Black pepper

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit, known as a peppercorn when dried, is approximately 5 millimetres (0.20 in) in diameter, dark red when fully mature, and, like all drupes, contains a single seed. Peppercorns, and the powdered pepper derived from grinding them, may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit) and white pepper (dried ripe seeds). Black pepper is native to south India, and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. Currently Vietnam is the world's largest producer and exporter of pepper, producing 34% of the world's Piper nigrum crop as of 2008.

Dried ground pepper has been used since antiquity for both its flavour and as a medicine. Black pepper is the world's most traded spice. It is one of the most common spices added to European cuisine and its descendants. The spiciness of black pepper is due to the chemical piperine. It is ubiquitous in the industrialized world, often paired with table salt. Plant
The pepper plant is a perennial woody vine growing up to 4 metres (13 ft) in height on supporting trees, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where trailing stems touch the ground. The leaves are alternate, entire, 5 to 10 cm long and 3 to 6 cm across. The flowers are small, produced on pendulous spikes 4 to 8 cm long at the leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening up to 7 to 15 cm as the fruit matures .The fruit of the black pepper is called a drupe and when dried it is a peppercorn.

Pepper can be grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to flooding, moist, well-drained and rich in organic matter (the vines do not do too well over an altitude of 3000 ft above sea level). The plants are propagated by cuttings about 40 to 50 centimeters long, tied up to neighboring trees or climbing frames at distances of about two meters apart; trees with rough bark are favored over those with smooth bark, as the pepper plants climb rough bark more readily. Competing plants are cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are covered in leaf mulch and manure, and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry soils the young plants require watering every other day during the dry season for the first three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and typically continue to bear fruit for seven years. The cuttings are usually cultivars, selected both for yield and quality of fruit. A single stem will bear 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or two fruits at the base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is fully mature, and still hard; if allowed to ripen completely, the fruit lose pungency, and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, and then the peppercorns are stripped off the spikes. Black pepper is either native to South East Asia or Southern Asia Within the genus Piper, it is most closely related to other Asian species such as Piper caninum

History
Pepper is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2 BCE. J. Innes Miller notes that while pepper was grown in southern Thailand and in Malaysia, its most important source was India, particularly the Malabar Coast, in what is now the state of Kerala[17] Peppercorns were a much-prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form of commodity money. On the other hand, because of a peppercorn's individual size, the term "peppercorn rent" refers to a token payment made for something that is in fact being given. The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of long pepper, the dried fruit of closely related Piper longum. The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as just "piper". In fact, it was not until the discovery of the New World and of chili peppers that the popularity of long pepper entirely declined. Chili peppers, some of which when dried are similar in shape and taste to long pepper, were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe. After the English, virtually all of the black pepper found in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa was traded from Malabar region. Before the 16th century, pepper was being grown in Java, Sunda, Sumatra, Madagascar, Malaysia, and everywhere in Southeast Asia, these areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper locally.[18] Ports in the Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean. Black pepper, along with other spices from Southern and Southeast Asia and lands farther east, changed the course of world history. It was in some part the preciousness of these spices that led to the Portuguese efforts to find a sea route to China during the age of discovery and consequently to the Portuguese colonial occupation of that country, as well as the European discovery and colonisation of the Americas.

Cultivation
The plant requires a long rainy season, fairly high temperatures, and partial shade for the best growth. Propagation is usually by stem cuttings. The cuttings are set out near a tree or a pole that will serve as a support. Black pepper plants are sometimes interspersed in coffee, tea, coconut, areca nut and rubber plantations. They start bearing fruits in 2 to 5 years and may produce for as long as 40 years. There are two types of pepper black pepper and white pepper.

USES OF PEPPEPR
Family: Piperaceae Synonyms: Piper, pepper Note: Middle Aroma: Warm to hot, spicy, woody. Actions: Analgesic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, rubefacient, stimulant, stomachic. Mood: Stimulating. Good for mental clarity. Spiritual: Warming and energizing. Aromatherapy Use: Massage mainly - excellent for muscle pains and stiffness. Can be used to treat sports injuries. For colds and flu, it can be taken as a steam inhalation, combined with eucalyptus or marjoram. Therapeutic Use: Not compatible with homeopathic treatment. Circulation: anemia, poor circulation Muscular problems: arthritis, aches and pains, rheumatism, stiffness Respiratory system: catarrh, chills Digestive system: colic, constipation, diarrhea, flatulence, heartburn, loss of appetite, nausea Immune system: colds, flu, infections, viruses Other Uses: Widespread use in the food industry. Some use in perfumery (e.g. combined with rose oil) and alcoholic drinks.

Blends Well With: Frankincense, Lavender, Marjoram, Rosemary, Sandalwood

Black pepper The berries are picked when they are in immature stage (Green berry). These immature berries are harvested when they are green in color. Berries are spread out for sun drying up to seven days till they get characteristic wrinkled black appearance. Drying is usually done on either a bamboo mat coated with fenugreek paste or cement floor or high-density black polythene, etc, which gives better appearance and cleanliness to the dried product. White pepper White pepper is obtained by removing the outer part (pericarp) of the ripened berries. The outer coating is softened either by keeping the berries in moist heaps for 2 or 3 days or by keeping them in sacks submerged in running water for 7 to 15 days, depending on the region. The softened outer coating is then removed by washing and rubbing or by trampling, and then berries are spread and sun-dried. Whole white pepper can also be prepared by grinding off the outer coating mechanically. The flavor is less pungent than that of black pepper. The berries of Panniyur-1 are ideal to prepare white pepper. Black pepper and white pepper have two main components, the volatile oil and the pungent components, commonly known as piperine. Black pepper contains about 0.6 - 2.6% essential oil that has the aromatic flavor of black pepper but not the pungency.

Aroma and flavor

Black pepper is used in almost all applications where spice is used, with exception of baked goods. It is used universally in sauces, gravies, processed meats, poultry, snack foods etc. Both black pepper and white pepper are used in cuisine worldwide, at all stages of the cooking process and as a table condiment. White pepper has a distinguishably different flavor but is utilized to a lesser extent

Domestic scenario
India is the second largest pepper producer in the world. Kerala and Karnataka are the major pepper growing states in India. The country produces around 0.55 lakh tons per annum. From 2005-06 onwards, the output has been declining drastically due to pest and disease attack. With this, the output is steady at close to 50,000 tons. Kerala is the largest producer of pepper, accounting over 50 per cent of Indias total output followed by Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Crop calendar Pepper is a perennial crop grown in a hilly region of India. Black pepper flowers during May-June. It takes 6-8 months from flowering to harvest. Normally harvesting is done during December month Crop seasonality The harvest season extends from December to January in the plains and January to March in the hills. Feb will be peak arrival season. The optimum moisture content in dried pepper to prevent mould attack is 8-10%.

In Kerala, pepper is cultivated in Idukki, Kottayam, Cannanore, Calicut and Wayanad region. In recent years, other states like Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, etc. have also started showing interest in taking up the cultivation of pepper. Since the year 2008, the contribution of Karnataka is seen significant with the higher share. During last 1-2 years, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu contribute about 25000 tons, 18000 tons and 6000 tons of pepper respectively. Pepper yield is seen lower at around 300-500 kg perhectare in India compared with close to about 2000 kg per hectare in Vietnam. In addition to this, the cost of cultivation is also estimated higher in India besides the problem of labour shortage. This has triggered in higher price quotations for Indian pepper compared with Vietnamese pepper in particular.

Reasons for lower productivity in India: Pepper has been cultivated predominantly as an inter-crop in India Continuous cultivation of poor yielding vines Existence of senile and unproductive vines Losses due to pest and disease attach and drought Non-adoption of appropriate agronomic practices Kochi (Kerala) is the major trading center for pepper in India. Thodupuzha, Madikeri, Idukki, Wayanad, Chickmagalur and Sakaleshpur are the other major trading centers in the country. In recent years, supply of pepper fromthe major trading centers such as Idukki and Wayanad districts (Kerala), Chikamagalurand Coorg (Karnataka) and Gudalur (Tamil Nadu) to major consuming centers without payment of tax have been witnessed. According to trade sources, the tax evasion is seen at around Rs.10-12 crores every year in Kerala and Karnataka Domestic demand Domestic demand in India is anticipated at about 45,000 tons per annum. In recent years, pepper consumption in the country is increasing slowly butsteadily. Change in food habit and the increasing preference for flavorful and healthy foods has resulted in improved consumption. Consumption of pepper in the country includes culinary usage, oleoresin and pharmaceutical industry usage along with usage as a preservative. With the

increase in demand, it is seen that the old crop stocks are persistently declining in the country.

Of various varieties, the black garbled pepper is the major item of export from India. The other forms of pepper exported include long pepper, light black and pinheads, black ungarbled pepper, dehydrated green pepper, pepper pinheads, freeze dried green pepper, frozen pepper, white pepper and crushed/ground pepper.

Pepper price seasonality

Seasonality of pepper prices has indicated that the prices would start moving up from March of every year and then in the month of June and July prices ease to some extent on supply from other origins. Again prices gain the bull-run from August onwards and rule strong till October of every year, which could be

attributed to lean supply across the world including India besides strong domestic demand

Pepper price influencing factors:

Pepper output in India; world crop output mainly in Vietnam; weather progress; stocks with stockiest; price of other major spices; world demand and supply; and market sentiments.

Global Scenario
Pepper is being cultivated in developing countries across Asia and South America. Its consumption is concentrated in industrialized countries besides India. Meanwhile, value addition to the produce is mainly taking place in these counties. Global pepper production Global pepper production is around 2.8-3 lakh tons per annum. The output is declining since 2004. The surge in production followed by price crisis was the major reason for decline in output in recent years. Further, the crop in the major producing countries such as Vietnam and India has been affected by disease and also poor maintenance during past few years

Reasons for fall in pepper output from most of the origins Poor prices from 2001 onwards, which has discouraged farmers from taking proper care of their pepper vines. Higher input cost in recent years mainly labor. Diseased vines in the countries such as Vietnam and India. Adverse climatic conditions in some of the growing countries. Major producers of pepper across globe are Vietnam (about 0.90 lakh tons), India (0.55 lakh tons), Brazil (0.40 lakh tons) and Indonesia (0.3 lakh tons). Vietnum is the largest pepper exporter whereas the USA is the biggest importer in the world.

Vietnam is the largest producer of pepper, which contributes about 34% of world pepper production followed by India (19%), Brazil (13%), Indonesia (9%), Malaysia (8%), China (7%), Sri Lanka (6%) and Thailand (4%). Vietnam has achieved the status as the largest pepper producer in the world within a short span of time. During 1990s, it was a marginal player with the production of about 20,000 tons. The unprecedented boom in prices during 1998 has motivated farmers in Vietnam to pay more attention to pepper cultivation. As a result, output has persistently started moving up till 2004. Thereafter from 2004 onwards, the output started declining due to disease and poor maintenance. The country witnessed recovery in output in year 2009.

Pepper production in Brazil started declining from 2003 onwards. This is due to pest and diseases besides poor crop management practices. Normally this country will produce an average of about 0.3 lakh tons of pepper per annum. Malaysia Malaysia produces around 0.22 lakh tons of pepper per annum. The Malaysian Government had drawn up a strategic plan few years back on how to rehabilitate the industry. Six areas in the country have been identified for the implementation of pepper cluster farming. Once these areas start harvesting, its annual production could increase from current level of 22,000 tons to 30,000 tons by2010, according the Govt. sources.

Global carry forward stocks after ruling at a record level of over one lakh tons of carry forward stocks at the end of the year 2003 and 2004, global pepper stocks are depleting continuously in recent years. The carry forward stocks are estimated below 50,000tons during 2007 and 2008. This could be attributed to decline in production and also increase in consumption especially in the producing countries