on
the basis of identified patterns).
These components are measured by well-known tests of language aptitude, such
as MLAT (Modern Language Aptitude Test), PLAB (Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery),
and DLAB (Defense Language Aptitude Battery). It is noteworthy that these recognized
components of aptitude do not have to be represented equally in successful learners. A
high degree of ability in one of the three stated components can compensate for a lesser
degree of ability in other components. Skehan (1998) notes that some learners appear to
have achieved success through a high degree of linguistic analytic ability, and others due
to their memory abilities (as there were few subjects who tested high on both subsets).
Other Possible Components of Foreign Language Aptitude
At the ILR Invitational Symposium on Language Aptitude Testing held on

September 14-16, 1988 at the Foreign Service Institute Language School in Arlington,
Virginia, Carroll (1990) lists “other potentially useful abilities,” or subsets of language
aptitude, whose role may need to be investigated in future research. As an example, he
names the so-called verbal fluency, which is described as ability to quickly name as many
ideas as possible on a given topic, or ideas related to a particular semantic category.
An additional component of foreign language aptitude, discussed by Wesche
(1981) and Carroll (1990), is the so-called auditory abilities, which may exist separately
from the phonemic coding ability. A major subset of auditory abilities is the hearing
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Marina Cobb
ability, i.e. ability to perceive sounds through the ear (i.e., lack of hearing loss, which
becomes especially relevant in the case of older adults). Stankov and Horn (1980, as cited
in Carroll, 1990) identify other subsets, such as speech perception under distraction as
measured by the following tests:
1. Talk masking (subjects are required to write isolated words spoken by one
speaker, accompanied by increasingly loud, continuous speech produced by another
speaker);
2. Cafeteria noise masking (same as above, but the background distractor noise
is the typical noise of a busy cafeteria).
These authors also propose testing temporal tracking (ability to remember the
order of occurrence of sounds, pitches, syllables, etc.), maintaining and judging rhythm
and discrimination among sound patterns. According to Carroll (1990), these subsets may
already be tested by the MLAT and the PLAB. Nevertheless, he suggests investigating
their predictive value in more detail in the future.
Some Limitations of Current Aptitude Models
According to Skehan (1998), even though the described views on the components
of aptitude have “endured well on the whole,” the researchers’ conceptions of memory have
changed over time. For example, Carroll (1990) admits that he was never as confident about
the validity of the memory part of MLAT that he had authored entitled Paired Associates,
as he was confident about the validity of the other parts, such as Phonetic Script and Words
in Sentences. Carroll (1990) further reveals that the validity of the Paired Associates test
fluctuates widely over different samples in the studies conducted. Skehan (1998) points
out that a more effective predictive value was observed on memory tests (administered
to British armed forces personnel), which went beyond the associative memory test to
include short-term memory span, memory for text, for visual patterns, and for material
with very unfamiliar structure. Apparently, individual differences in memory capacity
can be further broken down as variations in the ability to (1) code, (2) store, and (3)
quickly retrieve the language material (fast retrieval appears crucial for both successful
comprehension of incoming language and for real-time communication) (Skehan, 1998).
Ability to logically organize language material that needs to be committed to memory
appears to play a role as well. Future research that would separate these memory-related
abilities may be beneficial.
On a different note, it is questionable whether the same components of aptitude
are required to excel in various language skills, e.g., in speaking versus listening or
reading. It is well-known that every skill modality has a set of related subskills. Facility
with these subskills would undoubtedly enhance an individual’s potential to excel in a
particular modality. The question is: even if reliable test measures for these subskills could
be designed, could the learners’ performance in these subskills actually be considered part
of their language aptitude or should it rather be grouped together with other cognitive
and personality characteristics that may have a significant effect on language acquisition
(as discussed in the next section)?
Another issue raised by Child (1998) and Lowe (1998), among other researchers,
is whether one generic aptitude test can reliably predict ability to learn all the world
52
languages with their individual characteristic features, e.g., the tones in Chinese, the
memory-taxing quantity of characters in Chinese and Japanese, or the agglutination
in Turkish, etc. The division of languages into four major categories by the US State
Department based on their “distance” from English and, therefore, their expected difficulty
for an English-speaking learner does not necessarily capture all of these intricacies of
structure or the sociolinguistic challenges of mastering underlying thought patterns. It is
conceivable that some learners may be better suited for certain languages than others. The
question is whether we can potentially have a test that will attempt to match individual
learners to languages for which they may be most suited.
Furthermore, it is feasible that certain subsets of aptitude assume a more
prominent role at particular stages of second language acquisition. Skehan (1998)
believes that the role of phonemic ability tends to level off at higher stages, which is to
be expected after the sound system and intonation patterns of the language have already
been mastered. He further notes that the relationship between language analytical ability
and language learning success remains steady at higher proficiency levels and memory
may even assume a heightened importance.
Child (1998) notes that there does not appear to be a great deal written about
language aptitude testing in terms of predicting learner ability to surpass ILR Level
2 (the goal of the Proficiency Enhancement Program) and points out the difficulties
entailed in incorporating elements characteristic of higher levels into the test design.
These elements possibly include so-called cultural sensitivity and other highly complex
factors that would predict ability to master sophisticated syntax and lexicon, as well as
organize one’s discourse for the purposes of hypothesizing, providing argumentation, etc.
According to Child (1998), current aptitude models do not reflect these features, and the
task of incorporating them in the near future appears quite daunting.
On a related note, it is conceivable that certain lower category languages, such
as Spanish or Indonesian, are only relatively “easy” for English-speaking learners at
lower stages of acquisition, but are markedly more difficult to acquire in the mid and
upper ranges (Lowe, 1998). To illustrate this point, Lowe cites the complexity of Spanish
present and past subjunctive which is required in many tasks at Level 3 and even needed
to form negative imperatives.
Finally, it is hard to overlook the fact that the existing aptitude tests do not
appear to be in line with the current methodology of context-based and task-based
instruction. Ehrman (1998) quotes an opinion that MLAT in particular was designed for
the audio-lingual methodology. It also appears reasonable to see a connection between
the analysis of decontextualized sentences that examinees are required to perform and
the grammar-translation method. The question is whether the current aptitude tests can
predict an individual’s ability to excel in a communicative classroom environment and
whether they work for individuals who lack formal education (Ehrman, 1998).
Other Learner Variables that May Facilitate Language Acquisition
A large body of research has been conducted with the goal of categorizing
learner styles and strategies used by language learners and finding possible links between
preferred styles and the use of strategies, on the one hand, and the learning outcomes, on
the other hand. Several researchers have attempted to investigate a possible relationship
between cognitive and learning strategies and language aptitude (Oxford, 1990; Ehrman,
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Marina Cobb
1990; Rubin and Thompson, 1994). Among those addressed were compensation strategies
employed by learners to guess unknown meanings and to overcome gaps in knowledge,
and social strategies, which facilitate interaction and thus provide valuable opportunities
for practice when knowledge of the foreign language is limited.
Investigating a possible relationship between cognitive styles and aptitude,
Oxford (1990) examines the significance of such cognitive traits as field independence
vs. dependence, reflexivity vs. impulsivity, tolerance of ambiguity, etc. Oxford records a
noteworthy observation that field independent learners have been shown in some studies
to be superior to field dependent learners in such areas as native speech perception and
“sentence disambiguation.” It is reasonable to assume that field independent learners may
have a higher ability to handle activities requiring high precision of interpretation and
communicating meaning once they have reached Level 3 in receptive skills and Level
2 in Speaking on the ILR level.
It is important not to overlook numerous other factors that, if investigated
further, may conceivably serve as predictors of future success with foreign language
learning. These factors are facility with the use of learning strategies, certain individual
cognitive traits (e.g., tolerance of ambiguity), and such personality traits and attitudinal
factors as empathy, ego permeability, confidence, willingness to take risks, and, of course,
motivation. These variables are typically not thoroughly understood and are usually
measured through self-assessment questionnaires which always present a significant risk
of subjectivity. It is also unclear at this point whether any of these factors can technically
be included into the definition of aptitude or will simply continue to be recognized as
factors contributing to success in foreign language acquisition.
In summary, variables that constitute components of language aptitude and
contribute to learner success are numerous and multifaceted, and it is not easy to devise
instruments to measure them reliably in individuals. It is quite possible that, in Neufield’s
words (1979, as quoted in Skehan, 1990), “hundreds of other seemingly irrelevant
independent variables might conceivably have correlated as highly, or higher, had they
been examined.” Even though it appears that many more learner variables have been
examined since the above statement was published in 1979, it is still not a guarantee that
all possible avenues of exploration have been pursued, or even considered. In Ehrman’s
(1990) words, even though one might say that “bad” learners are those that do not benefit
from the teachers’ efforts and, therefore, lack aptitude, it is quite possible that, in absence
of cognitive deficiencies and with evidence of success in other fields of learning, these
language learners may not be so “bad” after all. They may simply have needs that we do
not yet know how to identify and meet.
Conclusion
Aptitude appears to play a role in both conscious learning/acquisition in a

structured classroom environment and in acquisition under natural input-rich conditions.
It is conceivable, however, that learners with different talents will thrive under different
learning conditions. Since there are potentially many more variables of language aptitude
that have not yet been discovered, some learners may have needs that we have not been
able to clearly identify so far. It is, therefore, extremely important not to make hasty
conclusions about an individual’s lack of ability to learn a foreign language. The complex,
multi-faceted nature of factors contributing to each learner’s success, or lack of notable
54
success, emphasizes the need for ongoing, collaborative, supportive style- and strategy-
based academic counseling for language learners. In any case, it is important to provide
learners with a balanced teaching approach which combines an utmost variety of teaching
techniques with enriching out-of-class activities.
References
Carroll, J. B. (1981). Twenty-five years of research on language aptitude. In Diller, K.C.

(Ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude (pp.
83-118). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Carroll, J. B. (1990). Cognitive abilities in foreign language aptitude: then and now. In
Parry, T. S. & Stansfield, C. W. (Eds.), Language aptitude reconsidered (pp.
11-29). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Child, J. R. (1998). Language aptitude testing: Learners and applications. Applied
Language Learning, 9, 1-10.
Ehrman, M. (1990). The role of personality type in adult language learning: an ongoing
investigation. In Parry, T.S. & Stansfield, C.W. (Eds.), Language aptitude
reconsidered (pp. 126-178). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Ehrman, M. (1998). The Modern Language Aptitude Test for predicting learning success
and advising students. Applied Language Learning, 9, 31-70.
Ioup, G., Boustagui, E., Tigi, M. E., & Mosel, M. (1994). Reexamining the Critical Period
Hypothesis: A case study of successful adult SLA in a naturalistic environment.
Second Language Acquisition, 16, 73-98.
Krashen, S.D. (1981). Aptitude and attitude in relation to second language acquisition
and learning. In Diller, K. C. (Ed.), Individual differences and universals in
language learning aptitude (pp.155-175). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Lowe, P. (1998). Zero-based aptitude test design: Where’s the focus for the test? Applied
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Styles, strategies, and aptitude: connections for language learning.
In Parry, T. S. & Stansfield, C. W. (Eds.), Language aptitude reconsidered (pp.
67-125). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rubin, J., & Thompson I. (1994). How to be a more successful language learner: Toward
learner autonomy. Boston: Heinle & Heinles.
Schumann, J.H. (1976). Second language acquisition: The Pidginization Hypothesis.
Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Wesche, M. B. (1981). Language aptitude measures in streaming, matching students with
methods, and diagnosis of learning problems. In Diller, K.C. (Ed.), Individual
differences and universals in language learning aptitude (pp.119-154). Rowley,
MA: Newbury House.
55
Marina Cobb
Author
MARINA COBB, Faculty and Staff Development, Defense Language Institute Foreign
Language Center, Presidio of Monterey, CA 93944-5006. Specializations/
Interests: Teacher educationh, organizational leadership, computer-assisted
language learning.
56
Pre-Interpretation Strategies

2007, Vol. 18, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 57-67
Pre-Interpretation Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom

and Online
Teresa Gryminska
European and Latin American School
Language translation or interpretation is a transposition of a text from one

language into another (Viaggio, 1991). According to Viaggio it is a three-step process
which involves (1) isolation of semantic meaning (interpretation); (2) conversion of that
semantic meaning back into a linguistic form in the target language (re-expression); and
(3) refinement or specification (collation). Such interpretation is likely to vary depending
on sociolinguistic and cultural background, intention, and motive. The basic concepts of
language interpretation encompass the relationship between input and output, listening
and speaking skills, linguistic and extra-linguistic aspects of memory, and communicative
competence. Critical to language interpretation is the ability to differentiate between what
is said and what is meant. Since the selection of lexical and structural items may be quite
different in the foreign language, it is important to render the intended meaning rather than
specific words. There is nothing more distracting and detrimental to an original spoken
passage than literal interpretation without attention to broader meaning.
Research shows there are many individual techniques for successful interpretation.
Johnson - Laird (1983) stresses the importance of creating mental models. Callahan (1994)
recommends taking notes during the process of preparation for interpretation. Straight
(1997) suggests using rough paraphrases or inferences rather than translations to help
participants understand difficult phrases or sentences. According to Buck (2001), the
interpretation of the speaker’s meaning is greatly influenced by the context.
“Context is important, because speakers often do not say exactly what they mean,”
says Buck. He adds, “The listener uses the knowledge of context to make implications in
reference to the intended meaning. There is no such thing as the correct interpretation of
many spoken texts, only a number of different reasonable interpretations.”
In my opinion, the most effective interpreters use a wide variety of interpretation
and pre-interpretation strategies. “Interpretation strategy” refers to the method by which an
interpreter solves a particular problem in order to reach an interpretation goal. It involves
the utilization of linguistic and extra-linguistic strategies to compensate for gaps in the
speaker’s knowledge of area background or lexical and structural items.
Memory and Interpretation
Memory development, training and organizing are significant aspects of the

pre-interpretation process. According to Conway (1997), memory capacity can be
classified into different categories, such as short term, long term, permanent, working
and sentient/sensory storage systems. Stevick (1978) distinguishes between various types
of memory, such as memory for items, memory for relationships, “chunking,” memory
for pairs of items. All of these types of memory can be trained and organized. The best
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Teresa Gryminska
way to develop memory for numbers is combining them with letters and studying them
in the context of authentic materials. According to some researchers, such combinations
of numbers and letters are easier to remember than numbers alone. An effective memory
training activity is studying authentic realia like the combinations of letters and numbers
found on license plates (Gryminska, 1999).
Memory grids are useful memory helpers. They involve note taking in a grid
format. A memory grid is useful in visualizing “holes” in a text and connecting the
available information in a logical way.
Nagle and Sanders (1986) discuss the importance of the echoic type of memory.
They suggest that the acoustic input captures the sound and passes it onto the working
memory. They recognize the role of affective factors, especially motivation, which may
strengthen the input, or weaken it due to lack of attention or interest at this stage.
Buck emphasizes the importance of memory development, “building mental
representations of meaning,” or “the flow-chart approach.” According to Buck, “Mental
representations are structurally similar to the world, rather than to linguistic representations
of it, we do not remember either the language of the text, or the actual propositions. All
we remember is the meaning.” The mental models help to determine how later parts of
the text will be interpreted.
Sociolinguistic Aspect of Interpretation
Adding to the complexity of interpretation is sociolinguistic context. Spoken

texts of different cultures reflect different patterns of rhetorical thinking. Whereas English
spoken text is mostly chronological and linear, East European passages are predominantly
spiraling, with lengthy subordinate clauses.
Some phrases seem to be complicated because they are unfamiliar, other phrases
seem to be extremely simple and easy to interpret, but when used in unknown sociolinguistic
contexts, they may change their meaning and may thus hinder comprehension of a given
passage. Students’ preconceived beliefs in reference to seemingly familiar phrases make
it sometimes impossible for them to predict different meaning in unfamiliar contexts.
When students cannot find a proper schema – they usually create their own schemata. If
their understanding of the text implications is wrong, they may misinterpret the meaning
of words or phrases in the surrounding context. For example students, who are unfamiliar
with the concept of dedovshchina or hazing in the Russian army may wrongly interpret the
meaning of they have got it – poluchali in an interview with a Russian soldier as a positive
phenomenon whereas in a given context it means they have got bruises - sinyaki.
Foreign language interpreters always need to be made aware of a statement’s
cultural affective connotations. Contextual clues can be helpful only if the interpreter
pays attention to rhetorical and cultural contexts.
An awareness of cultural differences is part of understanding a foreign language.
Directness and indirectness are features of both language and culture. Cultural behaviors
such as different ways of turn-taking, starting and ending conversations, interrupting, and
taking the floor are also very important factors when teaching interpretation. The most
difficult task for students of Russian may be the cultural tendency of Russian speakers to
speak at the same time and raise their voices during both official and unofficial gatherings,
which is oftentimes mistaken for arguments. This unique behavior is also typical within
other cultures. An example of this phenomenon could be the discussions during Mr.
58
Zhirinovsky’s San Francisco conference, where members of the audience interrupted and
questioned his interpreters, talked at the same time and raised their voices.
The Role of Discourse in Interpretation
The basis for developing pre-interpretation skills is discourse analysis. There are
two major factors to this kind of pre-interpretation practice: the ability to use cohesion
devices to put fragments of interpreted text together; and the ability to apply coherence
rules to organize it semantically (such as sequencing, consistency and relevance of ideas,
word partnership, and word thematic and structural association).
According to G. Buck “the discourse structure – is really a stream of ideas,
connected not so much by grammatical devices, but more by their juxtaposition in the
text and the coherence of the ideas, which may appear ‘very ungrammatical’.”
Strategies
Effective pre-interpretation strategies that can be used both in the classroom

and online include brainstorming, schema building, prediction, parsing, active listening,
word/imagery association, word association games, discourse analysis, memory training
and categorizing, memory development games, memory grids, top down and bottom up
information processing, paraphrasing, reverse paraphrasing and circumlocution. All of
these strategies can be practiced in the foreign language. This enables instructors and
online curriculum developers to avoid excessive reliance on English in the classroom and
online and manipulate both input and output in the foreign language before the actual
interpretation process starts.
A lot of useful strategies are currently successfully used by the WTE (Weekly
Training Events) program I was part of, and previously by the GLOSS program of the
Curriculum Division. The WTE program places a lot of emphasis on productive skills
(Allison, 2006), which include interpretation.
Brainstorming and Schema-Building
While brainstorming is an important strategy which builds on students’ existing

knowledge and activates their background information, schema building relies on the their
expectations. Shaw (1997) writes that brainstorming and schema-building strategies are
important for all fields of language learning, including content-based instruction. They
are similarly useful in task-based instruction and interpretation.
Predicting
Text Organization
Prior to interpretation, it is useful to predict the organization of a spoken text
and compare it with the organization of a native language text. It definitely helps students
to prepare for the organization of interpretation of a given passage, since it appears that
spoken texts of different cultures reflect different patterns of rhetorical organization.
Whereas English texts are predominantly chronological and linear, East European passages
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Teresa Gryminska
are oftentimes spiraling, with numerous embedded clauses, in contrast to the English
simple, straightforward sentences. This organizational feature shows in the works of
Joseph Conrad (Korzeniowski), the English writer of Polish origin, who preserved the
Polish way of rhetorical thinking even though he wrote his novels in English. Another
example of such differences would be the structure and organization of Russian interviews
which differ from the American ones, since they involve interruptions and overlapping
speech.
In teaching foreign language interpretation, teachers may find that culturally
biased texts, overloaded with information about a particular country, oftentimes delivered
under unfavorable conditions (such as background noise), may increase the student’s
burden, if not broken down into pieces.
Therefore it is important to divide a spoken text into segments and listen to them
repeatedly during the pre-interpretation process.
Theme
Prior to interpretation, it is useful to predict the subject matter possibly on the
basis of the title, subtitle, or first paragraph. The opening sentences of the first paragraph
quite often build a complete image of the major ideas of the entire text. In the next stage
of pre-interpretation, one should try to determine both the explicit and implicit meaning
of the passage as a whole and its main themes.
Prediction often involves the ability to anticipate the meaning of a spoken text
on the basis of its cognates. A person who is completely unfamiliar with a given language
can still successfully speculate on the fundamental meaning of the text.
According to Gascoigne (2001), cognate status must also be taken into
consideration in terms of both language instruction and the positing models of bilingual
memory.
A useful pre-interpretation activity is asking listeners to fill in a chart solely
with cognates they hear. The next step would involve finding out information about
the text and making a guess on the basis of those cognates. For example, students, who
listen to a news report about recent wars, should be able to successfully get a summary
from common cognates. In this case example of cognates could be political, terrorist,
bombing, officers. When one combines these cognates with numbers and dates one gets
a pretty good idea about what the main facts and ideas of the text are, even if one does
not know the language! The only skill that is required here is the ability to actively listen
for cognates in order to extract them from the text.
There is, however, a danger of misinterpretation of false cognates in the two
languages involved in paraphrases or interpretation. The ambiguity and vagueness of some
expressions and false cognates can be overwhelming. For example, the Russian words,
familia, karta, and fakul’tet, do not necessarily have to carry the meaning of family, card,
and faculty in English. In a given contextual frame, they may have a different meaning,
such as last name, map, and department. In such cases, a word-for-word interpretation
of false cognates outside their context does not convey the intended idea.
Pre-interpretation comparison strategies are extremely useful in anticipating the
text content. One can make cultural, linguistic and other kinds of comparisons. For this
purpose, it is advisable to compare different spoken or written texts and skills on the same
subject as well as texts with similar and opposing views. For example, we can anticipate
the content and implied meaning of Russian anecdotes if we know their structure and if
60
we are aware of the fact that the climax of Russian anecdotes is often included in the last
sentence in contrast to preceding statements.
Intent
According to Buck, it is important to understand the intended purpose of a
given text. Comprehension is an inferential process; therefore it is absolutely necessary
to make predictions and inferences before even starting the interpretation process. An
interpreter needs to read between the lines, capture implied intent, which certainly adds
to the complexity of interpretation process.
Examples of text with implied intent would be Russian political speeches that
tend to contain such ambiguous elements as proverbs, sayings and anecdotes. An example
could be the Russian President Putin’s Annual Message to the National Assembly, which
contains these elements. In order to understand his hint Comrade Wolf knows who to eat,
for example, we have to analyze the Russian folk anecdotes that often deal with animals
and have deeper meaning.
It is also important to predict the intended audience as well as possibly unintended
recipients, their opinions and beliefs.
Language (Word Association; Parsing/Collocations; Cohesive Devices; Rhetorical

Devices)
Word association, word partnerships and collocations are excellent pre-
paraphrase and pre-interpretation strategies. It is especially important to study thematic
vocabulary and word association in the initial stages of interpretation studies.
Parsing (Rost, 1990) is an interesting type of prediction since it involves
completion of incomplete paragraphs or sentences in a logical and creative way. To
avoid potential pitfalls, however, one should bear in mind cultural differences between
the foreign country and the US.
It is extremely important for students to understand the hidden meaning of
rhetorical devices, such as irony, sarcasm, metaphors, hyperboles, similes, ambiguities,
emotional overtones. An example of irony would be President Putin’s praise of the US
military budget – Molodcy, molodcy! (And rightly so. Rightly so!) – in his annual address
to the National Assembly. Although his words indicate praise, his tone shows irony.
Helpful linguistic pre-interpretation strategies may include the ability to predict
the type of language to be used (for example, official, informal, colloquial, idiomatic
or slang), cohesive devices, paragraph/sentence length, embedded phrases, filler words,
clarity of word boundaries, ellipsis.
Useful extra-linguistic pre-interpretation strategies involve the ability to open,
close conversations, take turns, attract attention, take the floor, conduct “parsing,” predict
comments or questions, pauses or breathing patterns, find completion points, return to
a point, interrupt, negotiate for meaning, elicit clarification or simply buy time. In some
languages like East European languages speakers tend to shift topics abruptly, introduce
topics unexpectedly, overlap, and speak faster than speakers of English.
Henry Widdowson (1978) recommends an analysis of sociolinguistic and
rhetorical devices at a social party or in conditions that resemble a social gathering, with
all the features of an informal discourse, like using different conversation openers and
closers and ways to interrupt and take the floor.
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Teresa Gryminska
Identifying Register
Register is a very important element in pre-interpretation. An excellent pre-

interpretation task is having students listen to authentic internet chats, conversations and
phone calls, and then determine who is talking or who they are talking to on the basis of
the register and the choice of words, or to which social, economical or political group
a speaker belongs. The famous saying, “let me know how you speak and I will tell you
who you are,” is quite fitting. The above sources are also gold mines of sociolinguistic
information about authentic situations.
While preparing my online lesson about traffic violations and traffic police
in Russia, I remember getting a lot of background information about the subject and
current colloquial language and slang from authentic internet exchanges, behaviors,
attitudes and expressions that many Russians do not even know – for example, musor (a
pig with reference to a cop, lit. trash) or dat’ w lapu (to give a bribe; lit. to put {money}
in a paw).
An interesting aspect of Russian Internet chats is the habit of speakers to switch
their register to an informal, familiar tone in order to show lack of respect. While quoting
their conversations with authority figures, the speakers oftentimes use the familiar
“ty = you” form, which may seem disrespectful when addressing superiors or older
strangers.
Paraphrasing, Summarizing
After the prediction/comprehension stage of pre-interpretation, students should

try to re-express the messages of a spoken text and thus build up both their productive
interpretation skills.
Paraphrasing is the most important pre-interpretation process, which allows
students to use the target language output in addition to input and reinforces both their
listening and speaking ability. According to Tarone (1989), paraphrasing is ‘the rewording
of the message in an alternate, acceptable target language construction, in situations where
the appropriate form or construction is not known or not yet stable.’ Within this category
Tarone singles out three types of paraphrase strategies: approximation, word coinage,
and appeal for assistance or simply avoidance.
• Approximation involves word/phrase substitutions to be used in place of the

more exact lexical item.
• Word coinage is making up a new phrase in order to express a given notion.
• Circumlocution is a paraphrase strategy, which includes the process of
describing the aspects of the object instead of using the corresponding target language
lexical item.
Nowadays most researchers provide a different definition of paraphrase and

circumlocution. They claim that circumlocutions represent all the relevant information
about a lexical item while paraphrase is only a partial equivalent. The basis for developing
paraphrasing skills is discourse analysis. A discourse analysis strategy is generally
considered to be the ability to perceive and to achieve coherence of separate lexical and
structural items in meaningful communication patterns.
62
When students try to re-express messages, they are often tempted to paraphrase
them without thoroughly researching paraphrasing/interpretation problems they might
present. At this stage of the pre-interpretation process, one should also develop an
awareness of the distinction between the usage of language and professional/social/cultural
concepts in the original and target language countries, as well as an awareness of specific
problems that these distinctions may present.
Reverse paraphrasing is good preparation for the interpretation process, especially
for two-way interpretation. Another useful pre-interpretation process is summarizing.
I remember receiving excellent practice in both identification of cultural
differences and paraphrasing during a course in the Teaching of English conducted by
Henry Widdowson at the College of Education in Glasgow. Widdowson asked some
members of our group with opposing viewpoints on a given subject to stand up and argue.
The rest of us had to identify the cultural behaviors of the speakers and their ways of
opening and closing their arguments, interrupting each other, and taking the floor. This
exercise was followed by paraphrasing, circumlocution and summarization. It was very
useful practice and fun, too!
Applications
I developed the following online lesson within the Curriculum Division WTE
program with the purpose of teaching interpretation skills. It is created for students
who want to comprehend spoken Russian and also use their productive skills in foreign
language interpretation. The lesson title is “Comrade Wolf Knows Who to Eat” and is
based on the address by President Putin to the Federal Assembly in which he uses this
phrase while emphasizing Russia’s need to augment its military budget. The lesson’s
objectives are given in the introduction and are followed by a chain of pre-interpretation
and interpretation tasks:
1. Prepare for your interpretation tasks by reviewing some set phrases related
to politics.
2. Capture implied content and explain the point of a joke.
3. Identify essential direct and implied elements of information while working
with the Russian President’s speech.
4. Practice two-way interpretation in an interview between an American journalist
and the Russian Duma representatives.
5. Test your understanding of the concepts presented in the lesson.
Before students get to the most important interpretation task of this online
lesson (the interpretation of the segments of the President’s speech and the interview
with the Duma representatives on its subject – objectives 3 and 4), they are provided
with a matching activity, where they have to associate Russian idiomatic phrases with
their English equivalents. For example:
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Teresa Gryminska
Их дом, их крепость To chase after quantitative goals

Товарищ волк знает, кого кушать Their home is their castle.
Гнаться за количественными Comrade Wolf knows whom to eat.
показателями
In the next activity (task 2), an anecdote with the Comrade Wolf reference is
provided to prepare students for the task of listening to an excerpt of Putin’s speech and
understanding its possible hints. It is followed by multiple-choice questions and feedback
regarding the basic meaning of the anecdote, which should help students get its point.
Анекдот A Joke *
В глубокую яму провалился A goat fell into a deep pit. Then a

козленок. Потом в эту яму провалился peasant fell into the pit, and a little
мужик, а немножко попозже в later a fox and other animals fell
неё провалилась лиса и другие in. After half an hour had passed,
животные. По истечении получаса, в a wolf fell in, clicked its teeth,
неё провалился волк, защелкал зубами and started eating them, one by
и начал их есть по очереди. - “Бэээ, one. “Baaaah, baaaah,” bleated
мэээ...” - жалобно заблеял козленок. the goat, piteously. “What’s with
- “Что бэээ, что мэээ” - сказала the ‘baaaah, baaaah’,” said the
лиса. - “Товарищ волк знает, кого fox. “Comrade wolf knows who
кушать!” to eat!”
Russian anecdotes are often symbolic and consist of two parts: the one compared
with or weighed against the other. In oppositional anecdotes, their parts often stand in
contrast to emphasize differences. Anecdotes also often deal with stereotypical animal
symbols, like a bad wolf, shy, scared sheep or goat. The point of an anecdote is often a
surprise final statement. Therefore, analyzing its conclusion is very important. In addition
to developing the student’s ability to get the point of anecdotes, this activity also provides
practice in reading between the lines.
The lesson proceeds to a more complicated task (task 3) – the interpretation of
an official, political speech that includes cultural and political allusions. Again, students
get help in understanding by means of a series of pop-up windows with instructions,
feedback and various hints. This task provides pre-interpretation practice in summarizing
in the target language.
The student’s objective is to identify essential direct and implied elements of
information while working with the Russian President’s speech. The goal is to listen to
excerpts from the speech and give a gist of the most important information in simple
Russian. Students are advised to listen to the entire message, try to grasp its main idea
first and then determine the essential ideas of its parts. They need to pay attention to the
general structure of the excerpts from the president’s yearly message. They have to note
that Russian political speeches are usually very logical, brief, and to the point.
The President’s speech draws on the anecdote and proverbs given in the first part
of the lesson. He ironically mentions the fairytale motif of “comrade wolf who knows
64
who to eat and does not listen to anybody” and its high-handed behavior. Although
the President refrains from mentioning the United States by name, according to some
Russian journalists, the wolf in question refers to the U.S. The Russian press also claims
that this may be a veiled response to Vice President Dick Cheney’s accusations that
Russia is rolling back on democracy and strong-arming its ex-Soviet neighbors. In the
same speech, President Putin also uses a proverb about building a fortress-like house to
illustrate Russia’s need to strengthen its defenses. Although he uses positive words like
“And rightly so. Rightly so!” that are commonly used to express praise and admiration, the
intonation, pauses, and the tone of his voice seem to indicate that in reality he denounces
U.S. military spending.
In the next interpretation activity (task 4), the student is asked to imagine that he
is an interpreter for an American journalist who comes to the Russian Duma to interview
Parliament representatives about the President’s annual speech. The student’s role is to
orally render questions from English into Russian and answers from Russian into English.
The student is given advice regarding strategies and key phrases and may listen to the
interview segments and actual oral interpretation segments as many times as necessary.
An example of the interview is given below:
Original Questions and Answers Translation*
American Journalist: Американский журналист:

What do you think about the political Что вы думаете о политических намёках
references in the president’s message? послания Президента?
Олег Морозов – заместитель Oleg Morozov – deputy chairman of the

председателя Госдумы: Gosduma
Помните, когда он сказал, что волк, Remember that he said that the wolf,
э, кушает, когда хочет кушать. Вот, uh, eats when it wants to eat. So,
никто нас, сильных, не ждёт ни на nobody’s waiting for us, the strong, not
мировых in the world economic markets, or not
экономических рынках, ни с хорошими with decent ships. We ourselves, as a
кораблями. Мы сами как великая нация great nation, have to understand that we
должны понимать, что мы должны have to be strong, and only then we can
быть сильными, и только тогда мы conduct effective social policy. Uh, a
сможем проводить person can only be protected in a strong,
эффективную социальную политику. economically developed state capable of
Э, человек может быть защищён defending itself.
только в сильном, экономически
развитом, обороноспособном
государстве.
• The above Russian authentic materials were superbly translated by Mr. Richard
Mayer of the DLIFLC Curriculum Division.
65
Teresa Gryminska
The lesson ends with a short true/false quiz. An example of a question may be:
“Double standards are two sets of standards” – true or false?
The above online lesson is an example of the Weekly Training Events program
(a continuation of the GLOSS program with emphasis on production skills), which is
very effective in developing a student’s understanding of a foreign language and culture
and interpreting it properly by its stress on production.
Conclusion
All of the above-mentioned pre-interpretation strategies provide students with

numerous opportunities to use the target language. At the same time they prepare them
for the final process of interpretation, for identifying and interpreting both direct and
implied elements of information.
An important implication of the above observations is that foreign language
interpretation involves more than knowing the meaning of basic vocabulary. Students
also need to know the socio-cultural and psycholinguistic information, both linguistic and
extra-linguistic aspects of interpretation, the importance of conveying implicit content
and intent, emotional overtones, the illocutionary force of sentences.
Another implication for language interpreters is the need to consider cultural
and rhetorical differences as well as linguistic differences between texts in the native and
foreign languages in their pre-interpretation practice. The distinction between a foreign
language and a native language in various fields of study (e.g. political science) should
be definitely emphasized.
An additional value of pre-interpretation strategies is that they raise the level
of the interpreter’s confidence, motivation, enthusiasm and positive thinking about the
upcoming interpretation task which contributes to the overall success of interpretation.
Positive thoughts can eliminate the interpreter’s tension, affective filter and consequently
pitfalls.
References
Allison, E. (2006). Weekly Training Events, CDD Newsletter, 1(2). Monterey, CA:
DLIFLC.
Baddeley, A. D. (1989). The uses of working memory. In P. R. Solomon, G. R. Goethais,
C. M. Kelley, B.R. Stephens (Eds.), Memory: Interdisciplinary approaches.
New York: Springer-Verlag.
Buck, G. (2001). Assessing listening. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Callahan, T. (1994). Take my tape-recorder – please! (Taking notes during an interview).
Writer’s Digest, 74, 3.
Conway, M. A. (1997). Cognitive models of memory. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Gascoigne, C. (2001). Lexical and conceptual representations in more–and less–skilled
bilinguals: The role of cognates. Foreign Language Annals.
Gryminska, T. (1999). Teaching interpretation strategies in the FLO classroom. Bridges:
A publication dedicated to teaching the Final Learning Objectives. Monterey,
CA: DLIFLC.
Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1983). Mental models. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
66
Nagle, S.J., and Sanders, S.L. (1986). Comprehension theory and second language peda-
gogy. TESOL Quarterly, 20(1).
Rost, M. (1998). Active listening: Expanding learners’ skills and strategies. Workshop.
DLIFLC, Monterey.
Shaw, P. (1997). With one stone: Models of instruction and their curricular implications
in an advanced content-based foreign language program. In Stryker, S., Leaver,
B, (Eds.), Content-based instruction in foreign language education: Models and
methods. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Straight, H. S. (1997). Language-based content instruction. In Stryker, S., Leaver, B,
(Eds.), Content-based instruction in foreign language education: Models and
methods. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Tarone, E., Yule, G. (1989). Focus on the language learner. Approaches to identifying
and meeting the needs of second language learners. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Viaggio, S. (1991).The first thing to teach (which is often never taught). Paper presented
at the Annual Meeting of the First Language International Conference, Elsinore,
Denmark.
Widdowson, H. (1978). Teaching language as communication. Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Author
TERESA GRYMINSKA, Curriculum Developer, European and Latin American School,

DLIFLC, Presidio of Monterey, Monterey, CA 93944-5006. Specializations/In-
terests: Curriculum development, teaching foreign languages and cultures
with TV, music and technology.
67
Foreign Language Teaching Methodology at DLI
2007, Vol. 18, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 69-75
Review Article

1985 to Present
Christine Campbell
Evaluation and Standardization
Deanna Tovar
European and Latin American School
Throughout the years DLIFLC has been in existence, it has kept

abreast of theoretical developments in foreign language methodology
and their practical application. When Colonel Monte Bullard became
Commandant in 1985, he recognized the need to provide the faculty
with more professional development opportunities. Specifically,
he supported adding more substance and length to the Instructor
Certification Course for new faculty, encouraged faculty to do action
research, and promoted attendance at professional conferences. Dr.
Ray Clifford, who came to DLIFLC as Provost in 1981, was known
internationally in the foreign language learning field as an expert in
language proficiency assessment after the publication of the germinal
article “The Push Toward Communication,” (Higgs & Clifford, 1982).
Dr. Clifford’s arrival ushered in a new era for DLIFLC in which
leadership set the goal of becoming not only the premier language
institute of the Department of Defense, but of the world. That goal
remains the focus of DLIFLC to this day. This short article will provide
a brief history of the recent trends in foreign language methodology
that have influenced teaching and learning at DLIFLC.
Communicative Language Teaching
In general terms, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been the

prevailing, over-arching methodological approach since the late 1970s. CLT has its roots
in theoretical perspectives on communicative competence posited by Hymes (1972),
Munby (1978), Canale and Swain (1980), Canale (1983) and Savignon (1972, 1983, 1997)
among others. In Teaching for Proficiency, the Organizing Principle, Higgs and others
(1984) focused on the practice of CLT. Fundamental principles of CLT follow:
Teacher acting as a facilitator

Use of a real-life context for activities
Integrating skills
Use of authentic materials
69
Personalizing activities
Use of pair work
Use of group work
Teacher/student negotiation about curriculum
Maximizing student-student interaction
Maximizing student participation
Use of task-based instruction
Tailoring to learner styles or preferences
Use of a variety of communication activities
Use of Information Gap activities
Use of appropriate forms of feedback
Maximizing use of TL
The Principled Communicative Approach
In the 1990s, a number of language professionals (Widdowson, 1990; Savignon,

1990; Larsen-Freeman, 1990; Legutke and Thomas, 1991; Celce-Murcia, 1991; Celce-
Murcia, Dörnyei, and Thurrell, 1995, 1997; Schmidt, 1991; Kumaravadivelu, 1992, 1993;
Scarcella and Oxford, 1992) criticized certain aspects of CLT and proposed changes. The
majority of the criticism was related to two main issues: The linguistic content base of
CLT; the pedagogical treatment of linguistic forms in CLT. Regarding the former, the
scholars pointed to the absence of an in-depth description of the content base of CLT to
be used in syllabus design that would go beyond the language functions and language
notions of the late 1970s. In 1995, Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei, and Thurrell proposed such
a description as part of what they termed a “pedagogically motivated framework for
communicative competence” (p. 144). Viewing their framework as an extension of
Canale and Swain’s (1980; Canale, 1983), they divide communicative competence into
five areas: discourse competence (the core), linguistic competence, actional competence,
sociocultural competence, and strategic competence.
Concerning the latter issue—the pedagogical treatment of linguistic forms in
CLT, the researchers observed that CLT proponents were neglecting the development
of linguistic competence in their quest to promote the functional-notional aspects of
the language, i.e., CLT proponents were not paying the proper attention to grammar
instruction. This lack of attention typically translated to teacher avoidance of explicit
grammar instruction in the classroom. To remedy the situation, scholars such as Long and
Crookes (1992) proposed combining pedagogic tasks with a systematic focus on form, or
grammar, as the fundamental organizational units in a communicative syllabus.
In 1997, Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei, and Thurrel argued that the foreign language
learning field is experiencing a paradigm shift towards a “principled communicative
approach” that incorporates both direct, explicit grammar instruction and task-based
instruction into CLT.
Learner-Centered Curriculum and Instruction
In the list of CLT principles examined earlier, there are references to “negotiating
by teacher and students about aspects of the curriculum,” “maximizing student-student
interaction,” and “use of pair [and] group work.” These references specifically apply to
70
a sub-trend within CLT-- learner-centered instruction. Although the concepts “learner-
centered” instruction and curriculum were discussed in general terms in the literature
focusing on learner differences in the late 1980s and 1990s (e.g., Oxford, 1990; O’Malley
and Chamot,1990; Scarcella and Oxford, 1992; Ehrman, 1996; Cohen, 1998; Chamot
et al., 1999), they were especially examined by Nunan (1988) in The Learner-Centered
Curriculum (1988) and in his other publications (2004, 1998, 1997, 1992, 1991, 1990,
1989). Learner-centered instruction promotes active learning where there is a considerable
amount of student-student interaction through pair and group work. Perhaps Nunan’s
(2006) most succinct definition of learner-centered instruction follows: “[It has] two
dimensions: (1) Learner involvement in making choices about what to learn, how to learn,
and how to be assessed. (2) Learners are actively involved in learning through doing.”
Content-Based Instruction
Another methodological approach which DLIFLC has incorporated into

various language programs is content–based instruction (CBI). A considerable number
of language programs have specifically adopted this approach into their third semesters.
This approach is also especially suited for the culture and area studies courses taught
at DLIFLC: Courses--140-Introduction to Foreign Language Culture; 240-History and
Geography of the Foreign Language Region; and 340-Area and Intercultural Studies
within the Foreign Language Region.
CBI has two primary goals. The first is to develop the learner’s communicative
competence while integrating the four language skills. The secondary goal is to “…
introduce concepts and terminology relevant to a given subject area …” (Scarcella &
Oxford, 1992, p. 89). At DLIFLC, the most frequently adopted CBI model is the theme-
based model. In this model, language skills are integrated into thematic content areas that
have been identified as important to the learner. The content areas have been identified
by its stakeholders, the National Security Agency and the Defense Intelligence Agency
in a document, Final Learning Objectives for Basic Language Programs in the Defense
Foreign Language Program (2004) that outlines the topical areas that military language
students need in order to do their jobs in their assigned language fields. An example of
a theme-based lesson relevant to today’s military language specialist might deal with a
trans-national issue such as, “…narcotics trafficking and organized crime particularly as
they affect relations between the culture or nations being studied and the United States”
(p. 12).
The specific area studies content objectives identified as critical to the military
language learner are as follows: Military and security; economic and political; scientific
and technological; cultural and social; and geography (physical, political, and economic).
DLIFLC course writers and teachers build curricula and prepare instructional lessons
based on these content areas. Additional areas are incorporated as needed.
Task-Based Instruction
Task-Based Instruction (TBI)) is another language teaching approach familiar to

DLIFLC faculty. Most materials prepared either by the Institute’s curriculum development
teams or daily by classroom teachers contain the elements that are characteristic of
TBI.
71
These characteristics are:
Communication through interaction (problem-solving)

Use of authentic materials
Learner focus on language and learning process
Personalization (The learner’s own experiences as critical to the learning
process)
Links between classroom language learning and language use outside of the
classroom (Nunan, 1991).
H. Douglas Brown (1994) observes that “[a] task-based curriculum, then,

specifies what a learner needs to do with ... language, in terms of target tasks…” [Brown’s
emphasis] (p. 229). Teachers in DLIFLC classrooms and in off-site immersions focus on
tasks that reflect the real world. In both the classrooms and in immersions, students are
given scenarios that place them in a plausible, future, real-world military context. For
example, Russian students may be asked to interact with teachers and other students in a
situation/scenario that takes place in a Russian - speaking country. These students must
solve a problem by listening to and then reading authentic materials that deal with the
situation. They must extract critical information and report this information to a superior.
They then must interact with their teachers who play the roles identified in the scenario
and the students must find out information relevant to the accomplishment of the task. In
other words, the students have to solve the problem. They must engage in all of the tasks
in order to come up with a solution and report their findings or solution.
Focus on Learner Autonomy
One of the most recent developments in L2 is the focus on learner autonomy

(Cotterall, 1995; Dickinson, 1995; Benson & Voller, 1996; Pemberton et al., 1996;
Palfreyman & Smith, 2005; van Lier, 1996). The challenge for the teacher is to help
learners understand how they learn and to guide them to language learning resources that
would expand their knowledge outside of the classroom.
Beyond Methodology
In the 1990s and into the new millennium, a number of language professionals
(Brown, 1994; Kumaravadivelu, 1992, 1994; Larsen-Freeman, 1991; Long, 1991; Bell,
2003) have suggested the term “methodology” has outlived its significance given the
reality of today’s language classroom where teachers typically apply an eclectic approach,
continually selecting from among an array of methodologies and/or techniques according
to learner needs. Most educators, however, do recognize the merits of having common
organizing principles and related terminology to guide the profession. The notion that
the profession is in a post-methodology era is still being discussed in the literature.
Conclusion
Although the prevailing, over-arching methodological approach at DLIFLC

since the mid-80s has been CLT, teachers typically apply different aspects of existing
72
L2 methodologies as they adapt to learner needs. By taking advantage of DLIFLC’s
professional development opportunities, e.g., courses through the Faculty Development
Division, conference attendance, action research projects, and more, they learn about
the latest developments in the field such as learner-centered instruction, content-based
instruction, and task-based instruction. In the technological arena, they integrate teaching
tools such as the Smart Board, which DLIFLC experimented with and integrated into the
curriculum before any other language learning entity in the world, into the classroom.
DLIFLC is constantly working to maintain its current status as the premier language
institute in the Department of Defense, if not the world, and will strive to remain at the
forefront of foreign language teaching and learning.
References
Bell, D. M. (2003). Method and postmethod: are they really so incompatible? TESOL
Quarterly, 37, 325-336.
Benson, P., & Voller, P. (Eds.). (1996). Autonomy and independence in language learning.
London, UK: Longman.
Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Regents.
Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language. In
J. Richards & R. Schmidt (eds.), Language and communication (pp. 2-27).
Harlow, UK: Longman.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to
second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1, 1-47.
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Language and communication: A time for equilibrium and
integration. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on
Language and Linguistics 1991 (pp. 223-237). Washington, DC: Georgetown
University Press.
Celce-Murcia, M., Dörnyei, Z., & Thurrell, S. (1997). Direct approaches in L2 instruction:
A turning point in communicative language teaching? TESOL Quarterly, 31,
141-152.
Celce-Murcia, M., Dörnyei, Z., & Thurrell, S. (1995). Communicative competence: A
pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. Issues in Applied
Linguistics, 6, 5-35.
Chamot, A., et al. (1999). The learning strategies handbook. White Plains, NY:
Longman.
Cohen, A. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. White Plains,
NY: Longman.
Cotterall, S. (1995). Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs. System,
23(2), 195-203.
Dickinson, L. (1995). Autonomy and motivation: A literature review. System, 23(2),
165-174.
Ehrman, M. (1996). Understanding second language learning difficulties. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Final Learning Objectives for Basic Language Programs in the Defense Foreign Language
Program. (2004). Presidio of Monterey, CA: The Defense Language Institute
Foreign Language Center.
73
Higgs,T., & Clifford, R. (1982). The push toward communication. In T. Higgs (Ed.),
Curriculum, competence and the foreign language teacher (pp. 57-79).
Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook.
Higgs, T. (Ed.). (1984). Teaching for proficiency, the organizing principle. Lincolnwood,
IL: National Textbook.
Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.),
Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth, NY: Penguin.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (1994). The postmethod condition: Emerging strategies for second/
foreign language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 27-48.
-----. (1993). Maximizing learning potential in the communicative classroom. ELT
Journal, 47, 12-21.
-----. (1992). Macrostrategies for the second/foreign language teacher. Modern Language
Journal, 76, 41-49.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1991). Research on language teaching methodologies: A review
of the past and an agenda for the future. In K. de Bot, R. B. Ginsberg, & C.
Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective (pp.
119-132). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1990). On the need for a theory of language teaching. In J. E.
Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics
1991. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Legutke, M., & Thomas, H. (1991). Process and experience in the language classroom.
Harlow, UK: Longman.
Long, M. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology.
In K. de Bot, R. B. Ginsberg, & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research
in cross-cultural perspective (pp. 39-52). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Long, M., & Crookes, G. (1992). Three approaches to task-based syllabus design. TESOL
Quarterly, 26, 27-56.
Munby, J. (1978). Communicative syllabus design. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Nunan, D. (2006). Go for it! Energizing your classes: A learner-centered approach.
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Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Teaching Library. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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O’Malley, J., & Chamot, A. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition.
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Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Palfreyman, D. & R. Smith (Eds.). (2005). Learner autonomy across cultures. New York,
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Author
CHRISTINE CAMPBELL, Assistant Provost, Evaluation & Standardization, Defense

Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Presidio of Monterey, CA 93944-
5006. Specializations: Langugage assessment.
DEANNA TOVAR, Dean,European and Latin American Language School, Defense
Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Presidio of Monterey, CA 93944-
5006. Specializations: Faculty development.
75
Notes from an OPI Tester to DLI Instructors
2007, Vol. 18, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 77-80
Faculty Exchange
Notes from an OPI Tester Trainer to DLI Instructors

Why Can’t They Describe?
Proficiency Standards Division
So often, when conducting OPI Certification and Recertification Workshops,

the difficulties the practice examinees from DLI have when trying to fulfill the Level 2
description task become very apparent. Just as often, the workshop participants turn to the
OPI tester trainers and ask in desperation, “Why can’t they describe?” The problem with
the description task cannot be overlooked and has led to the following considerations.
They are offered here in the spirit of generating a dialogue and faculty exchange in order
to find some solutions.
In his ILR Handbook On Oral Interview Testing, Dr. Pardee Lowe assigns
the linguistic skill of describing to Level 2. He presents the skill simply as the ability
“to describe a person, an object, or a place” (Lowe, pp.1991, 7-20). In the shorthand
characterizations, he states succinctly that a Level 2 “can describe and narrate” (Lowe,
1991, pp. 7-22). In the absence of further elaboration, the description task does appear to
be simple to understand and easy to accomplish. Arthur Hughes, in his well-respected text
Testing for Language Teachers, details some guidelines for eliciting description in order
to accurately test for this skill. For example, he suggests describing selected pictures, or
describing specific situations, as an assessment method (Hughes, 1989). Unfortunately,
these methods are not a part of the OPI testing system of elicitation and therefore, cannot
be implemented in the OPI. So, the search for answers and solutions to the problem of
improving performance on the description task remain for DLI teachers, OPI testers and
OPI trainers to explore and discuss.
Difficulty with the description task is demonstrated by Faculty Personnel
examinees, as well as DLI students. The question arises as to why this is so and what can
be done to alleviate the problem. One answer to the cause of the difficulty in performing
the description task may be found in an inherent lack of an elementary sense of spatial
relationships on the part of the individual speaker. On the other hand, the difficulty in
describing may be due to a lack of training in spatial awareness and spatial terminology.
If the latter explanation is the case, DLI instructors are in a position to help.
A good place to begin an investigation of the causes of the inability to
“describe” is in The Student Learning Center at DLI. Here, the difficulties the basic course
students have in dealing with an extended concept of spatial relationships in English (EN)
is apparent. By “an extended concept of spatial relationships” is meant, in the DLI context,
the maturity of the learner in relation to the physical world and the people who populate
it. Due to differences in maturity, by the time they have arrived at DLI, the average basic
course students have identified themselves in relation to the physical environment and
the people living in it, to varying degrees of accuracy. This is a process which, ofcourse,
continues for the rest of their lives. A good example of the varying degrees of maturity
77
with regard to self-awareness and awareness of the physical world and people can be
seen in the shock some students often experience when practicing certain FLO skills
in EN. Linguistic abilities, which the new students had taken for granted, suddenly
revealed themselves to be totally inadequate when faced, for example, with the FLO
task of correctly transcribing numbers in their native language. They often had to face
the fact that they usually had been listening, as the Germans would say, “with only half
an ear”. They were simply unable to concentrate long enough in order to transcribe a 6
to 8 digit number correctly in English! Another example can be seen in their inability to
summarize the main points of an argument, or even to clearly express their own opinion.
They knew what they wanted to say, but they did not have the narrative and procedural
language and terminology to speak or write about it.
Another aspect of the interaction between the degree of maturity and the real
world and people relates to virtual reality. As an ongoing process, virtual reality competes
with the learner’s concepts of “real-time” spatial and personal relationships. In some cases,
the need to focus on a range of moving objects contained within a limited background,
and to possibly react in a specific manner within a short period of time, reduces the
ability to focus on the details of a larger picture, and to retain and recall the individual
objects and their positions. The result can be that the ability to observe and concentrate
on a static scene may become diminished. This could affect the ability to give a detailed
description of stationary person, object or place, particularly when, as in the OPI, the
description is given from memory.
Finally, the disconnect between the degree of maturity of the learner in relation
to the physical world and people who populate it can also be explained by the sheer
overload of cognitive and affective tasking the DLI student is required to master. They are
already multi-tasking to a considerable degree, observing themselves, their own abilities,
or lack thereof, observing the outside world and its population, their physical position and
personal position in relation to these varied objects and entities, and, finally, contending
with the lessons in self-awareness which accompany this process. It is no wonder that
they are at a loss for words in English, or in a Target Language (TL), as so much of what
is happening is entirely new to them. Nevertheless, the DLI classroom offers the first
step to bridging the gap between emerging maturity and observing, and describing, the
physical world and people.
For the first step, the TL instructor needs to recognize the implications of the
over-arching learning process in which the basic course student finds himself/herself. The
next step would be to continue to present – in context - the high-frequency vocabulary
necessary for basic Level 2 descriptions. This includes the procedural language of
description commonly used the TL. Some general examples of words and terms used in
EN are the following: when describing and object or a place - on the left; on the right;
in the foreground; in the background; diagonally across from; the number of “storeys” a
building has, when seen from the outside; the number of “floors” a building has, when
seen from the inside; the shape of the roof, windows, etc. When describing a person, some
general physical features which are typically described are the following: the general
build of the body (heavy-set, medium build , slight or thin build); the shape of the face
(oval, round, long, square); the shape of the nose (long, thin, short, straight, crooked); the
shape (almond, round, big, small) and color (blue, green, brown, hazel) of the eyes; the
color (blond, black, brown, gray, white, etc.), length (long, short, crew cut, thin, bald),
and type (straight, curly, wavy) of the hair.
78
Notes from an OPI Tester to DLI Instructors
Each of these steps is surely already being undertaken by the DLI instructors.
However, it may also be necessary to mention that the instructors actually need to take
the time to teach the students to “see” in a systematic way. This the TL instructor can
do by “slowing down the action” and asking the student to take a physical position in
front of the person, object or place to be described. In this way, the learner, first of all,
notes his/her own physical position in relation to the person, place or thing. This might
be practiced in “real life” in the classroom, for example, with the class divided and
standing, facing in four different directions. Each student imagines that he/she is holding
a camcorder and pretends to photograph and describe what he/she actually sees within
specified perimeters, as he/she slowly swings the “camcorder” in a 180 degree arc, from
left to right. The students can not jot down notes about what they have seen but must report
back from memory. The other students in the group can observe, first hand, how detailed
or superficial the description is and award a “prize” to the best student in the group.
Another version of the exercise could be to have four groups compete to see
which group can write down the most complete description of the same picture of a person,
place or thing – from memory - within a specific allotted time. Needless to say, there will
be a lot of invaluable self-knowledge and copy-cat learning going on during these feedback
sessions. These activities could be expanded to become assignments to be prepared outside
of classroom, describing on-site and off-site locations, objects and individuals. Finally,
this activity could be very effectively included in immersion exercises, if this is not yet
the case. As H. Douglas Brown emphasizes in his classic text Principles of Language
Learning and Teaching, activities which appeal to the genuine interests of your students
and are relevant to their lives are the best source of intrinsic motivation (Brown, 1994).
Whereas DLI students know that describing may be a part of their military duties in the
future, knowing that it will be a definite part of immersion exercises, with immediate
feedback and/or consequences, will make the ability to describe a person, place or thing
an integral part of their immediate lives as students and soldiers.
Teaching description also presents many enjoyable and amusing opportunities to
introduce cultural aspects of language. The shape of roofs, windows, doors, courtyards,
gateways, walls, and even hedges are often culturally specific and offer a way to teach
necessary, specific vocabulary,. These features can even be used to teach history, climate
and topography. Just as words such as shanghaied, garage, adobe, veranda, patio
and khaki, sirocco, monsoon and tsunami have become part of American English, TL
instructors can be on the lookout to include everyday words used in ways specific to the
TL culture. The learner may experience a pleasing “aha” effect in learning the true origin
of words in American English. On the other hand, he/she may enter into a unique and
intriguing lesson on culture with the teacher.
The description of the physical features or appearance of a person is another
area which reflects cultural values. For example, in China, a person with an oval-shaped
face is considered classically beautiful, or good–looking. This is expressed by saying
that the person has an egg-shaped face. Literally, one says in Chinese that the person has
a “goose-egg shaped face”. A “tall nose” refers to the pleasing shape and height of the
bridge of the nose. When describing the eyes, the Chinese are not sensitive to color but
to the shape, size and brightness of the eyes. Blond hair is always described as “golden
hair” in Chinese. In Korean, blond hair is described as being “yellow”, while in Serbian-
Croatian, it is described as being “blue”. To the Chinese, a “small, cherry-red mouth”
is preferred to a “big, full mouth”, which is considered unattractive. A person is “tall
79
or short”, or “not tall” or “not short”. An athletic-looking person is said to have “well-
developed muscles”. In Serbian-Croatian, a big, strong, athletic-looking man is described
as being “a black, small man”. The “blackness” or “darkness” of the man conveys the
idea of his great strength. This strength is so large and great that it overpowers all else
making everything else look small.
Conclusion
Creative and systematic ways of teaching proficiency in describing accurately

have no bounds. It would be good to take a fresh look at how this proficiency can be
made more accessible to all our students, to try out new teaching methods and to share
them, along with the data on their effectiveness, with colleagues across all languages
and divisions. In this way, an answer to the question “Why can’t they describe?” might
indeed be found together.
References
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching. Engelwood Cliffs,

N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Lowe, P, Jr. (1991). ILR handbook on oral interview testing. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
Author
PATRICIA FAY-MAGIERA, Proficiency Stndards Division, Defense Language Institute

Foreign Language Center, Presidio of Monterey, CA 93944-5006. Specializa-
tions/Interests: Language assessment and second language acquisition.
80
News and Views
Former DLI Russian Faculty Member Publishes Book
Christine Campbell
Evaluation and Standardization
Ms. Regina Todd, a retired DLILFC faculty member who was a member of the
Russian faculty for 33 years, recently published the book My Struggle for Survival (2006,
Park Place Publications, www.parkplacepublications.com) that outlines her life from
childhood through her choice of Monterey as a place to settle in the United States.
An autobiography, the book begins with her birth and childhood in Leningrad,
under the Stalinist terror. It goes on to relate her horrific experiences as a victim of the
900-day siege of Leningrad by Nazi Germany during which time more than one million
city residents died of bombings and starvation. Next, it traces her life in Central Asia,
her studies in Law at and graduation from Leningrad University in 1951, her work as a
corporation lawyer for five years in the former Soviet Union, and her flight to Europe
and the United States.
Ms. Todd arrived in the United States in 1960. Living in Los Angeles, California,
she worked and participated in the Art Linkletter Show as a member of an international
panel that discussed life in the Soviet Union. Her topic was “Family Life in the Soviet
Union.” She then went to New York, where she became a Research Assistant at Columbia
University School of Law from 1964 to 1967. Afterwards, she was on the faculty of
Monterey Institute of International Studies (then, Monterey Institute of Foreign Studies)
and Middlebury College. She received her M.A. in Russian Language and Civilization
from the Institute in 1965.
Later, she met the renowned New York Times journalist Harrison Salisbury.
Salisbury is the author of 900 Days: The Siege of Leningrad.
81
DLI Index
General Information
Index
Authors and Articles
Allard, Yoshimi. (1997). Significance of Output in Language Acquistion.12(1 & 2), p.

17.
Allsopp, Jeanette. (1995). Foreign Language Methodology in the Carribean: A Historical
Survey. 11(1 & 2), p. 13.
Antokhin, Natalia. (2000). Error Treatment: Does It Help in Second Language
Acquisition? 14(1 & 2), p. 7.
Arellano, Albert. (1992). Increasing Motivation by Peer Tutoring. 8(1 & 2), p. 77.
Arellano, Albert. (1991). Individual Coaching for Language Proficiency. 7(1), p. 55.
Asher, James. (1994). Imagination in Second Language Acquisition. 10(1), p. 19.
Atwell, Sabine. (1994). Teaching Listening: Lessons Drawn from Classroom Observation.
10(1), p. 59.
Barnwell, David. (1992). Foreign Language Teaching and Testing During World War
II. 8(1 & 2), p. 23.
Blackburn, James. (1995). Teaching Aspect in Beginning French Courses. 11(1 & 2),
p. 33.
Blackburn, James. (1999). Instructional Value of Voice in Elementary French. 13(1 &
2), p. 45.
Boussalhi, Abdelfattah, Cambacau, Pamela, & Ortenberg, Maria. (2004). Developing
Materials for Gloss: Principles, Content, and Instructional Technology. 16(1 &
2). p. 25.
Boyadjieff, Kiril. (1995). Lessons Learned on Management of CAS Development. 11(1
& 2), p. 49.
Boyadjieff, Kiril. (1997). Applicability of Digital Video to Computerized Language
Learning. 12(1 & 2), p. 25.
Boyadjieff, Kiril. (2005). Learning Management Systems Conference. 17(1 & 2), p.35.
Bueler, William. (1987). Trivial Pursuit as a Language-Learning Game. 4(2), p. 47.
Byrnes, Heidi. (1987). Teaching Reading in the Foreign Language Classroom. 4(2), p.
23.
Cicekdag, Mehmet Ali. (1995). Information-Gap Activities. 11(1 & 2), p. 59.
Cicekdag, Mehmet Ali. (1987). Cultural Distance and the Foreign Language Teaching/
Learning Process. 4(1), p. 15.
Cobb, Marina. (2004). Input Elaboration in Second and Foreign Language Acquisition.
16(1 & 2). p. 13.
Cole, Charles. (1991). Helping Students Cope with Supplemental Materials: The Design
and Use of Learner Notebooks. 7(1), p. 52.
Cole, Charles. (1989). Error Treatment in the Adult Foreign Language Classroom. 5(1),
p. 43.
Cucalón, Raul. (1992). Code-Switching and Its Role in the Chicano Population. 8(1 &
2), p. 55.
de Barros, Rene. (1987). Teaching Without Texts. 4(2), p. 43.
Dudney, Grazyna M. (2000). Supervisory Class Observation as a Teacher Development
Tool. 14(1 & 2), p. 17.
Dudney, Grazyna M. (1990). Sound Stories. 6(1 & 2), p. 102.
Dudney, Grazyna M. (1989). Communicative Vocabulary Review. 5(1), p. 66.
Dutertre, Ayca. (1999). Officers and Enlisted Personnel Success in Foreign Language
Learning in DLIFLC’s 25-Week Spanish Basic Program. 13(1 & 2), p. 117.
Eighannan, Alaa. (2004). Putting Principles of Interactive Language Teaching Into Your
Classroom Practice. 16(1 & 2). p. 67.
83
El-Barouki, Foazi. (2000). Arabic as a Foreign language in the New Millennium:

Integrating language and Culture Through the Comprehension of Idioms. 14(1
& 2), p. 23.
El-Barouki, Foazi. (1997). How Arab Émigré Writers in America Kept Their Cultural
Roots. 12(1 & 2), p. 31.
Elghannam, Alaa. (1997). Peer Observation: Concepts and Practices. 12(1 & 2), p.
41.
El-Nady, Mamdouh. (2000). Drama as a Teaching Technique in the Second Language
Classroom. 14(1 & 2), p. 41.
El-Nady, Mamdouh. (1994). Teaching Culture through Language Analysis: Use of
Pronouns in the Egyptian Dialect. 10(1), p. 69.
Erdener, Yildiray. (1987). Communicating with More Than Words. 4(1), p. 31.
Esfahani, Abolghasem Soheili. (2005). A Communicative Way of Teaching Structure:
The Case of the Pro-drop Feature in Persian/Farsi. 17(1 & 2), p.17.
Fakhhouri, Grace. (2004). Interaction in Group Work: Can It Enhance FL Acquisition?
16(1 & 2). p. 1.
Feghali, Maksoud. (1989). Interactive Video Authoring in Teaching Foreign Languages.
5(1), p. 68.
Ferguson, Umit. (2005). Improving Proficiency Through Learner-Centered Instruction.
17(1&), p. 1.
Ford, Maria. (1995). The Power of Politeness around the World. 11(1 & 2), p. 1.
Fox, Lisette. (1999). Reflections on Culture. 13(1 & 2), p. 89.
Gale, Roderic. (1997). Computer Roles in Language Teaching and Learning: Let the
Dialog Expand–Robustly! 12(1 & 2), p. 1.
Garrett, Nina. (1987). The Problem with Grammar: What Kind Can the Language
Learner Use? 4(1), p. 79.
Goroshko, Natalia. (1993). Four-Handed Instruction. 9(1), p. 49.
Iaremenko, Grigori. (2004). Conditionally Communicative Exercises. 16(1 & 2). p.
41.
Kaneda, Yoshiko. (1999). An Experiment in Listening Material: Is Packaging More
Important Than Its Content? 13(1 & 2), p. 131.
Khoshaba, Matti Philliops. (2004). The Integrative Test of Arabic (IAT). 16(1 & 2) p.
53.
Konderski, Stefan. (1990). “Eavesdropping” in Foreign Language Instruction. 6(1 &
2), p. 105.
Koppany, Steven. (1995). Computers and the Foreign Language Curriculum: Old
Questions, New Horizons. 11(1 & 2), p. 55.
Koppany, Steve. (2005). Learning Management Systems Conference. 17(1 & 2), p.35.
Kordecki, Ann. (1989). Dealing with Underachievers in a Classroom. 5(1), p. 63.
Krasner, Irene. (1999). The Role of Culture in Language Teaching. 13(1 & 2), p. 79.
Lee, Dae Sok. (2005). The Articulatory Positions for the Korean Vowels. 17(1 & 2),
p.9.
Lee, Megan. (2005). Learning Management Systems Conference. 17(1 & 2), p.35.
Lett, John. (1987). Research at DLI. 4(1), p. 46.
Lett, John. (1989). Components of Language Proficiency. 5(1), p. 57.
Litvinenko, Elena. (2000). Scheduling Special Assistance. 14(1 & 2), p. 37.
Maly, Eugene. (1993). Task-Based Instruction: From the Teacher’s Perspective. 9(1),
p. 37.
Masliyah, Sadok. (1999). A Cross-Cultural Misunderstanding: The Case of the Arabic
Expression Inshallah, “If God Wills.” 13(1 & 2), p. 97.
Masliyah, Sadok. (1990). Student Opinions and Preferences for Error Treatment. 6(1
& 2), p. 27.
McDermott, James. (1999). Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. 13(1 & 2), p.
27.
84
DLI Index
Nasr, Michel. (1993). Pioneers of Social Change. 9(1), p. 55.

Nicola, Michel. (1994). An Integrated Arabic Basic Course. 10(1), p. 27.
Nicola, Michel. (1991). Theories of Second Language Acquisition and of Physics. 7(1),
p. 17.
Nicola, Michel. (1990). Experimenting with the New Methods. 6(1 & 2), p. 61.
Nicola, Michel. (1989). The “Far Side” Treatment. 5(1), p. 72.
Orr, Joseph. (2000). Surviving Immersion. 14(1 & 2), p. 63.
Otto, Frank. (1987). Foreign Language Technology in the 21st Century. 4(1), p. 1.
Oxford-Carpenter, Rebecca. (1989). A New Taxonomy of Second Language Learning
Strategies. 5(1), p. 1.
Park, Bo Young. (2000). Out of the Korean Classroom: Trip to the Temple; Language
Exercises. 14(1 & 2), p. 69.
Poulin, Gerald. (1997). Applicability of Digital Video to Computerized Language
Learning. 12(1 & 2), p. 25.
Rivers, Wilga. (1987). Comprehension and Production in Interactive Language Training.
4(1), p. 78.
Rowland, Howard. (1991). Diglossia in Arabic: The Phenomenon and Some Possible
Solutions. 7(1), p. 45.
Rowland, Howard. (1990). A Solution for DLI’s “Arabic Problem.” 6(1 & 2), p. 89.
Rubinstein, George. (1993). Foreign Language versus Second Language. 9(1), p. 23.
Sampson, Kenneth. (1999). Instilling Passion for Language: Strategies and Techniques.
13(1 & 2), p. 73.
Sedrak, nagib Z. (2000). Will Translation Replace Humans? 14(1 & 2), p. 31.
Shin, Ilsoon. (1997). The DLPT as a Learning Objective. 12(1 & 2), p. 29.
Shin, Ilsoon. (1991). The ILR Proficiency Interview. 7(1), p. 77.
Shin, Ilsoon. (1990). The Classroom Observation. 6(1 & 2), p. 107.
Slutsky, Leonid. (1993). Four-Handed Instruction. 9(1), p. 49.
Sparhawk, Carol. (1991). Teacher as Intensive Student: How it Feels. 7(1), p. 29.
Swaffar, Janet. (1990). Competing Paradigms in Adult Language. 6(1 & 2), p. 1.
Terdjman, Jean-Michel. (1991). Putting Meaning Before Form. 7(1), p. 39.
Terrell, Tracy. (1987). Avoiding Fossilization in Communicative Approaches. 4(2), p.
1.
Thompson, Irene. (1989). Some Implications of Reading Research for L2 Reading
Instruction. 5(1), p. 19.
Tuman, Walter. (1991). CALLware: Design, Development, and Distribution. 7(1), p. 1.
van Daalen, Margaret. (1999). Test Usefulness in Alternative Assessment. 13(1 & 2), p.
1.
van Daalen, Margaret. (1992). Adult Dialogue Journals in Dutch as a Foreign Language.
8(1 & 2), p. 35.
White, Philip. (1997). The Role of Dictionaries in Language Learning. 12(1 & 2), p. 7.
Woytak, Lidia. (1997). Language for a Lifetime: 1997 Command Language Program
Manager Seminar. 12(1 & 2), p. 47.
Woytak, Lidia. (1999). Life of an Idea: DLIFLC Annual Program Review. 13(1 & 2), p.
135.
Woytak, Lidia. (1990). Guidelines for Presentations. 6(1 & 2), p. 75.
Woytak, Lidia. (1987). Goals and Objectives in Foreign Language Teaching. 4(1), p.
36.
Zeuge, Helma. (1990). German FLO Goes EIDS. 6(1 &2), p. 97.
Authors and Editors of Books
Bahat, Ester. (1991). Ha-’Ilton Ke-emtsa’I Lehora’at Safah Shniyah. 12(1 & 2), p. 57.
Reviewed by Masliyah, Sadok. (1997).
85
Hoffmeister, Gerhart and Tubach, Frederic. (1986). Germany: 2000 Years, Volume 3,
From the Nazi Era to the Present. 4(1), p. 82. Reviewed by Maier, Wofgang.
(1987).
Lauden, Edna & Weinbach, Liora. (1993). Multi-Dictionary, Hebrew From Scratch,
Arabic for Living. 11(1 & 2), p. 65. Reviewed by Masliyah, Sadok. (1995).
Lee, William W. & Owens, Diana L. (2000) Multimedia-Based Instructional Design.
16(1 & 2). p. 71. Reviewed by Farahmand, Shoreh. (2004).
Mahnke, M. Kathleen. (1999). Grammar Links: A Theme-Based Course for Reference
and Practice. 16(1 & 2). p. 72. Reviewed by Roemer, Ann E.
Mueller, Kurt. (1986). Language Competence: Implications for National Security. 4(2),
p. 62. Reviewed by Goodrick, John. (1987).
Nicola, Michel. (1985). A Thousand and One Nights. 4(2), p. 64. Reviewed by Nasr,
Michel. (1987).
Nydell, Margaret. (1991). From Modern Standard Arabic to the Iraqi Dialect, Levantine
Dialects, Maghrebi Dialects–Conversation Courses. 10(1), p. 75. Reviewed by
Rowland, Howard. (1994).
Pellisier, Sidney and Smith William. (1985). Bulletins–Premier Niveau: Sight Readings
in French. 4(1), p. 83. Reviewed by Moreno, Rejane. (1987).
Rixon, Shelagh. (1989). Developing Listening Skills. 8(1 & 2), p. 81. Reviewed by
Moravec, Eva. (1992).
Rost, Michael. (1991). Listening in Action. 8(1 & 2), p. 85. Reviewed by Smith, Robert.
(1992).
Rauch, Holger von & Trad, M. Sadek. (1998). Travel wise: Arabic. 14(1 & 2), p. 74.
reviewed by Rowland, Howard D. (2000).
Polish Individualized Instruction. 5(1), p. 75. Reviewed by Woytak, Lidia. (1989).
Watcyn-Jones, Peter. (1997). Pair Work 1. 13(1 & 2), p. 155. Reviewed by Allard,
Yoshimi. (1999).
Williams, F.C. & Wu,Yenna. (1999). Chinese: The Easy Way. 14(1 & 2), p. 73. Reviewed
by Zhao, Jim Jielu. (2000).
Williams, F.C. & Wu,Yenna. (1999). Chinese: The Easy Way. 14(1 & 2), p. 73. Reviewed
by Sun, Dawn Hsu Chao. (2004).
Zilkha, Avraham. (2000). Modern English-Hebrew Dictionary. 16(1 & 2), p. 70.
Reviewed by Masliyah, Sadok. (2004).
Authors of Reports
Allard,Yoshimi and Lee Robert. (1999). ACTFL Conference Attendance Highest Ever.
13(1 & 2), p. 153.
Armstrong, Marianne. (1987). Social Conventions in the Foreign Language Classroom
(ACTFL Conference Presentation). 4(1), p. 55.
Atwell, Ssbine. (1995). Teacher Education and Curriculum at TESOL. 11(1 & 2), p.
75.
Campbell, Christine. (1991). DLI at ACTFL. 7(1), p. 69.
Cicekdag, Mehmet Ali. (1994). ACTFL ’93–A Personal View. 10(1), p. 77.
El-Barouki, Foazi. (1987). Social Conventions in the Foreign Language Classroom
Hammoud, Salah-Dine. (1993). ACTFL ’92 Impressions. 9(1), p. 59.
Hurtt, Meei-Jin. (1997). Chinese Teachers’ Workshop. 12(1 & 2), p. 37.
Koppany, Steven. (1991). DLI at ACTFL. 7(1), p. 69.
Koppany, Steven. (1987). Real-Life in the Classroom (ACTFL Workshop Report). 4(1),
p. 71.
Lee, Alice. (1987). Social Conventions in the Foreign Language Classroom (ACTFL
Conference Presentation). 4(1), p. 55.
Ludgate, Brigitta. (1991). DLI at ACTFL. 7(1), p. 69.
Mohamed, A. Monim S. (2005). Reflective Teaching: Input and Output Experience.
17(1 & 2), p.51.
86
DLI Index
Ortiz, Jose. (1991). DLI at ACTFL. 7(1), p. 69.
Patterson, Elena. (2005). Engaging Students in Activities. 17(1 & 2), p.48.
Tabuse, Motoko. (1987). Social Conventions in the Foreign Language Classroom
Tovar, Deanna. (1991). Teacher Education at TESOL ’90. 7(1), p. 57.
Tovar, Deanna. (1987). Coming of Age (TESOL Conference Report). 4(2), p. 53.
van Daalen, Margaret. (1990). Second Language Research Forum Conference Report:
Multidisciplinary Perspectives. 6(1 & 2), p. 109.
Woytak, Lidia. (1991). Report from ACTFL. 7(1), p. 66.
Woytak, Lidia. (2000). Language Enhancement: The 1999 Worldwide Language
Olympics and the 1999 Command Language Program Seminar. 14(1 & 2), p.
49.
Woytak, Lidia. (2005). Developing and Testin New Materials. 17(1 & 2), p.45.
Editorials
Clifford, Ray. (1987). Guest Editorial. 4(2), p. iii.

Hutchinson, Joseph. (1987). Editorial. 4(1), p. iii.
Panetta, Leon. (1987). Letter from Congressman Panetta. 4(1), p. 88.
Sampson, Kenneth L. (2000). Values for the New Millennium. 14(1 & 2), p. 1.
Interviewees
Di Donato, Robert. (1994). Interviewed by Woytak, Lidia. 10(1), p. 1.

Rivers, Wilga. (1993). Interviewed by Woytak, Lidia. 9(1), p. 1.
Rohrer, Josef. (1992). Interviewed by Woytak Lidia 8(1 & 2), p. 1.
Gagné, Robert. (1987). Interviewed by Woytak, Lidia. 4(2), p. 36.
Correspondence
Molan, Peter. (1994). A Reply to Michel Nicola’s “An Integrated Arabic Basic Course.”
10(1), p. 43.
Nicola, Michel. (1994). Response to Peter D. Molan’s Reply. 10(1), p. 55.
Announcements
Broz, James. (1989). Foreign Language Foundation Moves from Concept to Reality.
5(1), p. 79.
Woytak, Lidia. (1990). Obituary: James W. Dodge. 6(1 & 2), p. 73.
87
Calendar of Events
General Information
Calendar of Events*
2007
Southern Conference on Language Teaching (SCOLT), 1–3 March, Atlanta, GA.

Contact: Lynne McClendon, Executive Director, SCOLT, 165 Lazy Laurel
Chase, Roswell, GA 30076; (770) 992-1256, Fax (770) 992-3464; Email:
lynnemcc@mindspring.com Web: www.valdosta.edu/scolt
Central States Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, 8–10 March,
Kansas City, MO. Contact: Patrick T. Raven, Executive Director, CSCTFL, PO
Box 251, Milwaukee, WI 53201-0251; (414) 405-4645, Fax (414) 276-4650;
Email: CSCTFL@aol.com Web: www.centralstates.cc
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 21–24 March, Seattle,
WA. Contact: TESOL, 700 S. Washington Street, Suite 200, Alexandria, VA
22314; (703) 836-0774, Fax (703) 836-7864; Email: conventions@tesol.org
Web: www.tesol.org
Association of Teachers of Japanese Seminar, 22 March, Boston, MA. Contact: Yoshiko
Mori, Seminar Committee Chair; Email: moriy@georgetown.edu Web: www.
japaneseteaching.org/ATJseminar/2007/
Association for Asian Studies (AAS), 22–25 March, Boston, MA. Contact: AAS, 1021
East Huron St., Ann Arbor, MI 48104; (734) 665-2490; Fax (734) 665-3801;
Email:annmtg@aasianst.org Web: www.aasianst.org
17th International Conference on Pragmatics and Language Learning, 26–28 March,
Honololu, HI. Contact: National Foreign Language Resource Center, University
of Hawai‘i at Manoa, 1859 East-West Road #106, Honolulu, HI 96822; (808)
956-9424, Fax (808) 956-5983; Email: nflrc@hawaii.edu Web: nflrc.hawaii.
edu/prodev/pll/
International Society for Language Studies (ISLS), 2–4 April, Honolulu, HI. Contact:
John Watzke; Email: john@isls-inc.org Web: www.isls-inc.org/conference/
conference.html
American Educational Research Association (AERA), 9–13 April, Chicago, IL.
Contact: AERA, 1230 17th St., NW, Washington, DC 20036-3078; (202) 223-
9485, Fax (202) 775-1824, Web: www.aera.net
Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (NECTFL), 12–14
April, New York, NY. Contact: Northeast Conference, Dickinson College, PO
Box 1773, Carlisle, PA 17013-2896; (717) 245-1977, Fax (717) 245-1976; Email:
nectfl@dickinson.edu Web: www.nectfl.org
Social and Cognitive Aspects of Second Language Learning and Teaching, 12–14
April, Auckland, New Zealand. Contact: Farina Ibnul; Email: f.ibnul@auckland.
ac.nz Web: www.arts.auckland.ac.nz/sites/index.cfm?P=9209
* Courtesy of The Modern Language Journal (University of Wisconsin)
89
Southwest Conference on Language Teaching (SWCOLT), 12–15 April, Las Vegas,
NV. Contact: Jody Klopp, Executive Director, SWCOLT, 713 Rock Hollow
Road, Edmond, OK 73034; (405) 330-1318, Fax (405) 340-0923; Email:
jklopp@swcolt.org Web: www.swcolt.org
American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL), 21–24 April, Costa Mesa, CA.
Contact: AAAL, 3416 Primm Lane, Birmingham, AL 35216; (205) 824-7700,
Fax (205) 823-2760; Email: aaal@primemanagement.net Web: www.aaal.org
National Council of Less Commonly Taught Languages (NCOLCTL), 26–29 April,
Madison, WI. Contact: NCOLCTL, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 4231
Humanities Building, 455 N. Park Street, Madison, WI 53706; (608) 265-7903,
Fax (608) 265-7904; Email: ncolctl@mailplus.wisc.edu Web: www.councilnet.
org/conf/conf2007/prpsl.htm
International Reading Association (IRA), 13–17 May, Toronto, Canada. Contact:
International Reading Association, Headquarters Office, 800 Barksdale Rd.,
PO Box 8139, Newark, DE 19714-8139; (302) 731-1600, Fax: (302) 731-1057;
Web: www.reading.org
First Congress of Chinese Applied Linguistics, 16–21, May, Bejing, China. Contact:
Email: celea@fltrp.com Web: www.celea.org.cn/english/5celea.asp
Second CELC Symposium for English Language Teachers, 30 May – 1 June, Singapore.
Contact: Symposium Secretariat, Centre for English Language Communication,
National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119260;
(65) 6516-3866, Fax (65) 6777-9152; Email: symposiumsec@nus.edu.sg Web:
www.nus.edu.sg/celc/symposium/
Fifth International Conference on Language Teacher Education, 31 May – 2 June,
Minneapolis, MN. Contact: CARLA, University of Minnesota, 619 Heller Hall,
271 19th Avenue South, Minneapolis, MN 55455; (612) 626-8600, Fax (612)
624-7514; Email: lteconf@umn.edu Web: www.carla.umn.edu
LSA Summer Institute, 1–27 July, Stanford, CA. Contact: Department of Linguistics
Attn: 2007 LSA Summer Institute, Stanford University, Building 460, 450 Serra
Mall, Stanford, CA 94305-2150; Email: linginst07@stanford.edu Web: www.
lsadc.org/info/inst-2007.cfm
American Association of Teachers of French (AATF), 12–15 July, Baton Rouge, LA.
Contact: Jayne Abrate, AATF, Mailcode 4510, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale, IL 62901-4510; (618) 453-5731, Fax (618) 453-5733; Email:
abrate@siu.edu Web: www.frenchteachers.org
EUROCALL, 5–8 September, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK.
Contact: Web: www.eurocall-languages.org/confs/index.html
British Association for Applied Linguistics, 6–8 September, Edinburgh, UK. Contact:
Web: www.baal.org.uk
Second International Conference on Task-based Language Teaching, 20–22
September, University of Hawai’i-Manoa, Honololu, HI. Contact: Email:
organizers@tblt2007.org Web: www.hawaii.edu/tblt2007/index.html
African Studies Association (ASA), 18–21 October, New York, NY. Contact: Kimme
Carlos, Annual Meeting Coordinator, Rutgers University, Douglass Campus,
132 George Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901-1400; (732) 932-8173, Fax (732)
932-3394; Email: asaamc@rci.rutgers.edu Web: www.africanstudies.org
90
Calendar of Events
American Translators Association (ATA), 31 October – 3 November, Miami, FL.
Contact: ATA, 225 Reinekers Lane, Suite 590, Alexandria, VA 22314; (703)
683-6100, Fax (703) 683-6122; Email: conference@atanet.org Web: www.
atanet.org
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), 16–18 November,
San Antonio, TX. Contact: ACTFL, 700 S. Washington St., Suite 210, Alexandria,
VA 22314; (703) 894-2900, Fax (703) 894-2905; Email: headquarters@actfl.
org Web: www.actfl.org
American Association of Teachers of German (AATG), 16–18 November, San Antonio,
TX. Contact: AATG, 112 Haddontowne Court #104, Cherry Hill, NJ 08034;
(856) 795-5553, Fax (856) 795-9398; Email: headquarters@aatg.org Web:
www.aatg.org
American Association of Teachers of Italian (AATI), 17–19 November, Nashville, TN:
Contact: Paolo Giordano, President AATI, Foreign Languages and Literatures,
University of Central Florida, PO Box 161348, Orlando, FL 32816; (773)
508-2855, Fax (407) 823-6261; Email: pgiordan@mail.ucf.edu Web: www.
aati-online.org
Chinese Language Teachers Association (CLTA), 16–18 November, San Antonio,
TX. Contact: CLTA Headquarters, Cynthia Ning, Center for Chinese Studies,
Moore Hall #416, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822; (808) 956-2692,
Fax (808) 956-2682; Email: cyndy@hawaii.edu Web: clta.osu.edu
National Network for Early Language Learning (NNELL), 16–18 November, San
Antonio, TX. Contact: Mary Lynn Redmond, NNELL, PO Box 7266, B 201
Tribble Hall, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109; Email:
nnell@wfu.edu Web: www.nnell.org
2008 Events
Linguistic Society of America (LSA), 3–6 January, Chicago, IL. Contact: LSA, 1325
18th St. NW, # 211, Washington, DC 20036-6501; (202) 835-1714, Fax (202)
835-1717; Web: www.lsadc.org
Central States Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, 6–8 March,
Dearborn, MI. Contact: Patrick T. Raven, Executive Director, CSCTFL, PO
Box 251, Milwaukee, WI 53201-0251; (414) 405-4645, Fax (414) 276-4650;
Email: CSCTFL@aol.com Web: www.centralstates.cc
American Educational Research Association (AERA), 23–28 March, New York, NY.
Contact: AERA, 1230 17th St., NW, Washington, DC 20036-3078; (202) 223-
9485, Fax (202) 775-1824; Web: www.aera.net
Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (NECTFL), 27–29
March, New York, NY. Contact: Northeast Conference, Dickinson College,
PO Box 1773, Carlisle, PA 17013-2896; (717) 245-1977, Fax (717) 245-1976;
Email: nectfl@dickinson.edu Web: www.nectfl.org
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 2–5 April, New York
City, NY. Contact: TESOL, 700 S. Washington Street, Suite 200, Alexandria,
VA 22314; (703) 836-0774, Fax (703) 836-7864; Email: conventions@tesol.
org Web: www.tesol.org
91
Southern Conference on Language Teaching (SCOLT), 3–5 April, South Carolina.
Contact: Lynne McClendon, Executive Director, SCOLT, 165 Lazy Laurel
Chase, Roswell, GA 30076; (770) 992-1256, Fax (770) 992-3464; Email:
lynnemcc@mindspring.com Web: www.valdosta.edu/scolt
International Reading Association (IRA), 4–8 May, Atlanta, GA. Contact: International
Reading Association, Headquarters Office, 800 Barksdale Rd., PO Box 8139,
Newark, DE 19714-8139; Web: www.reading.org
AILA 2008, 24–29 August, Essen, Germany. Contact: AILA 2008 Conference Office, Julian
Sudhoff, Universität Duisburg-Essen, Campus Essen, FB Geisteswissenschaften,
Anglistik, Universitätsstrasse 12, 45117 Essen, Germany; +(49) 201-183-2727;
Email: orga-aila-2008@uni-due.de Web: www.aila2008.org
British Association for Applied Linguistics, 11–13 September, Glasgow, UK. Contact:
Web: www.baal.org.uk.
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), 21–23 November,
Orlando, FL. Contact: ACTFL, 700 S. Washington St., Suite 210, Alexandria,
VA 22314; (703) 894-2900, Fax (703) 894-2905; Email: headquarters@actfl.
org Web: www.actfl.org
American Association of Teachers of German (AATG), 21–23 November, Orlando,
FL. Contact: AATG, 112 Haddontowne Court #104, Cherry Hill, NJ 08034;
(856) 795-5553, Fax (856) 795-9398; Email: headquarters@aatg.org Web:
www.aatg.org
Chinese Language Teachers Association (CLTA), 21–23 November, Orlando, FL.
Contact: CLTA Headquarters, Cynthia Ning, Center for Chinese Studies, Moore
Hall #416, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822; (808) 956-2692, Fax
(808) 956-2682; Email: cyndy@hawaii.edu Web: clta.osu.edu
National Network for Early Language Learning (NNELL), 21–23 November, Orlando,
FL. Contact: Mary Lynn Redmond, NNELL, PO Box 7266, B 201 Tribble Hall,
Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109; Email: nnell@wfu.edu
Web: www.nnell.org
92
Information for Contributors
Purpose
The purpose of this internal publication is to increase and share professional knowledge
among DLIFLC faculty and staff, as well as to promote professional communication
within the Defense Foreign Language Program.
Submission of Manuscripts
The success of Dialog on Language Instruction depends on your cooperation and

support. Dialog on Language Instruction accepts only original manuscripts with the
understanding that they have not been submitted for publication elsewhere. All materials
submitted for publication should conform to the Publications Manual of the American
Psychological Association (4th Ed., 1994), available from the American Psychological
Association, P. O. Box 2710, Hyattsville, MD 20784.
We encourage you to submit a previously unpublished manuscript, a review, a

description of innovative classroom activities, a news item, or even a comment on lan-
guage instruction. Express your ideas on all aspects of language instruction including
teaching, learning, and research. Present your findings on language teaching, learning,
classroom strategies and techniques, and applied research.
Articles
Manuscripts should not exceed 20 double-spaced pages. Divide your manuscript into
the following sections:
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Organizing Construct
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Appendices
• Notes
• References
• Acknowledgments
• Author
93
Abstract
Provide a brief overview of your manuscript in 75 to 100 words. First, identify the topic of your
manuscript in one sentence. Next state the purpose and the scope of your manuscript in a couple
of sentences. Next name the sources used, for example personal observation, published books
and articles. Finally, state your conclusion in the last sentence of the abstract.
Introduction
Describe the purpose of the manuscript. Relate it to the content of the recently, within the last two
to three years, published literature. Describe work that had a direct impact on your study. Avoid
general references. Cite only pertinent research findings and relevant methodological issues.
Provide the logical continuity between previous and present work. Identify the main issues of
your study. Point out the implications of your study.
Organizing Construct
Divide this part into subsections. Focus each subsection on a specific issue identified
in the introduction. In each subsection, identify the issue, describe it, and present your
finding.
Discussion
Respond to the following questions guide: (1) What I have contributed here? (2)
How has my study helped to resolve the original problem? (3) What conclusions and
theoretical implications can I draw from my study?
Conclusion
Summarize your findings.
References
The list of references should be submitted on a separate page of the manuscript with
the centered heading: References. The entries should be arranged alphabetically by sur-
names of authors. The sample list of references below illustrates format for bibliographic
entries:
Dulay, H., & Burt, M. (1974). Errors and strategies in child second language
acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 16(1), 93-95.
Harris, D. P. (1969). Testing English as a second language. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
94
Reference citations in the text of the manuscript should include the name of the author
of the work cited, the date of the work, and when quoting, the page numbers on which
the material that is being quoted originally appeared, e.g., (Jones, 2001, pp. 235-238).
All works cited in the manuscript must appear in the list of references, and conversely,
all works included in the list of references must be cited in the manuscript.
Notes
They should be used for substantive information only, and they should be numbered
serially throughout the manuscript. Subsequently, they all should be listed on a separate
page titled Notes.
Faculty Exchange
This section provides an opportunity for faculty to share ideas through brief articles
up to two double-spaced pages on innovative classroom practices, such as suggestions
on communicative activities, team teaching, use of media and realia, and adaptation of
authentic materials. Each sample of a model classroom activity should state the purpose,
provide instructions and, if applicable, give supporting texts or illustrations.
Reviews
Manuscripts should not exceed two double-spaced pages. Reviews of textbooks, schol-
arly works related to foreign language education, dictionaries, tests, computer software,
video tapes, and other non-print materials will be considered for publication. Both
positive and negative aspects of the work(s) being considered should be pointed out.
The review should give a clear but brief statement of the works contents and a critical
assessment of contribution to the profession. Quotations should be kept short. Do not
use footnotes. Reviews that are merely descriptive will not be accepted for publication.
News and Views
Manuscripts should not exceed one double-spaced page. Items related to language
instruction such as reports on conferences, official trips, official visitors, special events,
new instructional techniques, training aids or materials, research findings, news items,
etc., will be considered for publication.
95
Specifications for Manuscripts
Manuscripts should be typed on 8.5 x 11 in. paper, double-spaced, with margins of about
1.25 in. on all four sides. All pages should be numbered consecutively. Each manuscript
should be submitted in three copies. The first page should include only the title and
the text. It is recommended that passages orquotations in foreign languages be glossed
or summarized. Authors are advised to prepare a note pertaining to their professional
status. An author’s name, position, department, school, address (if outside of DLIFLC),
and interests would be identified in the note. An example of such a note is presented
below:
Author
JANE C. DOE, Assistant Professor, Foreign Language Education, University of
America, 226 N. Madison St., Madison, WI 55306. Specializations: foreign
language acquisition, curriculum studies.
Specifications for E-mail
Preferably use Windows-based software, or name the software used. Attach manuscripts to e-mail.
aj@monterey.army.mil
Review Process
Each manuscript will be evaluated anonymously by at least two foreign language edu-
cators. To assure anonymity, authors should not put their names on submitted manu-
scripts, but should include a 3 x 5 in. card listing the title of the manuscript, author’s
name, department/division, and telephone number.
Each author will be informed of the evaluation results. In general, a manuscript will
be accepted for publication if two anonymous readers recommend acceptance, and, by
the same token, manuscripts not recommended by the readers for publication will be
rejected. In cases in which one reader recommends acceptance, and the second one,
rejection—a third reader will be asked to review the manuscript.
Accepted Manuscripts
A manuscript accepted for publication may be accepted “as is” or may require certain
revisions which may target the need to consider other sources, or to elaborate on a
certain point; or, finally, may address such minor details as a typo or a lack of citation. In
the latter case, the author is asked to revise it and subsequently the editor checks whether
the author complied thoroughly with the guidance
96
Rejected Manuscripts
Manuscripts are rejected due to such major flaws as:
• inappropriate/unsuitable topic for DLIFLC

• lack of purpose
• lack of organization
• poor quality of writing
• lack of applicability to instruction
The editor duly informs the author that the manuscript is unacceptable for publication.
Normally this finding ends the revision process.
In some cases, an author whose manuscript was already rejected decides to revise the
manuscript thoroughly and to resubmit it for publication. Since the quality of the version
is unpredictable, no promises can be issued to the author regarding publication.
Correspondence
Submit your correspondence and manuscripts to Dialog on Language Instruction, ATTN:

ATFL-CD-AJ (Editor), Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center, Presidio
of Monterey, CA 93944-5006.
97
Dialog on Language Instruction 2007 Volume 18 Numbers 1

Defense Language Institute Foreign Language Center
Presidio of Monterey
Monterey, CA 93944-5006

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Dialog

CTI2(NAC) Megan N. Williams

Volume 18 · Numbers 1 & 2

Defense Language Institute

Dialog on Language Instruction is an occasional internal publication of the Defense

Further reproduction is not advisable. Whenever copyrighted materials are reproduced

Dialog on Language Instruction

To access Dialog on Language Instruction on the internet, type

Cover design Barney Inada

2007 Volume 18 Numbers 1 & 2

15 Russian Arms Control Speaking Proﬁciency Course in

27 Toward an Integrated Approach to the Development of

39 How to Enhance Students' Proﬁciency Through Movies

49 The Role of Aptitude in Foreign Language Learning

57 Pre-Interpretation Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom

News and Views

The RAP Project

In an attempt to respond to national needs for linguists with advanced

...language acquisition does not occur overnight, however, real

Realizing the importance of “comprehensible input,” I ensured the students

The term represents a growing attempt to reconcile the social and

In the socio-cultural theory learning and development are achieved through

[L]anguage is a psychological tool and the usage of this tool

Steiner and Man (2006), view Vygotsky’s concept of internalization as a

Our concept of internalization recognizes unique human minds which

Internalizing knowledge thus became a necessary component in the RAP program.

At the time of graduation Class 505 was composed of 38 students and

Table 1. Class 505 DLPT Results

Level Listening Reading Speaking

* Total number of students: 38

Meeting Current Goal Exceeding Current Goal

Because of the many variables involved in the students’ progress in learning

It was faster & more colloquial so it exposed me to something new.

There is no substitute for authentic listening material. To hear native

Although I expected students to express frustration with reading and listening

Many of our school materials are extremely outdated so it is nice to be

The questionnaire also conﬁrmed the advantage of the project in providing

Our curriculum is so centered around the language that we can not

Russian Arms Control Speaking Proﬁciency Course

Valentina Freeman, Elena Krasnyanskaya

Given the needs and requirements of the Department of Defense to

The review of “The Defense Language Transformation Roadmap” recently

• Course extended from 32 to 47 weeks adding a 15-week Refresher Program, focusing

To train military members to entry-level qualiﬁcations for military duty at the

The course comprises ﬁve upper-level subjects corresponding to the following

The instructor subsystem The student subsystem

Basic Principles of SIM Development

The general principles developed by Lyakhovitsky (1972) were modiﬁed to

1. correlation of different modalities in each trimester: the DTRA RACSPC

III. Succession of all the instruction materials (IM) concerns selection

The Defense Language Transformation Roadmap. A Major Government Initiative to Im-

Courses in Trimesters 1-3

1. English Grammar (for Russian learners) 12 1

2. Russian Grammar 138 1-15

6. Reading Comprehension 14 9-15

7. Consecutive Interpreting 28 9-15

No Courses in Trimester II Hours Weeks

1. Russian Grammar (revision and reinforcement) 32 16-31

3. Listening Comprehension 64 16-31

5. Reading Comprehension 32 16-31

6. Consecutive Interpreting 64 16-31

Geography of Russia. Revision of CIS Members