Prescriptive terminology work "constitutes an agreement by users to adopt a term for common and repeated use in given circumstances"

; Descriptive terminology work "observes and analyses the emergence of terms" = Documentation Lexicology starts from the word (form) to the meaning => word oriented = semasiological Terminology starts from the concept (meaning) to the word (i.e. term) => concept oriented = onomasiological + schema dp conspect + Jakobson s functions of language dp conspect + nomenclature&terminology dp conspect Dictionaries are produced using a purely descriptive process. Terminology glossaries are normally produced using two phases. The first phase employs a descriptive process in which all terms which describe the same concept are grouped together. The second phase is prescriptive, with a preferred term being selected from those identified as synonyms, i.e. as designating the same concept. The designation (in terminology) acts as a synthesis of the definition. A designation is a representation of a concept by linguistic or non-linguistic means. For the purposes of this standard, designations are categorized as: terms designating general concepts; appellations designating individual concepts; symbols designating both individual and general concepts. It should be noted that not all symbols are designations. The three dimentions of a term (Sager, 1990) Cognitive (the domain/field) Linguistic (the designation) Communicative/pragmatic

Principles for term formation: Transparency A term is considered transparent when the concept it designates can be nferred, at least partially, without a definition. In other words, its meaning is visible in its morphology. To make a term transparent, a key characteristic, usually a delimiting characteristic, is used in the creation of the term itself. It is advisable that only essential or delimiting characteristics not likely to change quickly as a result of technological evolution be used. ex. chalkboard vs blackboard Consistency The terminology of any subject field should not be an arbitrary and random collection of terms, but rather a coherent terminological system corresponding to the concept system. Existing terms and new terms must integrate into and be consistent with the concept system. ex. synthetic fabrics: nylon, orlon, rayon, dacron etc. Appropriateness Proposed terms should adhere to familiar, established patterns of meaning within a language community. Term formations that cause confusion shall be avoided. ex. genetic engineering vs. genetic manipulation Linguistic economy A term shall be as concise as possible. Undue length is a serious shortcoming. It violates the principle of linguistic economy and it frequently leads to ellipsis (omission). ex. term bank vs. terminological databank Derivability Productive term formations that allow derivatives (according to whatever conventions prevail in an individual language), should be favoured. ex. herb vs. medicinal plant Creating new forms through: Derivation (phosphorous, detoxification) Compounds => complex terms Hyphen high-definition television Fusion/block downsizing, outflow No join member country Blends Biological + electronic = bionic Abbreviations: full form Court of Justice of the European Communities, abbreviation Court Clippings (influenza = flu) Initialisms (PC = personal computer) Acronyms (scuba = self contained underwater breathing apparatus) Existing forms: Conversion (Google => to google) Terminologization (wave => electromagnetic wave) Transdisciplinary borrowing: reaction => chemistry, physics, physiology Semantic transfer within a special language

 Simile: L-shaped room, network Synecdoche (very productive): screen: concrete the part of a computer on which information is displayed and abstract the information displayed on this computer part Metaphor: the invisible hand of the market Loans: Direct borrowing = full adoption of terms from contemporary languages (soft, hard in Romanian < English, chef, reservoir in English < French) Loan translation: The morphological elements of a term are translated literally in order to form a new term in the target language (Eng. Online > French en ligne) Definition : A dictionary-style statement that describes the concept designated by a term. Its role: states the essential and delimiting characteristics of a concept. => helps establish the textual match between languages Definition => form: a statement => connects two entities: The concept The term ( = the designation of the concept) object = features concept = characteristics Not all semantic features identifying a concept in selected documents are needed in order to create a definition for that concept. Essential features are intrinsic to that concept, in the sense that they distinguish it from another and their absence makes it indistinguishable from another. The necessary and sufficient characteristics of a concept, which enable us to distinguish it from all other concepts, are referred to as essential." (DUBUC/KENNEDY 1997:39) Example of definition by extension: expenses include costs, charges and necessary outlays of every description; notice includes a demand, consent or waiver. (in legal texts - contracts) Example of definition by intension: business day means a day on which banks and foreign exchange markets are open for business in London and New York. Types of definitions: Lexicographic vs. encyclopedic ~ terminographic Linguistic vs. ontological vs. terminological (Cabre, 1999:104) Definition by extension vs. definition by intension

 Other types: by synonymy, by exemplification, ostensive, functional, by paraphrase, stipulative etc. Functions of the definition: a. helps fixating a concept (typically during first stages of concept term assignment) b. explains the concept c. relates concepts (either for differentiation or similarity) + de cautat worst practices in definitions Types of hierarchical relations among concepts Generic-specific hierarchies (In generic-specific relationships, the characteristics of superordinate concepts (broader concepts) are inherited by subordinate concepts (narrower concepts). Partitive hierarchies (part-whole) (In a partitive relationship, there is no inheritance of characteristics between the whole and its parts. hierarchical relationships generic-specific (the characteristics of superordinate / reproduced by subordinate / narrower concepts). superordinate (the highest term = top term) subordinate coordinate part-whole ~ partitive ~ meronymic (no reproduction of between the whole and its parts) relation. broader concepts

characteristics

Non-hierarchical relations: associative relationships ~ pragmatic ~ thematic - concepts are linked by spatial or temporal proximity and may share non-essential features. Examples: producer-product: bake - bread process product: weaving - cloth action-result: presidential election - president elect action-tool: hammering - hammer container-contents: bottle - fruit juice object form: book - paperback cause-effect: humidity - mould opposites: winner - loser Non-hierarchical relations: sequential relationships (concepts occur one after another) Examples: temporal (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday etc.) spatial (keys on the piano: C, D, E etc.)

Non-Hierarchical Relationships (Associative Networks) In associative relationships, concepts are linked by spatial or temporal proximity and may share non-essential features. Such relationships include the following types: producer-product: bake - bread action-result: presidential election - president elect action-tool: hammering - hammer container-contents: bottle - fruit juice cause-effect: humidity - mould opposites: winner - loser DEFINITION (1): The terminology record is a tool for synthesizing and organizing data. The main criteria for preparing a record are the validity, conciseness, timeliness, and complementarity of the data. DEFINITION (2): The terminology record is a medium for recording, in a structured set of fields, the terminological data for a specialized concept. (The Pavel tutorial) Standard terminological records usually contain the following information (ap. M.T. Cabre, 1999:124): The identification of the term Entry term Source of term Subject area(s) Grammatical category (POS) Definition Source of definition Context(s) Source of context(s) Cross reference to synonymous terms Concept of the cross reference Other type of cross reference Author of record Date of record Notes/observation Equivalents in other languages (indicating the language) Source of each equivalent The end-result of the terminologists activity: the terminological record Stages in the terminologists activity: preparation documentation (on the field: research of sources, data collection, primary analysis and evaluation) concept (=>term) analysis creation of the terminology record (organizing the information) joining records in an organized collection (= data / term base) validation, publishing of glossaries / lexikons dissemination

Documentation can be categorized as follows: encyclopedias monographs and technical and academic manuals proceedings of congresses and symposia specialized and popularized periodicals brochures and publicity flyers dictionaries, vocabularies, and documentary, terminology, and linguistic databases Internet sites of the best content providers in the area of specialization Data collection: identify sources Oral Written As a general rule, documents to be used in terminology research are selected based on the following criteria: relevance adequacy to purpose organization reputation of the author, the series or the editor in the targeted milieu presence of glossaries and indexes of concepts and official titles appearing in the document timeliness of the contents completeness of the contents relative to the evolution of specialized knowledge in the subject field in question linguistic quality of the documentation (grammar, vocabulary, style of an originallanguage text or of a translation). Words of the lexikon: multiple meaning Words polysemous Terms homonymous (homonyms entries / terms in different fields)

= separate

Synonymy: designates the same concept that can be used interchangeably in all contexts. True synonyms to avoid in terminologies create ambiguities, confusion (notebook vs. laptop until new characteristics distinguish between them that was two years ago now they ARE different!) Quasi-synonyms / near-synonyms - designate the same concept; not interchangeable => differences in usage depending on communication situations (different usage labels). Pseudo-synonyms / false synonyms - different, although often closely related, concepts. Synonymy: at different levels Between a designation and its definition (e.g. alternating current - electric current that reverses direction in a circuit at regular intervals)

 Between the designation and its illustration Between equivalent terms in different languages (e.g. Eng. design, Fr. dessin) Between designations of different functional languages (e.g. correctional centre, penitentiary, prison, jail) Between alternative designations in the same historical language (geographical /other differences e.g. windshield (Br E) / windscreen (Am E) Term extraction (~term excerption/ scanning for terms) the process of extracting terminological data by searching through a corpus (the collection of documentation you have selected). It involves: - identifying concepts and their designations - noting any relevant information about a concept such as definitions, contexts, and usage labels. +++ definitia dp conspect Methods: - manual highlighting (also marking the beginning and the end of each term's context) so the data can subsequently be transcribed; (for small hard-copy texts) - computerized term extraction (for texts in electronic format) Terminological analysis is central to the subject-field research process. It involves: identifying the terms specific to the field of study and analyzing the contexts in which they appear. Once a term has been identified, the context in which it is found must be analyzed to determine the concept it represents and establish whether it belongs to the research subject. This step is also useful in detecting synonyms and variants, and in selecting the context to be entered on the terminology record. Steps: Term extraction => Establishing a base list * several lists from different sources merged and compared; *manual refinement of findings; Term and concept analysis (creation of a tree-diagram) Concepts depict or correspond to a set of objects based on a defined set of characteristics represented or expressed in language by designations or by definitions organized into concept systems Designations represented as terms, names (appellations) or symbols designate or represent a concept attributed to a concept by consensus within a special language community

 Characteristics used for: Analyzing concepts Modelling concept systems Formulating definitions Forming designations. Essential characteristics Comprise the intension of the concept Delimiting characteristics Characteristic that distinguishes the concept from related concepts Simple term: one word / unit Ex. [informatic] rom. calculator, en. computer, fr. ordinateur, germ. Computer [fizic] rom. spectrofotometru, en. spectrophotometer, fr. spectrophotomtre, germ. Spektrophotometer Complex term: two or more units Ex. [ind. petrolier] rom. iu cu valv, en. casing-float shoe, Simple terms can be considered generic elements (also sintagme cu determinant zero); ex. in Romanian: cheie, simple term as a technical term takes the form of the polysemous word in general language cheie; it is a generic term that can subdivided into hyponyms: =terms: cheie articulat, cheie cu opritor, Complex and compound terms are best adapted to the denominational needs of a terminology. Free combinations (occur accidentally in discourse) not lexicalized Collocations (terminological phrases, ap. Cabre, 1999:91) that occur frequently in the discourse of a special subject field Examples: Computer science: press a key, insufficient memory, reboot the computer Administrative law: propose an amendment, fill out a form, adjourn a session