Nuclear Engineering and Design 193 (1999) 131 143 www.elsevier.

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Critical heat ux under ow oscillation of water at low-pressure, low-ow conditions

Yun Il Kim, Won-Pil Baek, Soon Heung Chang *
Department of Nuclear Engineering, Korea Ad6anced Institute of Science and Technology, 373 -1 Kusong-dong, Yusong-gu, Taejon 305 -701, South Korea Received 9 May 1997; received in revised form 30 April 1999; accepted 1 June 1999

Abstract In this work, the effect of ow oscillations on critical heat ux (CHF) is investigated for water ow in vertical round tubes at low-pressure, low-ow (LPLF) conditions. An experimental study has been conducted to investigate the difference in CHF between forced and natural circulations, and between stable and oscillating ow conditions with three vertical round tube test sections (5.0 mm ID 0.6 m in length, 6.6 mm ID 0.5 m in length, and 9.8 mm ID 0.6 m in length) for mass uxes below 400 kg m 2 s 1 under near atmospheric pressure. It is found that ow oscillations can drastically reduce the CHF, in particular for natural-circulation conditions. In addition to the experiments, CHF correction factors for ow oscillation effects are developed for forced and natural circulations, respectively, based on the experimental data of the present work and others. 1999 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Critical heat ux (CHF) is a parameter of paramount importance, which limits the heat transfer capability of nuclear reactors, heat exchangers, fossil-fueled boilers and many other heat transfer units. CHF has been extensively investigated during the last few decades, resulting in reasonable understanding of the phenomenon and several reliable prediction models.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +82-42-8693816; fax: + 8242-8693810. E-mail address: shchang@sorak.kaist.ac.kr (S.H. Chang)

Boiling systems can show various ow oscillations under natural-circulation and/or low-pressure conditions. In water-cooled nuclear reactors, ow oscillations can occur in accident conditions such as a loss of coolant accident (LOCA), and in various natural circulation systems to remove decay heat (Boure et al., 1973). It is well known that ow oscillations can induce a premature CHF at the heat ux level much lower than that for stable conditions (Lowdermilk et al., 1958; Mishima et al., 1985; Ozawa et al., 1993; Umekawa et al., 1995). Though the use of natural circulation systems is increased in advanced nuclear reactors and other heat transfer systems, the effect of ow

0029-5493/99/$ - see front matter 1999 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 2 9 - 5 4 9 3 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 1 5 8 - 2

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oscillations on CHF has not been sufciently investigated and is not properly dealt with by existing prediction models. There is a strong need for further investigation of the ow oscillation effects on the CHF. The CHF for natural-circulation ow has so far been investigated by several workers (Grifth et al., 1988; Koizumi and Ueda, 1994, Mishima and Ishii, 1982). Several attempts have been made to identify the effects of the loop and ow parameters on the ow stability and on the CHF under natural-circulation conditions. Though many parametric effects have been identied, existing works are mainly based on the average mass ux measured at the single-phase region so that the practical application in thermal hydraulic (T/H) analysis is hard to be achieved for the two-phase region with signicant ow oscillations. A series of low-pressure, low-ow (LPLF) CHF tests have been conducted in this work to identify the effects of ow circulation modes and ow oscillations, for average mass uxes less than 400 kg m 2 s 1 at near atmospheric pressure with three vertical round tube test sections. Flow-oscillation CHF correction factors are developed for forced and natural circulations, respectively based on the experimental data of the present work, Ozawa et al. (1993) and Umekawa et al. (1995).

et al., 1958; Mishima et al., 1985; Weber and Johannsen, 1990; Chang et al., 1991; Baek et al., 1995). They performed LPLF experiments for both stable and unstable ow conditions and suggested some empirical CHF correlations for stable ow based on inlet conditions. Lowdermilk et al. (1958) performed CHF experiments for water owing in vertical round tubes of small diameter (D= 0.00130.0048 m) near atmospheric pressure including low velocity conditions. They suggested the following empirical CHF correlation for stable, low-ow conditions at near atmospheric pressure as follows: qCHF = 183.9D 0.2


L D

0.85

G 0.85

for (2)

G/(L/D)2 5 0.2034

2. Previous work

Mishima et al. (1985) investigated the effects of various loop parameters on the ow instabilities and on the CHF using a 0.006 m-ID tube. Though their study was comprehensive to reveal various aspects (e.g. effects of ow directions, inlet throttling, inlet and exit plenum, etc.), they did not present any CHF correlations even for stable ow. Weber and Johannsen (1990) performed an experimental study of low pressure low ow CHF in a very short tube (D= 0.0097 m, Lh/D=4.47) with changing pressure (PB 1200 kPa). They suggested a correlation as follows: qCHF = Ghfg 0.1274(zg/zf)0.2334[|zf/G 2D]0.3907[1+ 0.6(Dhi/hfg)] 0.96+0.17(zg/zf)0.064[|zf/G 2D]0.375(L/D) (3) More recently, Chang et al. (1991) performed CHF tests and suggested a set of LPLF CHF correlations. Baek et al. (1995) modied the original correlations as follows: q*= q* + 0.0446(D*) 0.219 0.003G*(L/D) 0.6015 c cF

2.1. Critical heat ux at low-pressure, low-ow conditions

For a uniformly heated tube, the CHF is mainly affected by the following ve parameters: tube diameter (D), heated length (Lh), system pressure (P), mass ux (G), and inlet subcooling (Dhi) or the exit quality (Xc). Therefore, a CHF prediction model usually uses ve independent variables as follows: qCHF =f(P, D, Lh, G, Dhi) f(P, D, Lh, G, Xc) or (1)

There have been considerable works on the CHF in vertical tubes at LPLF conditions (Lowdermilk

G*0.971 + 12.992(zg/zf) 1+ 0.0215

Dhi G* hfg

(4)

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133

where q*F =0.84(A/Ah)

D*/[1 +(zg/zf)1/4]2 c (5)

3. Critical heat ux experiments A series of low-pressure, low-ow CHF tests have been conducted at the KAIST to identify the effects of ow circulation modes and ow oscillations, for average mass uxes less than 400 kg m 2s 1 at near atmospheric pressure with three vertical round tube test sections.

2.2. Critical heat ux under natural circulation ow

Mishima and Ishii (1982) performed the CHF experiments for low ow (0 40 kg m 2s 1) of water in a vertical annulus near atmospheric pressure. There was no difference in the CHF between natural and forced circulation. The CHF in a vertical annulus was predicted well by the churn-to-annulus ow transition criterion. Grifth et al. (1988) investigated the dryout phenomena in a two-phase natural circulation system where two phases were gravitationally separated in a heated rod bundles. They proposed that the dryout zone is the region between the calculated pool liquid level and the point where a rod or tube submerged in the pool dries out. Koizumi and Ueda (1994) examined the dryout phenomena in two-phase natural circulation system of R-113. The dryout heat uxes were much higher than those of the closed thermosiphons. The dryout was observed near the exit end of the heated section under an annular ow state. They proposed a correlation to predict the relationship between the dryout heat ux and the lm ow rate at the dryout point.

3.1. Experimental loop and instrumentation

Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental loop used in this work. The loop can be operated either in forced-circulation or natural-circulation modes under low pressures. The loop is lled with ltered and ion-exchanged water that was degassed prior to the start of experiment. The outlet pressure of the test section is maintained at about 120 kPa. Three Type-304 stainless steel tubes have been used as test sections. Dimensions of the test sections are summarized in Table 1. Eight chromelalumel thermocouples (Type K) were spot-welded onto the outside wall of the stainless steel tube which was heated electrically by a direct current (DC) power supplier (40 V, 5000 A Rectier). The inlet and outlet temperatures of test section were measured by Type-T thermocouples. The inlet ow rate of the test section was measured by two turbine ow meters (0.11.0 and 1.05.0 l min 1, respectively) according to the ow rate. The output voltage from the turbine ow meter, the voltage drop at both ends of test section and the temperatures of Type-K and -T were recorded and displayed on a Hewlett-Packard Series 300 workstation with HP 3852A Data Acquisition/ Control Units, and the signals were processed and analyzed by an IBM PC.

2.3. Flow oscillation effects on critical heat ux

Ozawa et al. (1993) and Umekawa et al. (1995) performed the CHF experiments under oscillatory ow conditions. They investigated the effects of two factors, i.e. the period and the amplitude of density wave oscillations which were induced by a pump and an oscillator. The mode of temperature uctuation was classied into three types and the effects of the amplitude and period of ow oscillations on the CHF were discussed. The reduction in the CHF from the steady-state value increased with the increase in the amplitude and in the period of the ow oscillation.

3.2. Test conduct

CHF experiments have been performed for upward ow of water under two circulation modes (forced and natural circulations) as shown in Table 1, with changing inlet conditions such as the inlet mass ux and inlet throttling. During the experiment, the inlet water temperature was kept at 20C and the pressure at the outlet of the

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test section was kept at 120 kPa. After setting the inlet water temperature and the condition of inlet throttling, the increment of heat ux between power levels was kept sufciently small and the measured parameters were stabilized before raising the power level again. At the CHF tests, the CHF condition is dened as the condition that the maximum wall temperature increased continuously and exceeded 250C which is enough to decide whether the CHF occurs or not. The mass ux was calculated from the volumetric ow rate measured by the turbine ow meters. The average mass ux at CHF was calculated as, Gavg = 1 N 1 S Gi = N i=1 ~

age of the mass ux oscillation. Fig. 2 illustrates traces of heat ux, mass ux, and wall temperature with time for typical forced and natural circulation tests. The experimental errors involved in the measurements are estimated to be 91.5C for temperatures, 9 1 kPa for pressures, 9 3% for mass uxes, and 9 3% for heat uxes.

3.3. Experimental results

All of the CHF data obtained in this work are shown in Fig. 3 as a function of the average mass ux measured in the single-phase region. Under forced circulation, the CHF monotonously increases with increasing mass ux for all test sections (T/S-1, T/S-2 and T/S-3). Under natural circulation, however, the characteristic of the

&

G dt

(6)

The amplitude (DG) of ow oscillations is the difference between the local maximum and aver-

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram for the experimental loop.

Y.I. Kim et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 193 (1999) 131143 Table 1 Test sections and test conditions Test sections Lh (m) D (mm) Lh/D () Circulation modes Forced TS-1 TS-2 TS-3 0.6 0.5 0.6 5.0 6.6 9.8 120.0 75.7 61.2 FCHF-1 FCHF-2 FCHF-3 Natural

135

NCHF-1 NCHF-2 NCHF-3

CHF can be divided into two regimes with the threshold mass ux of about 100 kg m 2s 1 (Table 2). At very low ow below the threshold mass ux, ow oscillation is not signicant and the trend of CHF for natural circulation is similar to that for forced circulation. On the other hand, at ow rates higher than the threshold mass ux, ow oscillation becomes signicant and the CHF for natural circulation is much smaller than the corresponding CHF for forced circulation. Fig. 3 also compares the experimental data with existing correlations for stable low-pressure, lowow CHF (Lowdermilk et al. 1958, Weber and Johannsen, 1990; Baek et al., 1995). Predictions agree well with the data for mass uxes below Gth for both forced and natural circulations, except for test section-3. The lower value of data in test section-3 may be due to insufcient inlet throttling. For G\ Gth, the measured CHF data in natural circulation are much lower than those predicted by stable ow correlations. Table 3 lists the CHF data for oscillatory ow conditions obtained in this work. Close examination of the data indicates that the CHF generally decreases as the amplitude or period of ow oscillations increase. Another important nding is that the CHF can be much lower for natural circulation even though the oscillation characteristics measured in the inlet (single-phase) region are similar. It is not easy to clarify the reason for the lower CHF in natural circulation; however, it would be related to the difference in two-phase ow characteristics at the CHF location. Twophase ow characteristics in natural circulation would be dependent on the loop design. We have tried to simulate the loop with existing two-phase ow analysis codes for more detailed investigation

of the ow oscillation effect. Unfortunately, however, we failed to reasonably simulate our natural circulation loop which operates under atmospheric pressure; therefore, our discussion in this section is limited to qualitative aspects.

Fig. 2. CHF test traces under (a) forced and (b) natural circulation.

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Y.I. Kim et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 193 (1999) 131143

Fig. 3. Overall behavior of CHF data compared with existing correlations.

Y.I. Kim et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 193 (1999) 131143 Table 2 Threshold mass ux and corresponding CHF for natural circulation Test sections TS-1 TS-2 TS-3 Gth (kg m2s1) 100 113 95 qth (kW m2) 350 690 517

137

C.F.=

qCHF, FO qCHF, NFO

(8)

where qCHF,FO and qCHF,FO are CHF with and without ow oscillations, respectively. Based on qualitative assessment of existing data, the following form of the correction factor is selected: C.F.= 1 f{P, Gavg, DG, ~, Dhi (or Geometries (Lh, D)} Ti), (9)

The experimental ndings can be summarized as follows: 1. Flow circulation mode does not affect the CHF as long as the ow is maintained sufciently stable. 2. Flow oscillations can decrease the CHF regardless of the circulation mode. 3. CHF reduction due to ow oscillations can be much larger for natural circulation even for the similar single-phase ow characteristics.

4. Critical heat ux correction factors for ow oscillations To improve quantitative understanding of the ow oscillation effects on CHF, ow oscillation correction factors are derived in this section based on ow conditions measured in the test section inlet (i.e. single-phase region). Correction factors are developed for forced and natural circulations separately, because the effect is found to be quite different as discussed above.

where Ti, Lh and D are the inlet uid temperature, the heated length and the diameter of test sections, respectively. The modeling parameters can be simplied into dimensionless ones: (a) amplitude of mass ux, DG/Gavg; (b) period, ~/Ttr; (c) average mass ux, ~zf/(G 2 D); and (d) inlet subavg cooling, Dhi/hfg. Here Ttr is the transit time of the inlet ow through the test section, dened as Ttr = Lh/u = Lh/(Gavg/z). CHF data of the present work tabulated in Table 3 are not sufcient for the development of the correction factor. Therefore, the data of Ozawa et al., (1993), Umekawa et al., (1995) are also included in the data base. Table 4 summarizes the parameter range of the data of Ozawa et al., (1993), Umekawa et al., (1995). The period and amplitude of ow oscillations are characterized well in these additional data. The developed correction factor is as follows:
C.F.forced = 1

4.1. De6elopment of the correction factors 4.1.1. Correction factor for forced circulation Under ow oscillation conditions, if the inlet mass ux of the test section has a function of sinusoidal form with time, mass ux can be described as follows:
G = Gavg +DG sin(2yt/~) (7) where Gavg, DG and ~ are the average mass ux, amplitude and period of ow oscillation, respectively. To develop the CHF correction factor under ow oscillations, the CHF correction factor (C.F.) can be dened as follows:

      
DG Gavg
0.4606

~ Ttr

0.215

|zf G2 D avg

0.1366

Dhi hfg

0.5910

(10)

The coefcients were determined based on the non-linear least square method as a regression technique. The comparison of the predicted CHF and experimental CHF values with correction factor is shown in Fig. 4. The mean value of the predictedto-measured CHF ratio is 1.017 with RMS error of 13.1%. Most of experimental data under forced circulation are predicted within 20% error. However, Fig. 5 shows that Eq. (10) extremely overestimates the experimental CHF data for natural circulation as expected.

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4.1.2. Correction factor for natural circulation The correction factor for natural circulation is developed based on the natural circulation data of the present work, listed in Table 3(b). The range of parameters is summarized in Table 5. Using the similar procedure as for forced circulation, the following correction factor is derived for ow oscillation CHF under natural circulation:

C.F.natural = 1

  
DG Gavg
0.1379

|zf G2 D avg

  
0.440

Dhi hfg

The effect of the included in Eq. insufcient data. of Eq. (11) with

(11) period of ow oscillation is not (11). This is primarily due to Fig. 6 compares the predictions the experimental data of Table

Table 3 CHF data under ow oscillations measured in this work P (kPa) D (m) Lh (m) Ti (C) Dhi (kJ kg1) Gavg (kg m2s1) DG/Gavg ~ (s) CFm ()a

(a) Forced circulation CHF data 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 (b) Natural circulation CHF data 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0050 0.6 120 0.0066 0.5 120 0.0066 0.5 120 0.0066 0.5 120 0.0066 0.5 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6 120 0.0098 0.6
a

21.4 27.9 27.8 24.4 27.4 27.0 26.4 27.5 24.5 27.5 29.5 17.0 15.6 18.4 17.9 16.7 18.4 18.7 18.1 26.1 28.5 29.2 29.0 20.2 17.4 17.7 29.8 19.7 18.6 20.2 18.8 17.8 26.7 32.5 25.7

349.5 322.4 322.8 337.0 324.5 326.1 328.6 324.0 336.6 324.0 315.7 367.9 373.8 362.1 364.2 369.2 362.1 360.8 363.3 329.9 319.9 316.9 317.8 354.6 366.3 365.0 314.4 356.6 361.2 354.6 360.4 364.6 327.4 303.1 331.6

145.0 167.5 173.0 222.5 236.9 286.7 302.5 320.6 222.1 231.3 267.4 120.8 132.0 138.3 140.5 149.3 284.4 352.4 377.0 125.5 178.5 225.0 227.5 52.2 75.2 99.0 113.0 113.5 122.3 126.5 131.8 143.4 214.0 239.5 271.6

0.090 0.077 0.225 0.195 0.077 0.157 0.165 0.110 0.068 0.054 0.092 0.249 0.188 0.223 0.171 0.226 0.218 0.556 0.620 0.124 0.098 0.089 0.077 0.241 0.164 0.131 0.204 0.089 0.090 0.116 0.147 0.101 0.495 0.257 0.172

10.0 4.2 19.7 3.1 6.9 3.1 2.5 18.1 4.1 4.3 7.4 2.8 3.0 2.4 2.8 3.0 7.1 10.9 5.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 5.7 4.0 3.1 6.0 3.2 3.4 6.8 3.4 3.4 7.5 3.1 8.0

0.9098 0.8207 0.9245 0.8233 0.6229 0.6736 0.6757 0.5405 0.8150 0.7902 0.7855 0.7307 0.6570 0.6384 0.6321 0.5891 0.3018 0.2404 0.1923 0.9145 0.6805 0.5657 0.5604 0.6729 0.6505 0.8806 0.8618 0.7546 0.6883 0.8971 0.5779 0.5986 0.4791 0.3940 0.3378

CFm means the ratio of the measured CHF to the stable CHF based on the Baek et al. (1995) correlation.

Y.I. Kim et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 193 (1999) 131143 Table 4 Parameter ranges of ow oscillation CHF data of Ozawa et al., (1993), Umekawa et al., (1995) Parameters Working uid Pressure (P), kPa Heated length (Lh), m Inlet subcooling (Dhi), kJ kg1 Tube diameter (D), mm Average mass ux (Gavg), kg m2s1 Ratio of mass ux (DG/Gavg), Period of ow oscillation (~), s Number of data Range Water 101, 300, 400 0.9 83.7, 226.3, 269.7 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 100, 200, 300, 380, 400 1.0 2.0, 4.0, 6.0 43

139

Fig. 5. Assessment of Eq. (10) with natural circulation data.

3(b). The mean value of the predicted-to-measured CHF ratio is 1.025 with a RMS error of 16.0%. Most of the data are predicted within 20% error bounds.

4.2. Parametric trends of de6eloped correction factors

There are limitations in the practical application of developed correction factors, (Eqs. (10) and (11)), as they are developed based on singlephase inlet ow conditions under low pressures. However, they can be used in the overall prediction of CHF under ow oscillation. They are also useful in the analysis of the effect of various parameters.

Figs. 7 and 8 show the effects of some important parameters on the correction factor for forced circulation. The lines represent the predictions by Eq. (10) while the data points are from Ozawa et al., (1993), Umekawa et al., (1995). Fig. 9 illustrates the parametric trends of the correction factor for natural circulation, which are compared with the data measured in this work. The parametric trends can be summarized as follows: 1. (Effect of DG/Gavg) As shown in Figs. 7 9, at the same inlet condition and period of ow oscillations, the reduction of CHF increases with the increase in the amplitude-to-average mass ux ratio, DG/Gavg. The reduction rate of CHF decreases as DG/Gavg increases. 2. (Effect of ~) As shown in Fig. 7, the reduction
Table 5 Parameter ranges of ow oscillation CHF data under natural circulation Parameters Working uid Pressure (P), kPa Heated length (Lh), m Inlet subcooling (Dhi), kJ kg1 Tube diameter (D), mm Average mass ux (Gavg), kg m2s1 Ratio of mass ux (DG/Gavg), Period of ow oscillation (~), s Number of data Range Water 120 0.5, 0.6 300375 5.0, 6.6, 9.8 50.0380.0 0.050.65 2.011.0 24

Fig. 4. Assessment of Eq. (10) with forced circulation data.

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Y.I. Kim et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 193 (1999) 131143

5. Conclusions The contributions and important ndings of this work can be summarized as follows: 1. A new set of experimental CHF data are presented for ow oscillations under both forced and natural circulations at low-pressure, lowow conditions. The data are useful for further analysis of ow oscillation effects on the CHF. 2. There is no difference in the CHF between natural and forced circulations at low-ow regions below the threshold mass ux of 100 kg m 2s 1 where the ow is maintained stable.

Fig. 6. Assessment of Eq. (11) with natural circulation data.

of CHF is generally larger for the longer period of ow oscillations. 3. (Effect of Gavg) The reduction of CHF increases as the average mass ux increases (Figs. 8 and 9(b)). The effect of average mass ux on the reduction of CHF depends on the period of ow oscillations. The correction factors reasonably reects the experimental observations in the present work as well as those of Ozawa et al. (1993), Umekawa et al. (1995).

4.3. Comparison between forced and natural circulations

Although the inlet conditions are similar, the reduction of the CHF in natural circulation is larger than that in forced circulation, as shown in Fig. 10. The reason is that the present correction factors have been developed based on single-phase inlet ow conditions without considering the local two-phase conditions such as uctuations in mass ux and void fraction at CHF location. It is clear that the ow characteristics in the two-phase region during CHF experiments can be different from that in the inlet region. Therefore, consideration of local conditions at CHF locations would be necessary for development of more practical correction factors applicable to both forced and natural circulations.

Fig. 7. Effect of ow oscillation period and DG/Gavg in Eq. (10).

Y.I. Kim et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 193 (1999) 131143

  
D Ttr
0.215

|zf G2 D avg

  
0.440

141

Dhi hfg

0.6883

whereTtr = Lh/(Gavg/z). Natural circulation C.F.natural = 1 DG Gavg

    
0.1379

|zf G2 D avg

0.440

Dhi hfg

0.6883

They predict the LPLF CHF under oscillating ow conditions within 20% error bounds. 5. The developed correction factors indicate that the average mass ux, the amplitude and the period of ow oscillations are important variables for forced circulation.

Fig. 8. Effect of the average mass ux and DG/Gavg in Eq. (10).

3. Flow oscillations at higher ow rates signicantly decrease the CHF for both forced and natural circulations, from the value expected for the stable conditions. The degree of CHF reduction is much larger for natural circulation even at the similar average mass ux, oscillating amplitude and period which are measured at the test section inlet. 4. Flow oscillation CHF correction factors are developed for natural and forced circulation, respectively:  Forced circulation C.F.forced =1

 
DG Gavg

0.4606

Fig. 9. Parametric trend of natural circulation correction factor in Eq. (11).

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Y.I. Kim et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 193 (1999) 131143

Nomenclature A Ah D D* G G* Gavg Gth DG g hfg Dhi L Lh N P q%% q* c qCHF qCHF,FO qCHF,NFO q* cF qth u Xc Ti Tmax Ttr Dhi ~ z Dz | u ow area (m2) heated area (m2) tube diameter (m) dimensionless diameter (D/u) () mass ux (kg m2s1) dimensionless mass ux, G/
uzggDz () average mass ux (kg m2 s1) threshold mass ux (kg m2 s1) amplitude of mass ux (kg m2 s1) gravitational acceleration (m s2) latent heat of vaporization (kJ kg1) inlet subcooling (kJ kg1) heated length (m) heated length (m) sample number () pressure (kPa) heat ux (Kw m2) dimensionless heat ux () critical heat ux (kW m2) ow oscillation CHF (kW m2) non-ow oscillation CHF (kW m2) ooding-limited CHF () threshold critical heat ux (kW m2) inlet ow velocity (m s1) exit (or critical) quality () inlet temperature (C) maximum wall temperature (C) transit time (s) inlet subcooling (kJ kg1) time (s) density (kg m3) density difference between liquid and vapor phases (kg m3) surface tension (N m1) wave length scale of Taylor instability,
|/gDz (m)

Fig. 10. Comparison of correction factors between forced and natural circulation.

It is noted that the available experimental data are still very limited; therefore, further experimental works in wide ranges are strongly recommended. Also recommended is the development of an approach based on local conditions. This will require the improvement of the present technique in modeling low-pressure, low-ow two-phase system

Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation through the Center for Advanced Reactor Research, KAIST.

Subscripts avg average f liquid forced forced circulation g vapor natural natural circulation th threshold tr transit

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Mishima, K., Ishii, M., 1982. Experimental Study on Natural Convection Boiling Burnout in an Annulus, Proceedings of the Seventh International Heat Transfer Conference, Munich, vol. 4, Paper No. FB23. Mishima, K., Nishihara, H., Michiyoshi, I., 1985. Boiling burnout and ow instabilities for water owing in a round tube under atmospheric pressure. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 28 (6), 1115 1129. Ozawa, M., Umekawa, H., Yoshioka, Y., Toiyama, A., 1993. Dryout under oscillatory ow condition in vertical and horizontal tubes experiments at low velocity and pressure conditions. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 36 (16), 4076 4078. Umekawa, H., Ozawa, M., Miyazaki, A., 1995. CHF in a boiling channel under oscillatory ow condition, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Multiphase Flow, Kyoto, vol. 3, pp. CF-7 14. Weber, P., Johannsen, K., 1990. Study of the critical heat ux condition at convective boiling of water: temperature and power controlled experiments, Proceedings of the Ninth International Heat Transfer Conference, Jerusalem, vol. 2, pp. 63 68.