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Characterization of Voltage Sags in Industrial Distribution Systems

G lali Yal inkaya, Member, IEEE, Math H. J. Bollen, Senior Member, IEEE, and Peter A. Crossley, Member, IEEE u c
Abstract This paper describes the various characteristics of voltage sags experienced by customers within industrial distribution systems. Special emphasis is paid to the inuence of the induction motor load on the characterization of voltage sags. During a fault, an induction motor operates as a generator for a short period of time and causes an increase in sag magnitude. Its reacceleration after the fault clearance results in an extended post-fault voltage sag. The inuence of the induction motor on the imbalanced sags caused by single line-to-ground faults (SLGFs) and line-to-line faults (LLFs) has been analyzed in detail. For an imbalanced fault, the induction motor current contains only positive- and negative-sequence components. Induction motors create a low impedance path for the negative-sequence voltage due to an imbalanced fault. This causes a small sustained nonzero voltage with large phase-angle jump in the faulted phase and a voltage drop in the nonfaulted phases with a small phaseangle jump. The symmetrical components of the induction motor during the imbalanced sags have been studied. The results show that induction motor behavior is determined by positive- and negative-sequence voltages during the imbalanced sag. Index Terms Induction motor, power quality, symmetrical components, voltage sags.

I. INTRODUCTION VOLTAGE SAG is a momentary decrease in the rms voltage magnitude lasting between half a cycle and several seconds. Disruptive voltage sags are usually caused by fault conditions on the utility transmission and distribution systems or within a customers facility. Motors starting within the customer facilities can also result in voltage sags for neighborhood customers. The characteristics of these voltage sags are predictable and can be prevented. The duration of the sag caused by motor starting is generally longer, but the voltage drops are usually small and do not cause serious problems at the customer locations. It is relatively easy to design the system such that sags due to motor starting do not pose any problems.
Paper ICPSD 9742, presented at the 1997 Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, October 59, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Power Systems Engineering Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript released for publication December 2, 1997. G. Yal inkaya was with the Manchester Centre for Electrical Energy, c University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester M60 1QD, U.K. He is now with Hathaway Systems Ltd., Belfast BT12 6TA, U.K. (e-mail: gulali.yalcinkaya@ieee.org). M. H. J. Bollen is with the Department of Electric Power Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden (e-mail: m.bollen@ieee.org). P. A. Crosley is with the Manchester Centre for Electrical Energy, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester M60 1QD, U.K. (e-mail: p.a.crossley@umist.ac.uk). Publisher Item Identier S 0093-9994(98)04909-3.

Voltage sags due to short-circuit faults have become one of the most important power quality problems facing industrial customers. As the complexity of the electronics equipment used in the industrial plant increases, the equipment is becoming more sensitive to voltage sags. A voltage sag is most of the time described by two essential characteristics, one magnitude and one duration. However, the sag magnitude is not constant, due to the induction motor load present in many industrial systems. Previous work [1], [2] has shown that it is often difcult to dene a constant sag magnitude for sags in an industrial system. Apart from the drop in voltage magnitude, the voltage also shows a jump in phase angle [3] and three-phase imbalance [4]. When an imbalanced voltage sag occurs at a certain voltage level (e.g., 33 kV) and is then transferred down to the equipment terminals (e.g., 660 V), the magnitude and phase-angle jumps in the three phases will change in the process. The transformer winding connections between the point of the fault and the equipment terminals swap the three phase voltages in case of an imbalanced sag. A single line-to-ground fault (SLGF) on the primary side of a delta/wye or wye/delta transformer will change into a phase-to-phase fault on the secondary side. Reference [4] has shown that the voltage sags experienced by three-phase loads, like adjustable-speed drives, can be classied into four types characterized by a magnitude and a phase-angle jump. From this classication, it is possible to determine the voltages at the equipment terminals for a given fault at a higher voltage level. It can, for example, be shown that, for an SLGF, the lowest phase voltage after a transformer is never less than 33%. This is due to the loss of zero-sequence voltage when the sag is transferred through a transformer (the transformer is an exception to this rule). For line-toline faults (LLFs), it is still possible that the voltage in one of the phases at a lower voltage goes down to zero. Reference [5] came to the same results for SLGFs. The inuence of the load on the voltage sag has not been taken into account in either of these studies. Some studies of induction motor load inuence on voltage sags have been performed [1], [2]. They were, however, restricted to threephase faults. This paper describes the results of a study on the inuence of induction motors on imbalanced sags due to SLGFs and LLFs. Induction motors are a large fraction of the total load, especially in industrial power systems. In the following sections, the results of the inuence of the induction motor on imbalanced sags caused by SLGFs for the transformer winding connection between the fault position and load terminal will be described in detail. The results for the

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683

TABLE I INDUCTION MOTOR PARAMETERS

enables an investigation into the effects of different faults and different transformer winding connections. III. IMBALANCED SAGS DUE
TO

Fig. 1. Industrial distribution system. (Imp. in pu; 13.8 kV.)

Sb

= 10 MVA; Vb =

SLGFS

other transformer winding connections and LLFs will then be summarized. The balanced sag will also be discussed for completeness. II. SIMULATED INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM The industrial distribution system under study is shown in Fig. 1. The system is part of an offshore oileld electrical system described and studied in [6]. It contains four different groups of induction motors at different busbars. Each group is , , , and . These represented as a single motor, are supplied from busbars 4, 8, 9, and 5, respectively. The parameters of the motors are given in Table I. The parameters are given in per unit, based on motor rating. Each group is fed through a dedicated transformer, which makes it possible to observe their inuence on the voltage sags. Transformers and cables impedances shown in Fig. 1 are in per unit based on 13.8 kV and 10 MVA. The source voltage is 1.055 pu and its 0.0525 pu. The source impedance has impedance is 0.0066 been chosen to maintain the short-circuit level at the supply busbar (busbar 1) to 15 times the total load in the system. The short-circuit MVA at each motor bus is adjusted to 15 times the motor rating by changing the transformers impedances. This corresponds to the maximum induction motor load one could expect on each busbar. The prefault voltage at the motor terminals is maintained at 1.0 pu by using the transformer tap changers. The zero-sequence impedance of the source was chosen to be equal to the positive-sequence impedance. The zero-sequence impedance of the cables is equal to three times their positive-sequence impedance. The system has been studied for various transformer winding connections. The voltage sags have been analyzed using the transient simulation package ElectroMagnetic Transient Program (EMTP).1 The EMTP employs a fth-order induction motor model and
1 The ATP version of EMTP has been obtained from the European EMTP users group.

Most of the faults on the utility transmission and distribution systems are SLGFs. These faults are the most common cause of voltage sags for industrial customers. The voltage on the faulted phase drops to zero at the fault location, whereas the other two phase voltages remain more or less unchanged. This results in an imbalanced voltage sag between phases. This imbalanced voltage sag is then transferred down to the equipment terminals within the industrial system. The sag experienced by the equipment is different than that observed on the utility network or service entrance, due to the inuence of the load in the industrial distribution system. It has been shown in [4] that, for the ideal case (no load), the sag experienced at the equipment terminals is one of three types. These types are characterized by the following phase voltage magnitudes (these magnitudes assume zero load current): voltage magnitude 0%, 100%, 100%, (type B); voltage magnitude 58%, 58%, 100%, (type C); voltage magnitude 33%, 88%, 88%, (type D). Consider an SLGF (on phase A) on busbar 1 in Fig. 1. The phase-A voltage will drop to zero and phases B and C will normally remain unchanged at the 13.8 kV bus. If there is no induction motor load present in the system, the during-fault voltage magnitudes at each busbar can easily be predicted as a function of the transformer winding connection [4], [5]. The duration of the sag would be the fault-clearing time of the protection system used to clear the fault. Fig. 2 shows the phase voltages at busbar 4, due to an SLGF of 300 ms (18 cycles) on phase A on busbar 10. The fault can be viewed as a typical fault somewhere on the utility distribution system or a fault at the service entrance. There is only an impedance between the point of common coupling (at 13.8 kV) and the motor terminals. The transformer , which has exactly the same winding connection is effect. The faulted phase (phase A) at the load terminal has a sustained nonzero voltage with a small magnitude, whereas the nonfaulted phases experience a small voltage drop. The other load busbar experiences similar phase voltages with different magnitude. The lowest phase voltages (shortly before fault

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Fig. 3. Voltage phasor diagram at the terminals of motor

M 1.

Fig. 4. Voltage phasor diagram at the 13.8-kV busbar.

Fig. 2. Phase voltages at busbar 4 in Fig. 1 due to an SLGF on busbar 10.

PHASE VOLTAGES

AT

TABLE II VARIOUS BUSBARS DUE

TO AN

SLGF

ON

BUSBAR 10

phase-angle calculation of each phasor is based on voltage zero crossing time and indicated in the gures. We now see again a drop in magnitude in phases B and C (the nonfaulted phases) with a small phase-angle jump. This phase-angle jump is higher at the motor terminals (11.5 and 5.4 ) than at the 13.8-kV bus (4.2 and 2.2 ). The faulted phase (phase A) shows a small remaining voltage with a large phase-angle jump (64.0 ). IV. ANALYSIS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS A. Symmetrical Components of Voltage The above phenomena can be explained by analyzing the symmetrical components. From the voltage magnitude and phase angle, we can calculate the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence voltages as follows:

clearing) during the fault at the 13.8-kV busbar and load busbars are given in Table II. The voltage magnitude is in percent of the prefault nominal voltage. The nonzero voltage on phase A and the voltage drop on nonfaulted phases is due to the induction motor load. The prefault and during-fault phasor diagram for the phase voltages at busbar 4 and at 13.8 kV busbar are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. The other load busbars yield similar results and, therefore, they are not shown here. The prefault and during-fault phase voltages are indicated by solid lines and dotted lines, respectively. The voltage magnitude and the phase angle of each phase shortly before fault clearing has been calculated. The magnitude of the phasor is found from the peak value of the voltage sinewave and given in Table II. The

(1) and . where The subscripts 0, 1, and 2 refer to zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence voltages, respectively. The symmetrical components of the voltage for the ideal case and at busbars 1 and 4 (in percent of prefault positive sequence voltage) are given in Table III. In the ideal case, the load current has been neglected. Since the induction motors are connected either delta or ungrounded wye , the zero-sequence currents which ow into the motor are always zero. Therefore, the zerosequence voltage is not inuenced by the induction motor.

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Fig. 5. Sequence voltages at busbar 4 during an SLGF on busbar 10. TABLE III SEQUENCE VOLTAGES DUE TO AN SLGF Seq. Vol. V0 V1 V2 Ideal Case -33.0% 67.0% -33.0%

Fig. 6. Sequence currents to motor

M 1 during an SLGF on busbar 10.

TO AN

ON

BUSBAR 10 Motor Terminal -35.1-1.43i (-35.13%) 58.58-5.5i (58.84%) 20.3+0.24i (-20.30%)

TABLE IV INDUCTION MOTOR PHASE CURRENTS DUE

SLGF

ON

BUSBAR 10

Faulted Busbar -33.74+0.14i (-33.74%) 61.84-1.33i (61.86%) -27.67+0.57i (-27.68%)

In the EMTP model, the induction motor did not draw any zero-sequence current at all. The difference in zero-sequence voltages between the faulted busbar and the motor terminals thus indicates the error made by obtaining the voltage phasor from the EMTP plots. What we see is that the positivesequence voltage shows a small drop, and the negativesequence voltage shows a large drop. This is due to the positive- and negative-sequence currents that ow into the motor during the fault. There is a negative phase-angle shift in the positive-sequence voltage when we move down from the faulted busbar to the motor terminal. The symmetrical components of voltage at busbar 4 due to an SLGF on phase A on busbar 10 have been calculated to at several time instants during the fault (from s). The results in percent of prefault nominal voltage are given in Fig. 5. Observing sequence voltages during the fault shows that negative- and zero-sequence voltages remain constant. The positive-sequence voltage shows a fast drop during the rst few cycles, followed by a slow decay during the remainder of the fault. The positive-sequence voltage at the motor terminals does not immediately drop to 67%, because of the ux remaining in the airgap. As the negative- and zerosequence voltages immediately jump to their sustained value, the voltage in the nonfaulted phases shows a small overshoot at fault initiation (see Fig. 2). The slow decay in positivesequence voltage at the motor terminals is due to the decrease in positive-sequence impedance when the motor slip increases. B. Symmetrical Components of Current The magnitude and phase angle of the current has been calculated in the same way as for the voltage mentioned above. During the fault (SLGF on phase A on busbar 10), the current in phases A and B for all the induction motors increases and signicantly. The phase current in phase C of

TABLE V INDUCTION MOTOR SEQUENCE CURRENTS DUE

TO AN

SLGF

ON

BUSBAR 10

decreases, whereas it increases for and , as can be seen in Table IV. This depends on the motor characteristics, particularly the prefault nominal slip and inertia constant. and have high inertia constant and low nominal slip, where and have low inertia constant and high nominal slip. and are relatively high-voltage motors in comparison and . with By replacing the phase voltages in (1) with the phase currents, the symmetrical components of the current can be calculated from the current magnitude and phase angle. The zero-sequence current is zero, and the positive- and negativesequence currents of each motor shortly before fault clearance are presented in percent of prefault current in Table V. during the fault Fig. 6 shows the sequence currents of to s). Due to the dc offset, the (from (one cycle current magnitude and phase angle at after the fault initiation) cannot be calculated accurately from the EMTP plots. The positive-sequence current of the motor during the fault increases, whereas the negative-sequence current remains constant. C. Symmetrical Components of Impedance The positive- and negative-sequence impedance of the induction motors have been calculated by dividing the voltage by current. The positive- and negative-sequence impedances

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voltage magnitude in the nonfaulted phases, either at the 13.8-kV service entry or at the motor terminals, is due to the phase-angle jump in the positive- and negative-sequence voltage during the fault.

V. INFLUENCE OF TRANSFORMER WINDING CONNECTION ON SLGFS Different transformer winding connections between the fault location and load terminal will cause different sags at the load terminal due to imbalanced faults. Transformers with winding will result in connections of the same sag at the load terminal. This consists of a large voltage drop on two phases and a relatively small drop on the third phase (50% and 20%, respectively). In the ideal case, this is called a type-C sag [4]. The magnitude of the phase voltages for the ideal case, at the faulted busbar and at the motor terminal, is given in Table VII for this type of sag. The values given in this table are the lowest voltage magnitude (shortly before fault clearing) and are in percent of the prefault voltage. The symmetrical components of voltages for this type of sag are exactly the same as the symmetrical components of voltages given in Table III, except the zero-sequence voltage at the motor terminal is zero, due to the absence of zero-sequence current. In this type of sag, the only difference is with the transformer winding connection. For example, with the transformer winding connection, phase voltages drop to 42%, 34%, and 71%. The difference between the transformer winding connections and the transformer winding connection is due to the difference in zero-sequence impedance at the fault position. The grounded star point at the 13.8-kV side provides an additional path for the zero-sequence current. Therefore, the voltages in the nonfaulted phases no longer remain constant. This difference is not due to the induction motor only. Transformers with winding connections of and will also result in the same sag at the load terminal. This consists of a large voltage drop on one phase and a relatively small drop on the other two phases (60% and 30%, respectively). In the ideal case, this is called a type-D sag [4]. The magnitude of the phase voltages for the ideal case, at the faulted busbar and at the motor terminal, is given in Table VIII. The symmetrical component of voltages for this type of sag is also the same as the symmetrical components of voltages given in Table III, except the zero-sequence voltage at the motor terminal is zero, due to the absence of zero-sequence current. The zero-sequence voltage is not transferred to the mo-connected transformer. tor terminals, except for the The positive-sequence again shows a slow decay after an initial fast drop. The negative-sequence drops signicantly and remains constant during the fault. Comparing the above results shows that transformer winding connections have no inuence on the induction motor behavior. The magnitude of the sequence voltages are the same, only the negative-sequence voltage angle was shifted. This could be expected, as induction motor behavior is determined by sequence voltages during the imbalanced sags. Imbalanced sags, therefore, should be

Fig. 7. Sequence impedances of motor

M 1 during an SLGF on busbar 10.

TO AN

TABLE VI INDUCTION MOTOR SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES DUE

SLGF

ON

BUSBAR 10

TABLE VII PHASE VOLTAGES DUE TO AN SLGF WITH TRANSFORMER WINDING CONNECTIONS =Yn ; Yn = ; = Y ; Y =

11

of each motor shortly before fault clearing are given in Table VI. The impedances are in percent of the prefault positivesequence impedance. during the Fig. 7 shows the sequence impedance of to s). For a small slip, fault (from the negative-sequence impedance does not change, it remains almost constant. However, the positive-sequence impedance decreases when the motor slip increases during the fault. There are two effects which make the voltages at the equipment terminals different from those at the service entry. The induction motor slows down and requires a higher positivesequence current during the fault. Note that this holds for all induction motors connected to the system. There will thus be a positive-sequence voltage drop at the 13.8-kV bus. This is in addition to the positive-sequence voltage drop because of the SLGF (from 100% to 67%). The second effect is that the negative-sequence voltage due to the fault leads to a high negative-sequence current ow into the motor. The negative-sequence impedance can be as low as 10%20% of the normal positive-sequence impedance. The induction motor thus creates a low-impedance path for the negativesequence voltage due to the fault. It is this shorting of the negative sequence which causes a sustained nonzero voltage in the faulted phase. The reduction in voltage in the nonfaulted phases is a combination of both effects. The difference in

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TABLE VIII PHASE VOLTAGES DUE TO AN SLGF WITH TRANSFORMER WINDING CONNECTIONS Yn = Y; Y = Yn ; = ; Y = Y

11

TABLE X SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT OF M DUE TO AN LLF ON THE PRIMARY SIDE OF THE TRANSFORMER

TABLE IX PHASE VOLTAGES DUE TO AN LLF ON THE PRIMARY SIDE OF THE TRANSFORMER

characterized as positive- and negative-sequence voltages for induction motor load. VI. IMBALANCED SAGS
DUE TO

Fig. 8. Voltage sag in phase A at busbar 4, due to a three-phase fault on busbar 10.

LLFS This shows rather large voltage drop due to the increased load currents during the sag. The inuence of the induction motor on sags caused by LLFs is principally the same as those due to SLGFs. Unlike the SLGF, the negative-sequence voltage shows a small voltage drop and the positive-sequence voltage shows a large drop for the LLF. However, during the LLF, the induction motor slows down more and draws higher currents from the supply after the fault has been cleared. This consequently results in somewhat more severe post-fault sags than after an SLGF. For any imbalanced fault within the industrial plant, the inuence of the induction motor on the voltage sag classication and characterization will be the same. VII. BALANCED VOLTAGE SAG Balanced voltage sags are caused by three-phase faults anywhere in the system. Balanced sags do not change when transferred through a transformer. Fig. 8 shows the voltage sag on phase A at busbar 4 due to a three-phase fault of 120-ms duration on busbar 10. Since it is a balanced fault, voltages in three phases are, therefore, the same, and phases B and C are not shown here. The voltage sag consists of a severe during-fault sag (directly due to the fault) and a less severe, but with longer duration, post-fault sag (due to the induction motor reacceleration). The during-fault sag decays to zero in a few cycles. Unlike its response to SLGFs, the induction motor does not cause a sustained voltage contribution for the three-phase faults. An induction motor generally slows down, with energy being returned to the supply under generator action, during a fault. It simply operates as a generator for a short period and causes an increase in sag magnitude. However, its reacceleration after fault clearance results in an extended post-fault

LLFs on the primary side of the transformer cause similar types of sag as SLGFs, but with lower voltage magnitude at the load terminal. With all kinds of transformer winding connections, an LLF results in two types of voltage sag at the load terminal. The resulting phase voltages at busbar 4 for various transformer winding connections due to an LLF on busbar 10 (on the primary side of the transformer) are shown in Table IX. The fault is placed between lines B and C. The other load terminal voltages are very similar to these values, and they are not shown here. The transformer winding connections of and result in larger voltage sags at the customer locations. One of the phase voltages drops almost to zero, while the other two phase voltages drop to around 60% of prefault voltage. For the other transformer winding connections, there is a signicant voltage drop on the faulted phases and a relatively small drop on the nonfaulted phase. Again, the induction motor behavior is independent of phase voltages; it is determined by sequence voltages only. For an LLF, the zero-sequence current and voltage are equal to zero. The induction motor decelerates more during the fault, as the drop in positive-sequence voltage is higher. Thus, the induction motor positive-sequence impedance decreases signicantly. The symmetrical components of induction motor current, impedance, and voltage at the motor terminal have been calculated in the same way as in Section IV. The symmetrical components are the same for all transformer winding connections with the LLF on the primary side of transformer. ) are Typical results for the motor connected at busbar 4 ( given in Table X. The negative-sequence impedance is almost the same as that during an SLGF, but there is a large decrease in positive-sequence impedance. In the ideal case, with no load connected to the system, both the positive- and negativesequence voltages are equal to 50% of the nominal voltage.

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voltage sag. In terms of the voltage sags characterization, the magnitude and duration of the post-fault sag have to be taken into account. VIII. CONCLUSION It has been shown previously that induction motors can have a signicant inuence on the post-fault sags due to threephase faults. In this paper, it has been shown that induction motors can also have a signicant inuence on the duringfault sag for sags caused by SLGFs and LLFs. The effect of induction motors is that the previous classication of sags [4] is no longer valid. It has also been shown that sags due to SLGFs are still more or less rectangular. During the imbalanced faults, the induction motor draws positive- and negative-sequence current; there is no zero sequence current component. Therefore, not all phases are inuenced in the same way. Although the classication into four types of sags can be very useful for power electronic loads like adjustable-speed drives, a classication using positive- and negative-sequence voltages is more useful for induction motor loads. Transformer connections do not inuence the magnitude of the sequence voltages and, thus, do not need to be considered when studying induction motor behavior. Translating voltages and currents into symmetrical components enables a fast assessment of the load inuence on the sag. It has been shown that the negative-sequence voltage drops to a low value immediately and remains at a low value during the imbalanced sag. This is because the negativesequence impedance is almost independent of the motor slip. The positive-sequence impedance is highly slip dependent, so when the slip increases during the sag, the positivesequence impedance decreases and, consequently, the drop in the positive-sequence voltage increases. During LLFs, the motor slows down faster, leading to a larger drop in positivesequence voltage. REFERENCES
[1] G. Yal inkaya and M. H. J. Bollen, Stochastic assessment of voltage c sags for systems with large induction motor loads, presented at the Universities Power Engineering Conf., Galway, Ireland, Sept. 1994. [2] M. H. J. Bollen, The inuence of motor re-acceleration on voltage sags, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 31, pp. 667674, July/Aug. 1995. [3] M. H. J. Bollen, P. Wang, and N. Jenkins, Analysis and consequences of the phase jump associated with a voltage sag, in Proc. 12th Power System Computation Conf., Dresden, Germany, Aug. 1923, 1996, vol. I, pp. 316322. [4] M. H. J. Bollen, Characterization of voltage sags experienced by threephase adjustable-speed drives, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 12, pp. 16661671, Oct. 1997.

[5] M. F. McGranaghan, D. R. Mueller, and M. J. Samotyj, Voltage sags in industrial systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 29, pp. 397403, Mar./Apr. 1993. [6] D. C. Franklin and A. Morelato, Improving dynamic aggregation of induction motor models, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 9, pp. 19351941, Nov. 1994. [7] G. Yal inkaya and M. H. J. Bollen, Stochastic assessment of frequency, c magnitude and duration of nonrectangular voltage sags in a large industrial distribution system, in Proc. 12th Power System Computation Conf., Dresden, Germany, Aug. 1923, 1996, vol. II, pp. 10181024.

Gulali Yal inkaya (S94M98) received the c B.Sc.(Hons.) degree from Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey, in 1990 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, U.K., in 1993 and 1997, respectively. His primary research interest is power quality, with emphasis on the inuence of dynamic loads on voltage sags, and power systems. Dr. Yal inkaya is an associate member of the c Institution of Electrical Engineers (U.K.) and the IEEE Industry Applications Society Power Systems Reliability Subcommittee.

Math H. J. Bollen (M93SM96) received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, in 1985 and 1989, respectively. He remained with Eindhoven University of Technology for three additional years before joining the Manchester Centre for Electrical Energy, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, U.K. Since September 1996, he has been with the Department of Electric Power Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. His research interests include transmission line protection, power system reliability, and various aspects of power quality. Dr. Bollen is Co-Chairman of the IEEE Industry Applications Society Power System Reliability Subcommittee.

Peter A. Crossley (M96) received the B.Sc. degree from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, U.K., in 1977 and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U. K., in 1983. He is currently a Senior Lecturer in Electrical Engineering at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology. During the period 19771990, he was with GEC ALSTHOM Protection and Control, where he was involved in the design and application of digital protection relays. Dr. Crossley is a member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (U.K.).