Mediating Discrimination: Resisting Oppression among African-American Muslim Women Author(s): Michelle D.

Byng Reviewed work(s): Source: Social Problems, Vol. 45, No. 4 (Nov., 1998), pp. 473-487 Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society for the Study of Social Problems Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3097208 . Accessed: 06/03/2013 07:49
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Mediating Discrimination: Resisting Oppression Among African-American Muslim Women*

MICHELLE D. BYNG, Temple University
data interviews twenty with Muslimwomen, analysis this conqualitative from African-American Using trasts understanding experiencing the discrimination of gainedfrom Feaginand Sikes'Living with Racism Patricia Hill Collins'Black FeministThought (1991). I demonstrate Collins' (1994) withthat gainedfrom and stancethrough these theory a matrix domination theboth/and of of conceptual respondents' examining with I arguethatthese and discrimination. Furthermore, experiences theintersectionrace, of gender, religious or women able tomediate, resist oppression discrimination are the and the of, through self-definition determinavision themselves others. and in the Mustion, provided a humanist by of membership the Finally, respondents' limcommunity witha safesocialspacetotransform lifeand their them their consciousness. provides Through cultural socialstructural and these a this are constructreality that means, groupofrespondents able tosocially allowsthem mediate discrimination experience. to the they

Much of our understanding how blacks and othernon-whitesexperiencediscriminaof tion is based on the apparentpainfulnessthat lies at the heart of these encounters (Allport victimizes denying 1979; Cose 1993; Feagin 1991; Feagin and Sikes 1994). Discrimination by its intended targetaccess to resourcesand labeling him or her as an outsider-one who is markedby an essentialist flaw.Yet,is it possibleforthose who are targets discrimination of to construct social reality a where theyare activeagentsin interpreting meaningof discrimithe nation in theirlives (Guba and Lincoln 1994; Nagel 1994; Schwandt 1994; Stanfield1994)? Can African Americansdevelop in responseto the oppressionof discrimination, theyhave as in reference otherformsof oppression,a cultureof resistance(Blauner 1972; Carmichael to and Hamilton1967; Collins 1991; Cruse 1967; DuBois 1989; Hodge 1990)? Racial discrimination, most studies,is viewed as such a pervasiveexperienceforAfriin can Americansthatit shroudsthe complexity discrimination its potentialto arise from of and other sources of difference. researchershave not always taken account of the Additionally, in abilityof blacks to resistthe oppressionof discrimination ways that are empowering.The researchreported here furthers understanding how blacksexperiencediscrimination our of by pushing the analysis beyond race. Also, by examining blacks capacities for self-definition, and to and determination, valuation,it exposes theirability mediatediscrimination to develop a cultureof resistance. use Collins' (1991) black feminist I the thoughtto modify understanddiscrimination ing ofblacks' experienceswitheveryday providedby Feagin and Sikes (1994).

Understanding Discriminatory Experiences

One key approachin providing microanalysisofeveryday a discriminatory experiencesis the workby Feagin and Sikes (1994). They presenttheoretical about encounter propositions
* I would like to thankAnnetteLareau, RobertKidder,SherriGrasmuck, and Howard Winantfortheircomments on earlierversionsof this manuscript.A Temple University Faculty Summer Research Fellowship supportedmy work on it. The data forthis manuscriptwere collected as a part of a national researchprojectfunded by the Lilly Endowment, Inc., "Islam in the African-American C. Experience" (principal investigators, Eric Lincoln and Lawrence H. of Mamiya). Any errorsare, of course, the responsibility the author. An earlier version was presentedat the annual meetingof the Eastern Sociological Society,Philadelphia,PA, March 19-22, 1998. Directcorrespondenceto Michelle D. Hall, Philadelphia,Pennsylvania,19122. E-mail: mbyng@vm.temple.edu Byng,Departmentof Sociology,713 Gladfelter

SOCIALPROBLEMS,Vol.45, No. 4, November 1998

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blacks use to and thatmiddle-class ing discrimination, theyoutline personalcoping strategies counterthe discriminatory concernhere is Feagin and Sikes' actions of whites.' Of particular as theoretical propositionabout the cumulativequality of discrimination it is experiencedin everysectorof life(e.g., at work,at school, when goinginto any public place) and the coping Americanswho are blacks use to manage discrimination. middle-classAfrican For strategies into historically white spaces..." (21), Feagin and Sikes argue thatthe cumu"... venturing lativeimpactofdiscrimination means thattheirlivesare "regularly ..." by it;thatdisdisrupted
crimination creates ". . . a series of life crises .. .", similar to ". .. the death of a loved one . . .", that are ". . . unforgettable" (16). They argue that ". . . middle-class black Americans have

and protective defenses... because of developed broaderpersonalphilosophies, copingstyles, the harshness,intensity, prevalenceof modernracism"(293). The conclusionis thatdisand crimination unyieldingand blacks can only attemptto cope with and defendthemselves is againstit. into "whitespaces" at work,but not in Americanswho are venturing Yet,what ofAfrican as their social life? Is theirrealityas disruptedby discrimination Feagin and Sikes' responboundaries on a part of theirsocial life, Americansput voluntary dents? Mightsome African freefrom a Might experiencesofdiscrimination? thereby creating social space thatis relatively means where mediation theirown choices, be able to mediate discrimination, they,through in having the agency to respondto discrimination ways thatresistitspower and oppression? Americanswho are not middle class but are, instead,working what of African Additionally, the same lenses as theirmiddle-class class? Do theysee discrimination counterparts? through discrimination about the impactof persistent appears to be Feagin and Sikes' proposition and discriminatory universalbecause of the connectionbetween racial identity experiences. withwhitesand those who are Americanswhose social lives do not intersect As such, African as not middle class are expected to respondto experiencesof discrimination the respondents ofFeagin and Sikes did. However,it is probablethatFeagin and Sikes' focuson the black middle class is too narrow to account forall segmentsof the black community.Othergroups of it AfricanAmericansmightmediate discrimination, therebypreventing frombecoming ".. and Sikes 1994:23). an energy-consuming, life-consuming experience"(Feagin is This is not to say thatdiscrimination not an objectiverealityin the United States.The Muslim women, are a unique segmentof the in respondents thisresearch,African-American black population. It can be reasonablyassumed, given theirrace, gender,and religion,that However,the purpose here is to examine how they theyhave been victimsof discrimination. constructtheir own "definitionsof reality" and how they "mediate" discrimination by its thatlimits power and oppression. a and constructing reality defining She an PatriciaHill Collins (1991) offers alternative theoryforanalyzingdiscrimination. argues that peoples' identitiesand experiencesare shaped by a both/and,as opposed to an Thus, discriminatory either/or, experiencescan be shaped by multipleaxes of oppresreality. sion or a "matrixof domination."In the researchI presenthere,I findthatforAfrican-Amertheir of ican Muslim women it is the intersection race, gender,and religionthat structures In theirpositionalong various axes (i.e., race, encounterswith discrimination. Collins' terms, systemof oppressionwithinthe largermatrixof gender,religion)composes an interlocking domination. Since the both/andconceptual stance is not hierarchicalor dichotomous,one over another.Additionally, axis of oppressionis not givenprimacy oppressionproducesa dialectic.It is characterized both dominationand resistance.Resistingoppressionempowers by That is, they and the oppressed through self-definition, self-determination, self-valuation.
is 1. Feagin and Sikes' (1994:12-18, 292-302) theoretical propositionsare: 1) discrimination a lived experience; Ameriaffects behavior and perceptionsof African the is 2) discrimination cumulativein its impact; 3) discrimination racism.They argue that the perare cans; and 4) micro experiencesof discrimination the elementsof institutionalized are: 1) defensiveness;2) over-achieving;3) developing a blacks use to counter discrimination sonal coping strategies 4) healthyself-concept; prayer;and 5) humor and laughter.

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African-American MuslimWomenand Discrimination maintainthe abilityto defineforthemselvesthe meaning of theirlived experiences.Further, resistancedevelops fromwithin safe social spaces and allows the oppressed to maintain a humanistvision. Collins (1991:237) argues: Blackfeminist on between Blackwomen's and emphasis theongoing thought's interplay oppression Blackwomen's activism of the as to Such presents matrix domination responsive humanagency. viewstheworld a dynamic as the to or in thought placewhere goalis notmerely survive to fit orto it a we and The of cope;rather becomes placewhere feelownership accountability. existence Afrocentric feminist that is and to how choice, power act,no matter bleak thought suggests there always thesituation appeartobe. may selfThus, human agency is central to mediation; self-definition, ownership,accountability, and mean thateven in the face of painfuldiscrimination determination, self-valuation people maintaintheirhumanityand recognizethe humanityof others.People can decide what an experiencemeans forthem. Moreover, followingCollins, if a person has more than one characteristic that makes for thema target discrimination thenhe or she will be uncertainas to which one has triggered the action and may not see discrimination motivated race only. Iffacedwithdiscriminaas by tion people will,in some cases, definethose experiencesin a way thatallows themto mediate discrimination. a They will sociallyconstruct realitythatallows them to resistthe oppression of discrimination. Muslim women to mediThus, my analysis focuses on the abilityof African-American ate the oppression of discriminatory First,the data demonstratethe intersecexperiences. tion of race, gender,and religiousdiscrimination (the matrixof domination) that is experienced by my respondents. These women are able to resist the oppression of discrimination maintaininga humanist vision that views discrimination triggered as by by difference.Even though these women experience classic cases of discrimination,they maintain the ability for self-definition, determination,and valuation. They define the importance of the experiences for themselves and to their lives, and therebyare able to mediate discrimination. Here again, theymaintaina humanistvision even though they distance themselves fromdiscriminatory experiences. Finally, I show that these women use theirmembershipin the Muslim communityas a self-defining and safe social space. Their beliefin God, and association with otherMuslims gives them a social space thattransfaith, formstheirlifeand theirconsciousness. Collins (1991:144) argues thatsafe social spaces are essentialforresisting oppression.

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Methods
This study is based on twenty in-depth interviewswith African-American Muslim women who reside in a large northeastern in city.I conductedthe interviews the summerof 1996. Each interviewlasted approximatelytwo hours and was tape recorded. All of the were interviewed theirhomes,except one who was interviewed her daughin in respondents ter'shome. The interviewschedule included open ended items about experiencesof discrimination based on race and religion.2 The respondentswere asked if they thoughtAfrican Americans in generallyexperiencediscrimination the United Statesand iftheythoughtMuslims generin ally experiencediscrimination thiscountry. They were also asked separatequestions about
2. These questions were included in a section of the social, political,and economic issues facingAfrican Americans. Otherquestions focusedon the religiousbackgroundof the respondents, and the roles of marriageand the family, women in Islam.

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whether they had experienced discrimination because they were AfricanAmerican and because theywere Muslim.3Iftheysaid yes,theywere then asked to tell me about it.4 In The respondents were membersofthe Sunni or OrthodoxMuslim community.5 accord with Islamic prescriptions, of the women always wore the veils associated with Muslim all women when in public places.6 Three of the women were raised Muslim while the others Twelve to chose to practiceIslam as adults. Their ages ranged fromtwenty-two forty-nine. were married,five were divorced,and three were single. While three had master's degrees and four had bachelor's degrees,four listed theirlevel of educational attainmentas a high school diploma,and nine said thattheyhad two yearsof college or an associate degree. Six of the women had occupations that requireda college degree, eight had occupations where a Those who were self-employed fouryear degree was not needed, and six were self-employed. small businessesthatservicedthe Muslim community.7 operatedextremely lived in a home thatappeared to be solidlyin the mid-range Only one of the respondents enclosed stone house, with a well furnished of the middle class. It was a large, three story, thathad at one timebeen excluoffof the livingroom,in a middle-class neighborhood porch that indicatedextremepoverty:the neighborhoods sivelywhite. Two lived in surroundings and were deteriorating theirhouses were in need of structural repair.All ofthe otherslived in homes thatappeared to be workingclass or lower-middleclass. Five of these women lived in apartments:two with theiradolescent sons; two with roommates (both were graduate stuThe other12 women livedin two story dents); and one withher husband and youngchildren. The homes were modto row or duplex homes in working lower-middle-class neighborhoods. and theyappeared to be well none of the everydayappliances were missing, estlyfurnished, in kept.None of thisgroup could be describedas livingin poverty thattheirbasic needs were status.Five met. However,theyhad none of the extraamenitiesassociated withmiddle-class thatwere raciallymixed and the other 15 lived in lived in neighborhoods of the respondents black areas of the city. predominantly

Results Vision the TheMultidimensional Maintaining Humanist Target:

much of what these women say In recountingtheir experiences with discrimination, sounds like the experiencesrecountedin otherresearch(Cose 1993; Feagin 1991; Feagin and
as 3. The questions used the term"discrimination," opposed to racismor prejudice,because I wanted to focuson experiences or behaviors of exclusion based on race and religion.Although asking whether AfricanAmericans and of for in Muslims generallyexperiencediscrimination the UnitedStateshas implications the institutionalized structuring racial inequality (i.e., racism),my concern was whetherthisphenomenon was a lived experience formy respondents. This is also the reason why the influencedby behaviorsofexclusion (i.e., discrimination)? Were theirsocial interactions respondentswere not asked whethertheythoughtnon-blacksor non-Muslimshad negativeattitudestoward blacks or related. Like most non-social scientists, are Muslims. Of course, racism,prejudice, and discrimination, intricately my the respondentsinterchanged terms. even when theywere 4. Since there is some likelihoodthat respondents may have spoken about discrimination about discrimination. not asked about it,all of the questionnaireitemswere coded forstatements FollowingMiles and Huberman's (1994) method foranalyzingqualitativedata, I looked foroverarchingthemes in the responsesand conin and divergent data matricesthatallowed me to see convergent structed patterns them. 5. The Sunni Muslim communityis definedby its adherence to the laws establishedby the Holy Qu'ran and the trafor prescriptions livingthatwere definedby the ProphetMuhammed. Islam is the thirdbranchof the monotheistic withthe Nation of Islam, sometimescalled the Black These women are not affiliated ditionof Judaismand Christianity. Muslims. 6. That is, theywore non-revealingclothingand covered theirhair when in public. Only one of the women wore a veil thatcovered her face. business featurMuslim women, a card and stationary 7. They included a clothingapparel business thattargeted ing Islamic designs,and classes on Islam.

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African-American MuslimWomen and Discrimination Sikes 1994). They were in some public place and noted a blatantdifference how theywere in treatedin comparisonto othersin the same situation.However, they give a more complex account than is usually encounteredin the literature. is not simplythattheywould prefer, It as Feagin and Sikes suggest,that discriminatory actions not be based on race; instead, in accord with Collinstheyrecognizethattheyhave multiplecharacteristics can trigger that disactions. criminatory One respondent, who has her own business sellingclothingto Muslim women, recalled an experienceshe had on a buyingtripto New York City: I Just I District. Koreans Now recentlywentto NewYork. was in theGarment managebusinesses there. havetoring doorbellandthey'll You the buzzyouin orcometo thedoorandopenit.So this Caucasian womanbuzzedand thegentleman cametothedoorandopeneditfor to comeon in. her So I wanted stepinbehind andhe says"No,no,no. Weain'tgotnothing to her here.Thisis wholeAnd and me. sale,notretail." I couldhavepassedout,youknow, tookhimwith She recognizedthatshe was not being treatedlike the otherpatron,so she began to organize her response: I stopped I collected and and a Let I myself I said"Wait minute. me tellyousomething.am a businessperson. didn'tcomehereforretail. I You lookedat me and you saw someonecovered up, someone blackand youjustautomatically assumed that was whatever, itwasn'tworth I but while for tocomethrough me door." your She then explained to her discriminator was why she knew her interpretation correct: So themanager came out becausehe heardhimyelling. the same timeI was goingintomy At to to I ... cards, lethimknow. meanI was so angry youjust handbag givehimone ofmybusiness don'tknow. Afterhandedhimmybusiness I the said meanit card, manager "No,no,no. He didn't that meanitlikethat." said,"Yeshe did,he didmeanitlikethat I'll I and way.No,no,no. He didn't tellyouwhy, becausethelady", I never and mentioned or Caucasian anything. I said,"Theladythat he letin thedoorbefore shejustwalked in. Whenhe sawme,he stopped so he meant on me, me, it."You know, I gavehimmybusiness and cardandI walked but away, I was so angry. Her angerat the situation, use ofher businesscard as credential, her and her attempt mainto tain her composure ("I stoppedand collectedmyself"), the kind of responsesto discrimiare nation thatFeagin and Sikes have noted. However, she also noted thatthe storeproprietors not only saw someone who was black but they also saw someone who was "covered" (i.e., wear clothing associated with Muslim women). She is hinting a multidimensional at foundation fordiscrimination--the axes in the matrixof domination(Collins 1991). intersecting Otherrespondents spoke about the many identities theybringto experiencesof discrimination. These statements indicatedthatthe reasons fordiscrimination ambimerge,creating guityand confusionabout why you have been targeted. They supportCollins' contentionofa in both/and conceptualreality thatwomen are unable to give one componentoftheiridentity primacyover another. One respondentsaid she never challenged anyone when she thoughtshe was being treatedunfairly. She said, "I just tryto answer the question withinmyself. What is it now? Is it because I'm black or is it because I'm Muslim?" Another,who was raised as a Muslim and had worn Islamic dresssince puberty, demonstrated succinctly: this I have a lotoffriends say,"Wellit'sprobably butthenit'smoreso yourreligion." I who race But mean,a lotofithas to do withmyreligion. Therewerejobs I haven't and gotten I'm sureitwas becauseI was [voicetrails Anditmight havebeenbecause[voicetrails It's off]. off]. so hardto tell whichone itis. Itmight havebeenbecauseI was Muslim italso mayhavebeenbecauseI was but African American. I really So neverknow.AllI knowis that beingdiscriminated I'm and against I don'tquite knowwhy.I know thatit could be because I'm a woman.Maybebecause I'm all three.

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BYNG Otherwomen also noted theirinability separatethe componentsoftheiridentity. to One, who lives in a multiracial/multiethnic describeda confrontation workingclass neighborhood, she had with a white neighbor.Theirtoddlershad a problemsharingtoyson the school playfromtheirhomes. The older sisterofthe white toddlerwent home to groundacross the street ensued. The get her mother.When the woman came to the playgroundthe confrontation respondentsaid that her son simplywanted to share, so she asked her neighborif she had taughther son how to share: the is I withyourown kind." said,"Excuseme,is that kindthat She saidto me,"Youneedto stay which it,letme know, is or Muslim is that kindthat blackoris itbecauseI'm a female, the is specovertoherporch. she But ify?" shedidn't specify, justwalked for that as This respondentsees herself havingmore than one characteristic makes her a target to but discrimination, she was unable to get her discriminator explain her behavior. and balloon business,was who has a floralarrangement However, another respondent, when she discrimination able to get an explanation.She describedexperiencing continuously went into a certainfloralshop. She was so botheredby it that she asked a white friendto treatment was receiving: she explain the differential Andhe fair can'tI gettreated in there." has business So I saidto a guythat thisflower too,"Why to Is "Youknowwhy." AndI said,"Why? itthis", [veil]on myhead,"oris pointing thekimar says, it's So itthis", I pointed myskin. said,"Youhavethedouble." I said,"Inother and to He words, both and oftheabove."So I saidfine, shop]one morning I youknow.So I wentbackthere[thefloral it are I is for time. waited thelongest Finally said,"This it"andI justshouted out.I said,"Why you and nobody working. is time all treating likeyoudo?" I said,"I'vebeenhereall this me Everybody here?" around. has isjustwalking fairly helpme.Whycan'tI gettreated Nobody askedmecanthey And he [theshopowner]says,"Becauseyou don'tspendenoughmoneyhere."Thisis whathe Muslim." "Andthefact that he you're you says.He didn't, wasn'tsaying, know, behavior. Her white was givenmore than one explanationfordiscriminatory This respondent in of the intersection race and religion makingher a target. friend Yet, accordingto recognized her because her ordersare the shop owner, he and his employeeswere justifiedin ignoring thatrace and religioncould combineto prompt She anticipates too small to warrantattention. action,but the shop owner added the size of her businessto the list. discriminatory Each of the forgoing responsesindicatesthatthe respondentsare aware thattheybring to identities discriminatory experiencesand thattheycannot separatethem when trymany Some just accept the confusion to decide what makes them a targetfordiscrimination. ing as this creates,but othersseek explanations fromfriendsor discriminators to what triggers acts can be linked to several triggers, that discriminatory the action. Given the possibility is how do these women sort out when discrimination actually happening? One women pointed to her own physicalclues. Her responseindicatedthather experienceswith discrimination are painful: hurt with I You know, couldneversaywhenyou getconfronted it thatit doesn't you,becauseit for there a minute. breath Like, and catches off like, your youloseyour you guard italmost, makes is whatyou're lets heart a feeling real. skips beatandthat youknowthat from becauseotherthanthatit wouldbe the kindof That'show you knowwhereit'scoming it. wentalongwith that unless hardto describe, encounter wouldbe really that signs youhad those violated. being to start Becauseall those really you're youknowthat things happening youandthen You comfortable. never combecomes so time happens still it get feelings itnever you havethose Every So don'tknowanybetter. youlearn and that with fortable it,butyoulearn peopleareignorant they them. or attack them verbally attack to as to it howtodealwith likethat opposed wanting physically The physical sensation that accompanies the realizationof discrimination helps define the experience. This account demonstratesthat these women experience tangible and painful

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African-American MuslimWomen and Discrimination This formof oppression,like all others,has grafted moments of discrimination. onto their lives' the negativeelementsof domination. a However,in accordwith Collins,these women resistoppressionby establishing humanistvisionof experiencing see all discrimination deplorableand all peoas discrimination. They of is ple as potentialtargets. They say thatregardless whetherdiscrimination triggered race by or religion,it is always reprehensible. theirstatementssupportthe both/and Furthermore, thatdoes not give primacy one axis of oppressionover another. to conceptualframework A womanwho worked a teacher's and as a schoolcrossing as aid said:Discrimination is one guard and thesame to me. Thereis no way thatyou can separate discrimination. [discrimination They basedon raceand religion] notdifferent me becausediscrimination are for is something I just that abhor. justdon'tlikeit. I Anotherrespondent made a similarstatement: is Discriminationdiscrimination, is discrimination. can be discriminated You becauseyou against or a of dyeyourhairblond, ifyouspeaka certain way,or dress certain way.Peoplehave all sorts the that Whatcomes ofitis out prejudices comeunder sameumbrella, knowwhatI am saying. you or hurt or Sure,we all getaffected theprejufeelings getting something notgetting something. by diceofpeoplewhether are black, regardless what.Ifyouare different, are going or of to you you havesomeprejudice against you. This respondent looks at discrimination fromthe perspective exclusionand sees differof ence as being at the heart of it. Another,a computerprogrammer, looks at discrimination fromthe perspective inclusionbut reaches the same conclusion. She argued thatsimilarity of is the basis forinclusionand what makes people alike is the focus of attentionwhen choices are made: Racism notalways and dried is cut it's Thereis disskin, moreso whereyou havegoneto school. crimination white of alumni whether or or or among peoplein terms their you'rePolish Irish Italian.That's of becauseitgets wellokayyoujustdon't over, whyI liketheapproach multiculturalism likeblackpeople.Becausemostpeople,ifyousayto themyoudon'tlikeblackpeople, tell they'll not But their most choices, you,"Oh that's true." thenifyoushowthem peoplewillchoosesomelike It's blackpeople,it'sjustifthey're not bodythat's themselves. notso muchthattheydislike It's black, theydon't[knowblacks]. like,you know, peopleare "down"withtheir neighborhood and "down" with whoever wentto their school. For her,whitescan also be victims discrimination of because it is based on not knowingothers withdifferent racial/social backgrounds. While these women do not sortout when race, gender,or religionmakes them a target fordiscrimination, as fromdifference not being theysee discriminatory targeting resulting (or like those who are makingthe decisions). For them,discrimination painfuland offensive. is Still,theyresistthe oppressionof discrimination maintaining humanistvision of it. Difa by ferenceis at the heart of any encounterwith discrimination. as They view discrimination somethingthat can happen to anyone who is human. Thus, they mediate discrimination by making it a universal human experience rather than one that is unique to them. These the in responsesdemonstrate dialecticof oppression;theyexpose a complexity discriminatory and encountersthatis not readilyapparentfromFeagin and Sikes' analysis. targeting

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WhenIt JustDoes Not Matter:ResistancePar Excellence

Feagin and Sikes leave theirreaderswitha clear sense thatAfrican Americansexperience discrimination everyturnand thatits cumulativeimpactis debilitating. theirdiscussion at In ofworkplacediscrimination, Feagin and Sikes (1994:184) note thatit "... can varyfromoutin rightexclusion, to discrimination salary and promotions,to unpleasant and restrictive all workingconditions," ofwhich cause theirrespondents and humiliation, frustration, anger.

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For The respondentsin this researchdescribeexperiencing the same type of discrimination. is the computerprogrammer citedabove who feelsthatdiscrimination triggered by example, describedan experienceof employment discrimination: difference, class I guess,wellone instance it was in myfirst of programming We werein thegraduating job. from computer orientation for company class our our schooland we all started theintroductory, at I Therewas an African-American a Eurofemale. man, together.was theonlyAfrican-American weekslongand at theendofit and man.Ourorientation was three class peanwoman, a European environI in theinstructor me that was thebeststudent theclass.Whenwe gotintothework told I we the was thewhite Of ment, wereputintogroups. course golden boy, boy, youknow. gotthe and he gotthe and crapassignment thehalfdead teamthatwas aboutto be phasedout anyway kind stuff. of and that opportunity ledtopromotion all ofthis golden She said Anotherrespondent, accountant,gave an example of salarydiscrimination. an thatshe has actuallyseen the evidence of unequal pay: of I that in Andit'snotonly theform theinterview jobsandgetpaidless.I've process,think we take somediscriminaI've issues. noticed I that I'm witnessed andsince in finance see a lotofthepayroll level. which was a director's for tionin that. myprevious I was hired a managerial On position, job, who didnotknowthe me Whenthey in after whowas a maleCaucasian, person brought another he and computer technology who does lessworkthanI did whenI was there, makesmorethan theyhiredme at. So it led me to believethatmaybetheydid thisbecauseI was a womanand I've wentbackon it.ButI, youknow, experienced it it, maybe was becauseI was blackbutI never it I've experienced looking thenumbers. at these women have concrete experienceswith Justlike Feagin and Sikes' respondents, forsome of the respondents discrimination. However, having a job allows them to workplace think that they have not experienced discrimination-sincethey are employed. In accord with Collins, through their definitionof meaning and their consciousness,they use selfand valuation to mediate discrimination. determination, definition, They definediscriminain toryexperiencesas non-events,as not important theirlives. If this patternexistsbeyond the modifies view we get fromFeagin and Sikes. the sample in thisstudyit significantly to linkeddiscrimination job opportuniA respondentwho worksin a medical laboratory ties. She said: a I me of so it's I've never given [discrimination], kind hardfor to saythat wasn't really experienced I've becauseI'm black. never another that.... experienced position given job orI wasn't but Anotherrespondentwho has a similarmedical occupationthatrequirestraining not aftershe became Muslim: a degree,wondered about discrimination a to and I'm actually against? working I haven'tgone out there find job. WillI be discriminated and the will WhenI go to a job interview of go garbed, they through formalities theinterview not and or hireme? Or once you go to theoffice, whatever, theysee who you are,willthey justsay has like, something "Oh,theposition beenfilled"? so is For her, also, discrimination about employment opportunities, it is somethingthat are she mightexperienceifthese opportunities limited. A respondentpreparingfora careerat the otherend of the occupational spectrum(she the enrolledin law school) said essentially same thingwhen asked ifshe had experienced was discrimination: trails MaybeI feel evercameup tomeand saiduhm[voice know. off]. IfI have,I wouldn't Nobody Amera not that but say way, I guessI cannever I might havegotten job justbecauseI was African know.I guessI can neversayI havebeendiscriminated You never icanor becauseI was Muslim. I've even and becauselikeI said I'm employed I've had prior opportunities, though job against I knowwhether was beingdiscrimiwouldn't for never job. applied a corporate So, I guessI really natedagainst.

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African-American MuslimWomen and Discrimination Each of these respondents questionedwhethertheyhave actuallyexperienceddiscrimination because they are employed. So, while some respondentsdescribedclassic cases of employment discrimination, otherssay thatbecause theyhave jobs theyhave not been discriminated maintain ownership of their lives and determine for themselves which against. They resources,in this case jobs, are linked to experiencingdiscrimination. Having a job allows them to mediate discrimination sayingthattheirlifehas not been influenced it. Thinkby by termsseems to implysome degreeofpragmatism in ing ofdiscrimination onlyin employment their evaluations of theirlives. Discrimination can take may different but they have forms, focused on the one that is directly related to survival,and have definedthemselvesas not being influenced. Theirmediationof discrimination also evidentwhen theysay thatdiscriminatory is experiencesdo not reallyaffect them.This is resistancepar excellence. decidingthat discriminaIn tion does not affectthem, they are deciding that they will not be oppressed by these encounters.These responseschallengeFeagin and Sikes' contention thatdiscrimination an is told energyconsuming,life consumingexperience. One respondent,who is self-employed, me about the poor serviceshe received in a large department storeand how she used it to teach her daughternot to accept poor treatment. Then she said: Likethat little incident [department in and at store] then yougetpeople juststaring youand sometimes But whereit really affected blatant, me, treating standoffish. I can'tsayitsbeen really you becausethings that go in one earand outtheother. don't things that like I let like bother me. just She experiencedpublic place discrimination paid enough attention it to use it as a and to lesson forher daughter.But then she asserted,"I don't let thingslike that botherme". She definedthe experienceas not important meaningful. or She determined herself power for the thatthisencounterwithdiscrimination have in her life. will The accountantcitedabove, who witnessedpay inequalitydirectly relatedto herjob, also said thatshe did not let discrimination botherher: I can'tsaythere beenblatant has discrimination me. eversaidanything me. to against No one really You know, don'tleta lotofthings I bother easily. not,myselfme I'm esteem at a levelofcomis I'm fort. very in bother me.... happy mylife.... I don'tleta lotofthings Even thoughshe is the victimof pay inequality,she stillcarves out a personal space where it does not overwhelmher. Discrimination exists,she knows it,and she sees it,but she is still able to say thatit does not botherher because she maintainsownershipof her life. it Finally,these respondentsmediate discrimination interpreting globallyratherthan by personally. Again,in accord with Collins,the respondents expresseda humanistvision. They that is experiencedby the black community, recognizeand connect with the discrimination even thoughtheydistancethemselves from this interpreting oppressionpersonally.For example, the respondentcitedabove who is enrolledin law school and said she has not been discriminated she againstbecause she has a job, describedthe global racialdiscrimination sees in her neighborhood: I see racism and was I I everyday lastweekmyheart so heavy. meanitwasjustoutrageous.was on and out a door.... There werethick wires out [Name]Street I sawwires coming from front coming ofa front attached electrical to wires themiddle thestreet.thought, somebody to in of I door, if goes that cord[touches anditsraining something or out. out. and it] they're They're AndL & I [Licenses was downthestreet, had to passbytheplugwhenthey werethere. Inspections] right they They didn't even care,you know.I mean [public in the transportation]thisarea is horrible, busesrun no lines[suburban] youwonder and pastyou,there's air [conditioning], geton theregional if you that's [public still me So, transportation company]. it'snot[voicetrails I guessfor I takeeveryoff]. So, at think racism it's thing me. personally. ifit'snotindividually directed her),I still towards (i.e., She claimed that this global discrimination does not individuallytargether, yet it creates a as realitythat she has to contend with. She sees discrimination an objectivereality, but she

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BYNG does not see herself limitedby it as an individual.When she spoke about herselfspecifically to will she noted thatdiscrimination happen to her ifher race or religionlimither ability get a and (8). But a humanistvision allows her to see the oppressionof the black community job thatoppressionbecause she holds a particular connectwithit,while at the same timeresisting resource. Demonstrating the experience of dominationand resistanceat the same moment in needs additionalattention the literature. frominterpreting distancedherself the Anotherrespondent, office managerat a law firm, while notingitsinfluenceon the largerblack community: as discrimination personally limiting I livein a kindofdiverse is areabecause[neighborhood]themelting I was considering pot. getting a had But homeowner's that another becauseI thought they gotten bithigh. I hadmyinsurpolicy was if ance agenttellme that I canceled[Name]Insurance any Company notaccepting morepoliwe Africancies from area. Theydidn'tcome out and say it'sbecauseprimarily are getting this are blacks and led it's Americans butmyinsurance ... agent me tobelieve becausethere toomany beentargeted but area.Thisis notindividually in wantanymore that don't having they policies this is realestate redlining an area ofdiscrimination. that is common forblack middleShe describesa classic case of housing discrimination class home owners (Cose 1993; Feagin and Sikes 1994; Massey and Denton 1993). Yet, she does not see herselfas a specifictarget--This is not individually having been targeted " .. is She insteadnotes the global qualityofracialdiscrimination, "but real estateredlining an ... These responarea of discrimination." Again,oppressionis recognizedand it is, also, resisted. but dents describetypicalcases of discrimination, oftenmediate or limitthe power of these experiences. Again, theirresponses move us conceptuallybeyond the analysis that we get causes pain, through human agency these from Feagin and Sikes. While discrimination respondentsmaintain ownershipof theirlives; they defineforthemselveswhat discrimination will mean forthem. that Still,how could these women, who have so many characteristics make thema target fordiscrimination, that it did not botherthem? Accordingto Collins (1991:95), a condisay tion forresisting oppressionis a safe social space where the oppressed can findtheirvoice. and valuation. They determination, Safe social spaces provide a place for self-definition, empowerthe oppressed. cited at the beginningof this sectionprovides a hint of this The computerprogrammer in in of community her life.She had gone to a job interview the attirecommon to Mustype lim women, wasn't but aboutmyjob field theagency I was toldthat am very I very personable, knowledgeable hire wouldacceptme becauseofthewaythatI dressed. they didn't clients So, surethattheir just time someone cameoutand toldme that. was thefirst that me,butthat just She said thata possibleresponseto thisincidentwould be to sue, but then she said: Theywould against. [I]t's justlikebackin theold dayswhenblackpeopleusedtobe discriminated needto develop we witheach other. I think [i.e.,Muslims] and turn each other do business to So, morenetworks ourselves.... amongst She is sayis For her a potentialremedyfordiscrimination to turnto the Muslim community. can discrimination be mediated. thatfromwithinthiscommunity ing

CreatingtheSocial Boundary:Making theSpace forResistance

Feagin and Sikes (1994:16-17, 302-307) note that blacks are very likelyto share their and friends. withfamily Theyargue thatsome ofthe cumulative experiencesofdiscrimination is qualityof discrimination thatit becomes part of the collectivememoryof the community. a but with Collins' theory, offering different Consistent emphasisfromFeagin and Sikes,I am arguingthat intimateassociations among familyand friendsprovide more than a place to

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African-American MuslimWomenand Discrimination share discrimination, freefromdisthey also provide a space that is perceived as relatively crimination. The largerthe space is (i.e., the more intimate and important associationsare the fordefining self)the betterable blacksare to mediatethe discriminations society. the of When questioningthe women about theirreligiousbackground, asked them whether I most of theirfriendships were with Muslims or non-Muslimsand what typesof social activities theyparticipated Althoughmy respondents in. did not directly that theyretreat into say the Muslim community escape discrimination, to they describea set of associationsthat are free the of intimate, and, self-defining, concurrently, from racial hostilities largersociety. One respondentdescribeda range of social activities that are community based. For her, the Muslim communityis structuredaround family (i.e., marriages and births bring it together)and two major religiousholidays.She said: We do a lotofsocialthings. go on trips. We There a lotofsocialactivities theIslamic are in commuThere always are calledtahleems instructional and are nity. something (i.e., lectures) there opportufor nities men and womento gettogether wheretheynot onlyhave lectures there also but are activities children. that for So all Picnics. are goeson in thecommunity thetime. Marriages always a socialactivity-marriages thebirth babies.Ourtwobigcelebrations thetwoEids(i.e., and of are Islamic One at theend ofRamadan(i.e.,month fasting) [a]nd there's after of ... one holidays). are of peoplemaketheir pilgrimage toMecca).So there plenty socialthings, (i.e., family gatherings. The officemanager at a law firmspoke about the practicalreasons forassociatingwith Muslims.Practicing religionmarksoff her her lifefrom those who are not Muslim: Themajority myfriends Muslim thereason becauseonceyou're of are and is really practicing your like non-Muslims a wayofshying Ofcourse, havefriends I grew have off. I that religion youshould for that'll be a maintain goodrelationship mynonwith up with years always myfriends....I still Muslim friends. I have a lot of non-Muslim And and family I love themand it'sthe same thing but with there, I'mjustmorecomfortable Muslims. Whenit'stimeto prayI don'thave to worry aboutsaying excuseme I gottamakesalaat (i.e., to so I aboutsaying whatdidyou prayer). Peopleknowit'stime pray, let'spray. don'thavetoworry cookthat with. I Sometimesfeeluncomfortable becauseI don'twantto insult but anyone, a lotof with stuff I can'teat.... I justfeelcomfortable Muslims. that with myauntsflavor [food] She is tellingus about a way of lifethatis not shared with non-Muslimsand thatis punctuated by remembering God (i.e., prayer). She is more comfortable among Muslims because, like her,theirlives are structured theirreligion.The Muslim community by providesthe contextforher intimate It social interactions. is separate,distinct, effectively and markedoff from largersociety. The accountantcited above, who had seen pay inequalityon herjob and then said that discrimination not botherher,describedher social activities: did I go to lectures, different to homesfor lunchor dinner whatever.go to a lotofclasses or I people's becauseAllah(i.e.,God) tells to seekknowledge, I am constantly different us so in classes, learning aboutThawhid(i.e., the Islamic Arabic, belief aboutIslamiclaw,just learning system), learning new to on focused that becauseI don'twanttheblessing has that learning something and I try stay beenbestowed and it uponme to acquireknowledge to retain to be lost .... So as faras socially, of most thetime is trying learnsomething it to aboutIslamto better becauseIslamis a way myself oflife, justa religion me,so I do that. not for AndI am constantly in reading something accounting becausethat's profession Allahhas chosen me to do. So I haveto stay that for my current that with information that canbe a better so I and to professional I justhappen be Muslim. Her social lifetakes place in her religiouscommunity because, as she says, "Islam is a way of life."Yet,what is more important thatshe conceivesofeverything is thatshe does through the filter her Muslim identity. of She says specifically about discrimination, "I'm at peace with what Allah has blessed me with. So as faras discrimination I things, don't see that".Whether she is socializing,workingas accountant,or experiencingdiscrimination is connected to it

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BYNG

Islam. Islam gives her a self-defining social space and the abilityto mediate, or resistthe She oppressionof,discrimination. is "at peace" withwhat God has givenher. Anotherrespondent, dentaltechnician, a of description what it is like to gave a discerning socialize as a Muslim women.8 Her commentsillustrate bounded, intimateassociationsof the Muslim women, and theysymbolically allude to the transforming power of God and religious association: a housesandwe wearour So inIslamthere's lotofsocializing We women. go toeachother's among our on. there. Oncewe getthere haveourregular we clothes We takeoff kimars [veils] garb getting snackfoods and we and we justrelaxaroundeach other. listen music, eat a lot,you know, We to And and ourselves. we havea lotoffuntogether. whatever we justentertain She describesa processof movingfroma public world into a privateone; froma place where of she conceals the majority her physicalappearance to one where she not only revealsit,but thatanyin she is able to relax. In thisprivatespace she participates exactlythe same activities of one would in a gathering friends.She went on to say why this privatesocial space is so important: with lotofpeoplewho a to of Andifyouwork outside your home,youaremorelikely be working is are and The are notMuslim. waythey thinking doing you things so different, arejustlikethirsty foolof Muslim sisters becauseyoudon'theara lotofthat to and longing be in thecompany your that and withtheir thatwomengo through ishness. The things boyfriends all thiskindof stuff know. womentendto talkabout, you She longs forthe company of people with whom she shares a common bond. These associathe encountersofworkingoutsideof her home in mainstream tionsshelterher from everyday Americansociety.She has founda way to handle the normal stressesof lifeand not be overwhelmed by them. She noted: and and to It's refreshing notbe overwhelmed circumstances things to not feelhopelessand by aboutitbecausein Islam,you wouldknowthatAllahwouldhelpyou withthesethings helpless an there's ease, so thistoo shallpass. So, you are not becauseyou knowthrough difficulty every withthings we but we Not despondent. that are nothumanand we don'tgetkindofout ofsorts out you.You wholelife just,it'sjustspelled for is . So don'tstay there. Islamis so thorough. ., your Islamteaches and and notknowhow to live,and theliving thestruggle, cannot a Muslim be you a It's how to do it,successfully. a goodlife being Muslim. also. For her, the This respondentis filtering events of her lifethroughher Muslim identity She does not become miredin thembecause Islam proare life'sdifficulties resolvedby Islam. vides her with the means to not "staythere."We can see in thisresponsethe power of transformation.It is symbolizedin the changes in her physical appearance as she moves from withMuslims and non-Muslims, public to privateplaces, in what happens in her interactions and and in Islam havingtaughther (a convert)how to live her lifesuccessfully how to accept her human qualities. these women have found From withinthe safe social space of the Muslim community On resourceswith which to mediate discrimination. the one hand, theirbeliefin God and of an theirfaithhave triggered internaltransformation theirconsciousness.Their religious of belief has given them a foundationfromwhich to create a definition self. On the other with social integration structuring by hand, their religiouscommunityhas provided them Thus, theirassociationswith otherMuslimshave allowed them theirlives and dailyactivities. and theirreality. theiridentity to sociallyconstruct are at Accordingto Collins (1991:140), internalefforts transformation a formof resischaracterizesblack women's relationshipswith each other. 8. Collins (1991) notes that sisterhoodfrequently for are These relationships important resisting oppressionbecause theyprovideblack women witha safesocial space for self-expression.

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African-American MuslimWomen and Discrimination tance in combating racism.Renaming,redefining, the rearticulating selfand the social circumstances of ones' life are empowering because they engender a change in consciousness reli(Collins 1991:111). Additionally, Long (1997:30) argues that in the African-American of the gious experience:"God has been more oftena transformer theirconsciousness, basis for a resourcewhich enabled themto maintainthe human image withoutcompletely acquiescing to the normsof the majority population."' Thus, thisgroup of women, who are largelyconvertsto Islam, have chosen to redefinethemselvesbased on theirbeliefin God. Practicing Islam (e.g., five prayersa day) structures their daily life,theirassociations,and their consciousness.Additionally, Qu'ran1' and the example providedby the ProphetMuhammad's the lifeestablisheshumanismas partof Islamicpractice(Mernissi1987). This researchreveals a complexity encounterswith discrimination in thatis not foundin Feagin and Sikes' analysis. Instead, it supports Collins' understandingof black feminist thought.This groupof women experiencea matrixof dominationthatis characterized the by intersection race, gender,and religiousdiscrimination. theyhave mediated,or resisted of Yet the oppressionof,discrimination and valuation.They determination, throughself-definition, also have mediated discrimination maintaininga humanistvision. From withinthe safe by social space of the Muslim community, theirlives and theirconscioustheyhave transformed in ness. Their membership the Muslim community has given them resourcesformediating discrimination.

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Conclusion
visionsof how people expeFeagin and Sikes (1994) and Collins (1991) give us different riencediscrimination. the of Feagin and Sikes highlight pain and pervasiveness discriminatory Americans.They demonstrate time,effort, energythatblacks the and experiencesforAfrican on expend in coping with white racism and the debilitating impact of discrimination their lives. Collinsallows us to understand how blacks,and otherswho are targets, resist mediate or the oppressionof discrimination. This formof oppression, like any other,createsa dialecticof dominationand empowerment. The both/andconceptualstance,which recognizesthe intersecting axes of oppression, and the humanist vision of the oppressed empowers them. and valuation, throughtransforming their life and determination, Through self-definition, theirconsciousnessin safesocial spaces, the oppressedare empowered. In this manuscript have shown the value of Collins over Feagin and Sikes forunderI faced by the respondents this research.Collins in standingthe experiencesof discrimination allows us to understandthe intricacy and complexity discriminatory of encountersforthose who have more than one characteristic mightmake them a targetof discrimination. that For the women in thisresearchthe matrixof dominationis formed axes of along the intersecting race, gender,and religiousdiscrimination. Still,these women are able to mediate discrimination throughself-definition, and determination, valuation. In the face of discriminatory experiencestheymaintainthe abilityto defineforthemselveswhat theirlived experiencesmean. Thisincludessayingthattheyhave not experienceddiscrimination because theyhold a particular resource,and sayingthat discrimination does not bother them. They also mediate discrimination as throughmaintaininga humanistvision. They see discrimination something that can be experiencedby anyone who is different. Also, they connectwith the global dis9. The safe social space that is createdby the Muslim community mightalso characterizeotherreligiouscommunities.This mightbe especiallytrueforcertainChristian denominations(e.g., Evangelicals) and forcertainJewishcommunities(e.g., Hasidic) where a person'sidentity and social activities tightly are structured the religion. by 10. Chapter (or Sura) 21, verse 92 ofthe Qu'ran establishesthe Muslim community(or the community believof as a single "brotherhood" thatis not separatedby race, nation,or genderbut,instead,is united in its serviceto God ers) (Ali 1977).

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BYNG even when theydo not interpret level this crimination experiencedby the black community of discrimination personallylimiting. as fromwithinthe Finally,theymediate discrimination safe social space of the Muslim community. This community allows them to transform their and consciousness.Theirfaithand beliefgives them a resourceforinternalselflife,identity, Their associationswith Muslims give them a resourceforsociallyconstructing definition. an and a reality. Thus, Collinsallows us to move beyond the automaticnegativeconseidentity of quences of discrimination posed by Feagin and Sikes, to an understanding discrimination of thatlies at the heartofany form thatexposes the complexity the dominationand resistance of oppression. Muslim women are full The discriminatory experiencesofthisgroupofAfrican-American Theirresponsesreveal,on the one hand, the pain thatis associatedwithdisof contradictions. crimination and, on the other,theirempowered resistanceof it. Althoughthis researchhas it theirmediationof discrimination is reasonable to assume, as researchlike Feahighlighted while this and Sikes' indicates,that mediation mightnot always happen. Additionally, gin should applyto Collins' theory researchfocuseson a unique segmentof the black community, other segmentsof the African-American communityand other groups who are oppressed. Furthermore, just as the Islamic religiouscommunityhas created a safe social space that empowers its membersother religiouscommunitiesmightempower theirmembers,in the studies.That oppression for direction future same way. Thus, thisresearchrevealsa promising are is characterized both dominationand resistance says thatotheroppressedcommunities by also mediatingdiscrimination.

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