Table of Contents

1. What is Team? .................................. ( ) 2. Team Management ( ) 3. Management Skills.... ( ) 4. Improving Team Effectiveness...................................... ( ) 5. Team Dynamics.... ( ) 6. Effective Recruitment. .. ( ) 7. Developing Your Team.. ( ) 8. Coaching Your Team...( ) 9. Motivating Your Team ( ) 10. Recognition, Rewarding and Engaging People ( ) 11. Performance Management.. ( ) 12. Delegating Effectively.... ( )

What is a Team?
A team is any group of people organizes to work together interdependently and cooperatively to meet the needs their customers by accomplishing a purpose and goals. Teams are created for both long term and short term interaction. A production development team, an executive leadership team, and a departmental team are long lasting planning and operational groups. Short term teams might include a team to develop an employee on boarding process, a team to plan the annual company party, or a team to respond to a specific customer problem or complaint. Three common types of team include functional or departmental, crossfunctional, and self-managing.
Functional or Departmental Teams:

In the functional form of team, work activities, are structurally segmented according to their function. Group of people from the same work area or department, who meet on regular basis to analyze customer needs, solve problems, provide members with support, promote continuous improvement, and share information.
Cross Functional Teams:

Groups of people who are pulled together from across departments or job functions to deal with a specific product, issues, customer, problem, or to improve a particular process.
Self Managing Teams:

Groups of people who gradually assume responsibility for self-direction in all aspects of work.

Team Management: Team management refers to the various activities which bind a team together by bringing the team members closer to achieve the set targets. For the team members, their team must be their priority and everything else should take a back seat. They should be very focused on their goals. Team management is collectively term used to describe various strategies and processes that are designed to promote unity and coordination between the members of a group or team. The goal for any team management process is to actively involve all group members in working toward a common goal, providing a means for each group member to participate in that endeavor. There are a number of different approaches to forming and organizing teams, as well as overseeing or managing their ongoing function. As with many management strategies, there is no one ideal mode of team management that fits every situation and setting. There are few essential characteristics that play a role in any type of team management. One of those aspects is the ability to accurately identify the strength and weaknesses that every team member brings to effort. Doing so makes it possible to arrange essential task in a manner that allow people to utilize their skills in areas where they excel, thus moving the entire team closer to the ultimate goal. At the same time, being aware of areas in which different team members show some talent or ability makes it possible to cross-train tea members to handle tasks normally managed by others. This aspect of team management makes it possible to always have backup resources to call upon if team member is incapacitated or unavailable for period of time. Even if someone is unable to perform assigned duties for short period of time, task are still completed and the team continues to move forward.

Management Skill: Management skills are the crucial resource on which any organization depends. Management skills turn strategy into action and individuals potential into results. It is believed passionately that managerial skills are one that can be developed and grown: real world experience is essential, but study and mentoring are key ways to accelerate a mangers development. While different levels of management, from first line management to executive management can require quite different actions and responses, these rest on a shared bedrock of skills. These range from softer more reflective skills, such as analyzing your own strength and weaknesses, to more formal skills such as managing costs and budgets.
Basic Management Skills

Time management Managing creativity and innovation Motivating and developing yourself and others Managing conflict and stress in the workplace Solving problems and making decisions Organizing and delegating work Managing performance Developing and managing budgets and controlling costs Organizing and chairing effective meetings Information gathering and analysis Delivering briefings and presentation Written communication Recruiting new staff

Management is essential in every walk of life. Even what we eat should be managed. You just cant put anything in your mouth. One needs to be cautious. In the same way, a team must be managed effectively to expect the best from the team members. The team leader plays an essential role in managing his team well. For effective team management, It is important that the leader is more of a mentor to his team members rather than just being a strict boss. Ensure that each and every team member willingly participates in team discussions. Every team members should get the same information and should have an easy access to the superiors in case of any query. The team members must not pass on any information to anyone outside the team. The team members must be motivated on a regular basis. Loose talks, blame games, dirty politics should find no place in the place.

Improving Team Effectiveness: The process described is designed to improve the effectiveness of a team. It is a straightforward approach which is not time-consuming and it requires the team leader to assume the role of coach or facilitator. Many team effectiveness processes are ineffective because they focus on solving the teams problem or someone elses problem. This process is powerfully effective because it encourages team members to focus on solving their own team problems.

Develop Management

The most productive companies are typically more proactive than their peers when it comes to identifying and developing effective managers. The six most common managerial success traits include communication, leadership, adaptability, relationships, development of others, and personal development.
Teach Communication Skills

A manager with good communication skills is able to instruct as well as he listens. Managers who can communicate effectively can process information, and then relate it back to their teams clearly; Effective managers should be able to understand, decipher, and relate the organizations vision back to their employees in order to maintain productivity.
Expand Leadership Skills

Leadership is a crucial attribute that my managers lack despite their job title. It is common practice for companies to promote employees with the best results, but sometimes the best salesman doesnt make the best management. True leaders are able to instill trust, provide direction, and delegates responsibility amongst team members.
Encourage Adaptability

Adaptability also contributes to a managers effectiveness. When a manger is able to adjust quickly to unexpected circumstances, he is able to lead his team to adjust as well. Adaptability also means that a manager can think creatively and find new solutions to old problems.
Foster Interpersonal Skills

Effective managers should strive to build personal relationships with their teams. Employees are more likely to exceed expectations when they trust their manger. When managers establish a relationship with employees, it builds trust and employees feel valued. Valued employees are more willing to get job done right.

Promote Personal Growth

Finally, an effective manger is aware of their own personal development. In order to successfully develop and lead others, managers must seek improvement in themselves. A manager who is willing to learn more and use their natural talents to the best of their ability will be able to encourage the same behavior in employees. Effective Management is comprised of several key components, and is not easily achieved. Organizations need to recognize the traits associated with successful management, and then promote employees based on those traits. The highest achieving employees do not always make the best managers, but employees that naturally exude the attributes desired by managers are sure to be effective and successful in management roles.
Improving Team Effectiveness

To improve team effectiveness, guides team on a journey through the 5Cs.

Co-Direction

We help teams define why they exist as a team and what they want to achieve.
Cohesion

We help teams to know each other, develop their working relationships, and develop an identity and a style.
Composition

We help teams define roles and responsibilities.

Cooperation

We help teams determine how they are going to communicate, make decisions, and manage conflict.

Completion

We help teams drive for results, measure performance, and evaluate what has been achieved What it takes to be an Effective Team Member: Understands and is committed to group goals Exhibits friendship, concern and interest in others Openly acknowledges conflict and confronts it constructively Listens to others with understanding Includes others in decision-making when appropriate Recognizes and respects individual differences Contributes ideas and solutions Appreciates the ideas and contributions of others Recognizes and rewards team efforts Encourages and appreciates comments about team performance.

Team Dynamics: The work place, social organizations, community groups and sports all use teams to accomplish goals. The dynamics of teams determine if these goals will be met in an efficient manner. Identifying team dynamics and understanding positive and negative outcomes that may occur due to the dynamics will assist you to achieve team efforts. A group of people that share and work toward accomplishing a common goal are referred to as a team. The dynamics of team depend on each team member. Unseen forces that exist in a team between different people or groups are called team dynamics and can strongly influence how a team reacts, behaves or performs many factors influence team dynamics, such as personalities of team members, how the team operates, how the team views itself and the teams organization.
Phased in the Development of the Project Team

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Orientation Phase Disappointment Phase Solution Phase High Productivity Phase Dissolution Phase

Getting a team up to speed quickly

Develop a team charter Clarify team purpose Set interim measure and milestone Hold quick ice breaking activities Make team aware of inevitable stages of development Encourage team to self assess their own functioning Appoint a facilitator Set ground rules Provide meeting management guidelines Clarify roles

What problems do teams have?

Participation is late Lack of preparation Lack of focus Influence of rank Wasted time Dominating personalities Hidden agendas and turf protection No decisions or follow through

Solution to Team Problem

Participation is late Make meeting productive and efficient Lack of preparation Consult with team members before the meeting Lack focus Use understanding of belbin to provide focus Influence of rank Leave titles at door Wasted time Keep to the agenda Dominating personalities Use belbin roles to provide focus

Effective Recruitment: The purpose of effective recruiting is to attract strong applicants prepared to perform successfully on the job. Recruiting is an on-going process. It is not a phase, nor is it something you do only when you need applicants. As career opportunities and interests throughout the job market in America and abroad have continued to evolve, approaches to recruitment also have to change and adapt. Before developing any recruitment strategy, we recommend you review the following:
Developing a recruitment strategy

Efficient recruitment requires development and delivery of customized messages. It also requires a good understanding of how effective different recruitment strategies are in terms of producing a high quality, diverse applicant pool. Choosing the wrong strategy may produce too many or too few applications. Efficient recruitment strategy may produce too many or too few applications. Efficient recruitment strategies produce the requires results in the shortest time The five steps in developing a recruitment strategy are: 1. Become a strategic partner with your agencys managers to identify recruitment needs. 2. Analyze the future demands of your agencys workforce and identify appropriate occupations, competency requirements, and hiring strategies. 3. Research the labor market and design your message and corporate image. 4. Identify and train recruiters. 5. Establish and maintain relationships with the best sources of applicants for your workforce.

Recruitment Tools

There are a variety of recruiting tools available, including:

Outreach

Paid advertising Job fairs at schools and community events Special internet-based recruiting web sites Contracted recruiting support from other Federal agencies or commercial firms

Monetary incentives

Recruitment bonuses Referral Bonuses Relocation bonuses Retention allowances Advance payment for new hires Advance payment for new hires Pay-setting for current or former federal employees Special salary rates Student loan repayment

Performance incentives

Quality step Increases Agency awards

Student Programs

Career Intern Student Career Experience Student Loan Repayment

Developing Your Team: One of the most important roles for management is to ensure that staffs have the opportunities to develop within their role. These sorts of opportunities can improve working practices, be motivating in them and ensure that your staff performs to the highest level. Development is different. When you develop people, you are helping them to improve as individuals. You are helping them acquire personal qualities that will benefit them in many areas of life, not just their jobs. When you teach someone to manage their time more effectively or improve their people skills, thats development. However I observed that many project leaders dont have a development mind-set. They expect their employees to take care of their development needs on their own. What they fail to realize, however, is that development always pays higher dividends than equipping because it helps the whole person and lifts him to higher level. Development is harder to do than equipping. Heres what you need to do as you get started: 1. Development should be seen as a long-term process Most people can learn the mechanics of their job rapidly. But development always takes time because it requires changes on the part of the person being developed, and you just cannot rush that. The development of your team members is an ongoing process, not something you can do once and then be done. My best practice is that you plan team members. Make it consistent, regularly scheduled activity. For instance I encourage my team members to help me organizing some project status meetings. That way allows them to grow personally and professionally.

2. Discover each persons dream and desires

When you equip people you base what you do on your needs of those of the organization. You teach people what you want them to know so that they can do a job for you. On the other hand, development is based on their needs. You give them what they need in order to become better people. To do that well you need to know peoples dreams and desires. 3. Lead everyone differently One of the mistakes rookies leaders often make is that they try to lead everyone the same way. But lets face it. Everyone does not respond to the same kind of leadership. You should treat everyone with kindness and respect. But dont expect to use the same strategies and methods with everyone. You have to figure out what leadership buttons to push with each individual person on your team. 4. Use Organization Goals for Individual development The way to create kind of win is to mach up three things: A goal: find a need or function within the organization that would bring value to the organization. A strength: find a team member with a strength that needs developing that will help to achieve that organizational goal. An opportunity: provide the time, money and resources the individual needs to achieve the goal.
5. Helping them know themselves

A person cannot be realistic about his potential until he is realistic about his position. I mean you have to know where you are before you can figure out how to get someplace else. I believe it is the first responsibility of a leader who develops others to help them define the reality of who they are. Leaders help them recognize their strength and weakness.

6. Be ready to have a hard conversation There is no development without hard lessons. Most of the growths come when we have positive responses to negative things. The more difficult the thing is to deal with, the ore we need to push in order to grow. 7. Celebrate the right wins Leaders who develop others always want to help their people get wins under their belts, especially when they are just starting out. But a strategic win always has greatest value. Try to target wins based on where you want people to grow and how you want them to grow. 8. Prepare them for leadership The better your people are at leading, the greater potential impact they will have on and for the organization. The way to proceed would be: I DO IT I DO IT AND YOU WATCH YOU DO IT AND I WATCH YOU DO IT YOU DO IT AND SOMEONE ELSE WATCHES Developing your team members as persons you will have a more and more powerful team.

Funding for Individual Staff

There some funds available for individual members of staff to undertake training and development not usually provided. External funding can be obtained by management through Train for Gain.

Coach Your Team: According to Daniel Tobin, author of coaching and mentoring, the coach is a tutor, observing your work and actions, providing comments on execution, and teaching skills which may be lacking
Set positive climate and setting

People react and learn best when they are in a positive environment that fosters respect, consistency, curiosity, and attentiveness. Being an encouraging coaching manager will create conditions that allow your employees to maximize their performance and potential, and develop both personally and professionally.
Focus on long-term development, not altering short-term performance.

Coaching with compassion involves helping people bring more of their passions and aspirations to work. Take the time to teach and lead your employees. People are hard-wired to learn through relationships and by mirroring their mentors. Instead of expecting employees to change by reading or listening to information, take the time to teach and lead your employees through example.
Discover your employees personal goals.

People are more likely to change when the change is tied to something they want. When you find out what your employees personal desires and aspirations are, you can build a deeper connection with them and help them form new habits. Your employees will more likely to sustain change over time when its tied to their personal desires. As a part of coaching, you need to give your people feedback. None of us can improve our work and grow our skills if we dont know what were doing right and wrong or what is expected of us.

Motivating Your Team: The study of the forces behind human motivation has occupied the minds of great many thinkers. From the original work of Maslow, McGregor and Herzberg to the recent not-so-original but popular interpretations, the subject hasnt neglected. Motivation is intrinsic. It varies from individual to individual and what motivates one person would not move another. There are some commonalities, though: Money is never a motivator. However, lack of money is demotivator. People are motivated by applying their abilities to the fullest. Underutilization is a demotivator. Most are motivated by work that creates tangible results, especially if those results are born out of innovation, a new approach or a great idea. Being engaged in decision making, especially around the choices of how to do work, is a great motivator. Being told how to do it, which is far too common, will at best yield mere compliance. People are motivated by doing work that aligns with their values and beliefs. Too much stress petrifies. Too little stress lead to sloth, procrastination and the sense of entitlement.

Recognition, Reward and Engagement: In recent years, there has been a focus across the workplace on recognition, reward and engagement. This is not just about how to attract and retain staff, but also how to motivate and engage existing staff during difficult times. A consistent theme has been on the need for organizations to unleash potential and be ore innovative in how they work.

Contributing Factors If we think about rewarding, recognizing and engaging staff, we often think about pay and benefits. However, this is only one part of the picture. In fact, research by the Institute of Employment studies identified that each of the following have an important role to play:

Recognizing Efforts

Appropriately rewarding team members for something they have done takes some efforts on your part. If you dont put much thought into what you are doing, then you may just upset the very people you are trying to thank. This is why you should spend time with your team and find out how they would like to be recognized. For example, if your team is about to start a major project, find out: Which team achievements would people like to be rewarded for? Would they rather celebrate with several milestones along the way, or have one big celebration when they hit the teams goal? How can you build recognition into the project?

Performance Management: This Performance Management guidance relates to the management of employee performance (i.e planning, developing, monitoring, rating, and rewarding employee Contributions), rather than performance-based or performance-oriented approaches to managing, measuring, and accounting for agency program performance. While these concepts can and should be linked and integrated, they remain distinct in some respects, particularly with regard to establish individual accountability and dealing with poor performers. We also provide information that specifically addresses performance management for the Senior Executive Service.

Performance management is the current buzzword and is the need in the current times of cut throat competition and the organization battle for leadership. Performance management is a much broader and a complicated function of HR, as it encompasses activities such as joint goal setting, continuous progress.

Review and frequent communication, feedback and coaching for improved performance, implementation of employee development programmers and rewarding achievements. The process of performance management starts with the joining of anew incumbent in a system and ends when an employee quits the organization. Performance management can be regarded as a systematic process by which the overall performance of an organization can be improved by improving the performance of individuals within a team framework. It is a means for promoting superior performance by communicating expectations, defining roles within a required competence framework and establishing achievable benchmarks. Delegating Effectively Delegation doesn't just happen. Just like any other task that you perform as a manager, you have to work at it. The six steps to effective delegation are the following: 1. Communicate the task. Describe exactly what you want done, when you want it done, and what end results you expect. 2. Furnish context for the task. Explain why the task needs to be done, its importance in the overall scheme of things, and possible complications that may arise during its performance. 3. Determine standards. Agree on the standards that you will use to measure the success of a task's completion. These standards should be realistic and attainable. 4. Grant authority. You must grant employees the authority necessary to complete the task without constant roadblocks or standoffs with other employees. 5. Provide support. Determine the resources necessary for your employee to complete the task and then provide them. Successfully completing a task may require money, training, advice, and other resources. 6. Get commitment. Make sure that your employee has accepted the assignment. Confirm your expectations and your employee's understanding of and commitment to completing the task.

You can help your staff stretch their talents, and grow through teamwork, new skills, and problem solving. Delegating gives more people a stake in the outcome. Delegation is more than hiring and managing people---it is guiding, inspiring, and motivating them. Here are six steps for doing it superbly. 1. Select people for the job, and motivate them Define the scope of the work based on the outcomes, products, and deliverables. Break out the tasks or steps that will accomplish the work. Decide on project milestones and define realistic completion dates for each one. Then delineate the steps for each task and decide how the skill sets that is needed. Next, identify the people for each task. Look for dependability and motivation as well as skill. The way you present a task can bolster someone's willingness to participate, or to stretch beyond their comfort zone, and follow through. When you delegate a new job to someone, covey enthusiasm and emphasize the importance of the project in a positive manner. Describe the task to people in ways that appeal to their needs and values.

2. Match the person to the task You compliment people when you ask them to take on a task that matches or expands their skills. People enjoy showing off what they know. Again, to make the match, get to know people. Find out about their experience, education, hobbies, and training. If you are organizing a team or committee, make sure the members have a good mix of talents and strengths. Some people work well with little supervision, while some expect routine guidance. Some like working with technical details, while others like working with global concepts. Some excel in the limelight, while some work well behind the scenes. Structure your group with diversity and balance.

3. Define project tasks and communicate them clearly Clearly communicate to each team member the purpose of the project, his or her responsibilities, and the schedule. Specify and quantify what you expect for the final outcome and/or interim products. 4. Track progress, gives feedback, and help people solve problems Check in periodically and ask your team about their progress. Are they on schedule? Do they have the resources they need? Have they run up against any unforeseen obstacles? Do they still understand the requirements? Monitor the work and give feedback in a positive, helpful way. 5. Allow for creativity and variations in work style Keep your focus on the final result/products, not on the details of how the job gets done. People work according to individual learning styles and preferences. When you let them work in their preferred ways, they feel ownership for the effort. While some people like to work piece-meal, some like to work through continuous effort. Some people can multi-task, and some like to work on one thing at a time. Some need more structure and supervision than others. Those on your team may not perform the task exactly as you would. If you have selected skilled, talented people, they will probably do the job better than you would have and you may be pleasantly surprised with the results. 6. Provide incentives and show appreciation Let people know there is a pay-off in working for you, and develop a reputation as someone who rewards good work. Pay increases, bonuses, stock options, and promotions are significant incentives for getting people to go the extra mile. You can give other rewards too, such as time off, a letter of appreciation in the personnel file, special mention in the corporate or industry newsletter, an award, a gift, or an invitation to a special corporate/industry event for insiders only. You can recognize the team or individuals at a corporate meeting, or plan a special luncheon for them at corporate expense.

Managing Different Groups of Workers: Each generation has unique strengths, clearlybut their strengths may also be perceived as weaknesses by the other age groups. How can you keep your three generations of employees working harmoniously as a team? Take a page from these big-company strategies: Consider individual needs At IBM, a Generational Diversity program assesses employees career life cycles and the different needs a person may have at all stages of their career. As a small business owner, youre in an even better position to learn what each employee values, wants and needs to be most productive. For instance, Boomers will probably relish being put in charge of a project; a Gen-Xer will appreciate the autonomy to complete a task her way; and a Millennial will enjoy sharing ideas with a creative team working together. Strive to keep older workers engaged When an older employee leaves the company because he or she no longer feels valued, your business loses valuable institutional knowledge. Make sure your older staffers dont feel like theyre being pushed aside for younger team members. Make extra efforts to keep them engaged and show that their contributions are valued. Tap into diverse age groups to innovate Fire up meetings or brainstorming sessions by including employees from all age levels. A diverse group means more viewpoints and more creativity. Having staff members from different generations gives your business an advantage, so use it! Honor each persons contribution Especially in a group setting such as a team project or meeting, make sure that you show how much you appreciate what each worker brings to the team. Encourage workers to share their knowledge, whether its an entry-level Millennial showing a Boomer manger how to use social media or a Boomer employee explaining the history of a long-term client to a Gen X salesperson. Emphasize commonality Its easy for employees to become adversarial when they focus on their differences. Continually remind your team of its common goals winning new business.

Managing Difficult Situation: Every design project faces some tough situations. Design teams may not agree on a direction, making it difficult to execute on an aggressive plan. Clients may provide conflicting feedback, forcing designers spend as much time managing politics as doing design. Design decisions made in one meeting may be reversed in the next, delaying progress and depressing morale. These are but a few of the challenges that arise. As a leader or manager you can be sure that there will be difficult situations to deal with from time to time. These difficult situations might include: Dealing with poor individual or team performance Trying to improve an organisation that is perceived to be failing A process that it is not working Staff or other resource shortages Adverse media coverage So as a manager or leader what are the key tips for dealing with difficult situations? 1. Establish facts first When difficult situations arise, it is all too easy to jump to solution mode too quickly. While there may be a limited amount of times when fast action is absolutely necessary, your first step to successful resolution it to establish facts. Remember that facts as opposed to hearsay or opinion are verifiable. 2. Ask lots of questions Questions, especially the short powerful variety are a great way of getting to the core issue rather than all the detail that someone is trying to provide to you. Think of it a bit like peeling an onion, each layer is getting you closer to the core. 3. Actively listen There is little point in asking great questions if you are not actively listening to what is being said. Resist the temptation to jump in before you have properly listened to the different points of view.

4. Avoid pre-judgment We all, if we are honest will form some judgements immediately. While these might be right at the end of the day, dont let pre-judgement get in the way of establishing the real issues. 5. Act professionally The challenge for you is to remain professional at all times. A good test of this is to ask yourself how you would like to be treated if you were not the manager or leader but an aggrieved party. 6. Aim for win-win While this is not always possible, you should aim to find solutions that dont result in a feeling from one party that they have lost while another has won. This might require some careful negotiation around what would constitute a good outcome for all those involved. 7. Remember there is no one size fits all approach Each situation is different. While there might be some common ground, remember there is unlikely to a one size fits all approach to difficult situations. Adapt your approach depending on the situation. Historical Management Theories: Management, as a practical, everyday activity, originated as far back as man in his hunter-gatherer phase, organizing effective ways of achieving collective goals in a highly co-ordinate manner. The linguistic origins of the word management lie in the Latin word for hand. In the sixteenth century, management had come to mean the act of controlling (bringing to hand) a horse or a wild animal. Ever since, the word has had strong connotations of control. Management, as a theoretical discipline, dates back only to the end of the nineteenth century, when the first large industrial companies were founded, and the pressing problems of coordinating and controlling large numbers of people in the pursuit of a common set of goals first became apparent. At about the same time, the first business schools were established in the United States to develop a normative theory of organizational administration.

A theory of management was felt to be necessary if the workplace were to be efficient and effective. Good theories, by linking causes to effects to yield a predictive model, can dramatically enhance the efficacy of practice. Management will be worthy of being called a profession only if it is based on a reliable and well-validated theory; and a field of study will be deemed theoretical only it yields law-like generalizations that relate particular forms of practice to calibrated levels of performance. The ideal model is either engineering or medicine. Management theorists have attempted to create a set of organizational principles that would stand to management practice much as physics relates to engineering or biology to medicine. Over the last century or so, many theoretical approaches have been adopted to make sense of organizational behavior, particularly the manner in which they are effectively administered. We shall divide these approaches into five schools of management: the classical, human relations, open systems, social action and contingency schools. The work of management theorists over the last hundred and fifty years can be used to argue the case for an in depth theoretical, as well as practical knowledge of many management styles, including the positive and negative attributes of each. It is also important to examine the 'structure' of different organizations to consider how it affects, and is affected by the management style of that organization. Organizational Structure is essentially concerned with the allocation of authority and power. Managers need to make decisions and need to have the authority to do so. A 'hierarchical organization' will have the greatest power at the top of the organization, and the command structure will be in a downward direction. In a 'flat organization' power is distributed more evenly, but there will still be major differences in the level of power and authority between different members of the company. Some organizations such as the armed forces or police have many tiers (or levels) and are tall in their hierarchy. Universities however would have few levels between those at the bottom and those at the top and would be considered a 'flat hierarchy.' The 'span of control' (number of people an individual manages or supervises directly) is closely linked to the type of organizational hierarchy that exists. Many of the new 'buzzwords' and 'flavor of the month theories' that Mr.

Whitehead mentions are no more than a current evaluation of the theories of yesteryear. The re-visiting of these theories will provide conclusive evidence that management theory is central to the modern manager's education. The Work of Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) Frederick Taylor, whilst working as a gang boss in a lathe department in Midvale, USA became determined to eradicate 'systematic soldiering'; an attempt by workers to do no more than was necessary. Taylor developed a strategy where particular jobs were studied, then broken down into individual tasks, which had to be completed exactly as stated. Each task was allocated a time, based on the timed work of the quickest worker. Workers were then allocated specific tasks, and were not allowed to deviate from that task at all. As Taylor believed that money was the main motivator, a payment was made for each completed unit of output (piece rate) Many organizations and work methods are still influenced by Taylor's concept of 'Scientific Management Methods' This can be seen on factory assembly lines, and even in the commercial kitchen, where each member of staff is allocated a small but specific task in making up a completed gourmet meal. Piece rates may not be prevalent, but the allocation of boring, repetitive tasks is common. An article in The Sunday Times, 3rd April 1983 tells of one worker's plight, assembling the Maestro car at the Cowley Plant. He had just one hundred seconds to screw on two rubber buffers and fit three small plates to the rear wheel arch. He had been given one night's training, completed his task on exactly 246 vehicles per day, and had 46 minutes per shift of 'relaxation time'. Some of Taylor's early followers achieved spectacular results in increasing output. However, the stringent and oppressive tactics that were employed often led to industrial unrest. After 'Scientific Management Methods' were employed at the Watertown Arsenal, immediate strikes ensued. The American Congress eventually banned Taylor's time and motion studies in its defense industry.

The use of such methods in the modern workplace can produce useful results in the short term, but for longer-term rewards they must be balanced against the effects on workforce morale. To assume that everybody can work at the same rate as the fastest worker, and that money is the only real motivator may not be borne out. Today's workers want to be empowered, and to take an active role in their organizations, not be treated like machines where only the end product is important.