Wear 241 2000. 193203 www.elsevier.

comrlocaterwear

Automobile engine tribology approaching the surface

M. Priest ) , C.M. Taylor
School of Mechanical Engineering, The Uniersity of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK

Abstract There has been relentless pressure in the second half of the 20th century to develop ever more fuel efficient and compact automobile engines with reduced environmental impact. From the viewpoint of the tribologist this means increasing specific loads, speeds and temperatures for the major frictional components of the engine, namely, the piston assembly, the valve train and the journal bearings, and lower viscosity engine oils with which to lubricate them. Inevitably, this leads to decreasing oil film thicknesses between the interacting surfaces of these components and a more crucial role for the topography and surface profile of the two surfaces in determining tribological performance. This paper reviews the nature of the surfaces encountered in the piston assembly, valve train and journal bearings of the internal combustion engine and how mathematical models of engine tribology are endeavouring to cope with the extreme complexities the incorporation of surface topography potentially brings. Key areas for future research and the implications for design are highlighted. q 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Automobile; Engine; Tribology; Piston; Piston ring; Cylinder; Engine bearings; Cam; Follower; Valve train; Friction; Lubrication; Wear

1. Introduction An appreciation of the tribology of the piston assembly, valve train and bearings in an automobile engine must entail an understanding of the concept of modes of lubrication. This is particularly true if the objective is to facilitate improvements in aspects of design and performance, since this can only be achieved reliably if the underpinning engineering science is satisfactorily identified and comprehended. It is nearly 100 years since the renowned Richard Stribeck undertook his experiments on plain journal bearing friction, the results of which were subsequently reordered by Ludwig Gumbel. Details may be found in Dowson w1x. The data has been widely represented on what has become known as the Stribeck diagram, in the form of a plot of two non-dimensional groupings: the coefficient of friction m . on the ordinate and a variation of the Sommerfeld grouping h NrP . as abscissa; where h is the dynamic viscosity, N is rotational speed and P is specific load. With the development of the understanding of regimes of lubrication, this plot has increasingly incorporated the film thickness ratio, or parameter, l. on the abscissa as shown in Fig. 1, the modified Stribeck diagram.
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Corresponding author. Fax: q 44-113-242-4611. E-mail address: m.priest@leeds.ac.uk M. Priest..

The film thickness ratio has proved to be a valuable design concept, since it has led to an appreciation of the occurrence of surface interaction in a range of lubricated machine elements, and a recognition that surface topography can have a highly significant role in the performance and durability of such components. This is certainly true in regard to the major frictional components of the internal combustion engine which will be addressed in this paper. l is defined as the ratio of the film thickness calculated through the application of classical thin film analysis taking the surfaces to be smooth. to the composite surface roughness. Values of the film thickness ratio appropriate to what are now called regimes of lubrication have frequently been quoted see Fig. 1.; however, the position is complicated by many factors including the recognition that roughness measured in the laboratory may be modified during operation andror flattened during a particular load bearing event. The fact that the data of Stribeck led to a single curve, as shown in Fig. 1, was a justification of the principles of dynamic similarity, enabling extrapolation of the prediction of performance for a given machine element based on non-dimensional groupings. Whilst this observation is not strictly true for more complex lubrication situations where physical and chemical actions are important, the shape of the curve with its characteristic minimum lent itself to identification with the regimes of lubrication which have

0043-1648r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 0 0 . 0 0 3 7 5 - 6

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Fig. 2. Fuel energy distribution for a medium size passenger car during an urban cycle w3x. Fig. 1. The modified Stribeck diagram.

unfolded during the 20th century. These are indicated on Fig. 1 and are briefly explained in Table 1. The regimes of lubrication conventionally associated with the piston rings, camrfollower and engine bearings of an automobile are shown in Fig. 1. These components rely upon different modes of lubrication for satisfactory performance and indeed each may enjoy more than one form of lubrication during a cycle. This reflects the challenges that face the designer in improving operational characteristics, in response to legal and other pressures on emissions control and energy efficiency. Such improvements have to be effected against a background of engines with higher specific outputs and often smaller components with higher surface speeds and temperatures. The important issues facing those who develop lubricants will be apparent and the trend to lower viscosity lubricants e.g. OWr30 SAE grade lubricants, which are now on the market in some parts of the world. is strong. Whilst this helps in the fight to reduce friction losses, it
Table 1 Summary of lubrication regimes Regime of Lubrication Characteristics Hydrodynamic Elastohydrodynamic Mixed Boundary

also leads to reduced film thicknesses and potential durability problems. The ability to incorporate more and more aspects of the physical behaviour of lubricants into analytical modelling is an important and a fast developing field w2x. Uppermost in this regard are the reduction in viscosity at high shear rate, particularly with polymer containing multigrade lubricants, the rise in viscosity at elevated pressure and the boundary friction and wear behaviour in the mixed and boundary lubrication regimes. In the last two decades, there have been many studies leading to an elucidation of friction in engine components. It is revealing to examine where the energy of the fuel that is burnt actually goes. In Fig. 2, data after Andersson w3x is recorded representing the distribution of fuel energy for a medium size passenger car during an urban cycle. Only 12% of the available energy in the fuel finds its way to the driving wheels, with some 15% being dissipated as mechanical, mainly frictional, losses. The worldwide economic implications of this are startling and the

Full fluid film lubrication in which the surfaces are completely separated. The dynamic viscosity of the lubricant is its most important property Nominally also full fluid film lubrication with surface separation, but a more concentrated mechanism where elastic deformation of the surfaces and the effect of pressure on viscosity are important There is surface asperity interaction to some degree and the characteristics of both Elastohydrodynamic and Boundary Lubrication are influential The surfaces are in normal contact with behaviour characterised by the chemical and physical. actions of thin films of molecular proportions

M. Priest, C.M. Taylorr Wear 241 (2000) 193203 Table 2 Typical tribological and performance parameters for a gasoline engine Parameter Minimum lubricant film thickness Maximum temperature Maximum pressurerspecific loading Maximum shear rate Power loss typical. Minimum dynamic viscosity Composite surface roughness Engine bearing - 1 mm 1808C 60 MPa 10 8 sy1 0.25 kW 0.0025 Pa s 0.35 mm Ra Piston ringrliner top compression ring. - 0.2 mm 2008C groove, 1208C liner 70 MPa 10 7 sy1 0.15 kW 0.0065 Pa s 0.2 mm Ra Camrfollower nose. 0.1 mm 1508C 600 MPa 10 7 sy1 0.04 kW EHL 0.3 mm Ra

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prospect of significant improvement in efficiency by modest reductions in friction are apparent w4x. Based on the data in Fig. 2, a 10% reduction in mechanical losses would lead to a 1.5% reduction in fuel consumption. A final general point which is worth making relates to the ever decreasing film thicknesses, which are being predicted to occur in engine frictional components. Dowson w5x has observed that during the 20th century the thickness of lubricating films in machine elements such as bearings, gears, etc., has reduced by several orders of magnitude. It has been noted that the automobile engine, as if by nature, seems to operate with oil films in all its frictional components of the order of one micrometre in thickness. In fact, films significantly thinner than this are encountered. This serves to emphasise the increasing importance of the surface topography of components bearing in mind the Stribeck diagram and the regimes of lubrication already discussed. Before addressing the particular components, which are the specific interest of this paper, it is helpful to obtain an order of magnitude feel of important tribological and performance parameters in each. In the spirit of engineering appreciation, this is made in Table 2. The data relates to a modern four-cylinder, four-stroke, gasoline engine with four valves per cylinder and double overhead camshafts with direct acting followers.

2. Piston assemblies In terms of overall design concept, pistons and piston rings have changed very little since the pioneering work of Ramsbottom w6,7x and Miller w8x in relation to steam engines. Ramsbottom deserves the major credit for his innovative design of a single piece, metallic piston ring with a free diameter ten percent greater than the cylinder bore within which it was to operate. When fitted into a simple circumferential groove in a piston, the ring was forced against the cylinder bore by its own elasticity to provide a steam seal. This was a great improvement on previous piston and ring designs that were composed of several pieces and incorporated leaf or spiral springs to achieve an adequate sealing force. Miller w8x proposed an

ingenious modification to the Ramsbottom ring whereby cylinder pressure was allowed to act on the back face of the ring thus providing additional sealing force. This design change produced a self-regulating system as the sealing force rises and falls with the cylinder pressure and also allowed the use of very light, flexible rings, which were able to conform to the cylinder. The piston ring is perhaps the most complicated tribological component in the internal combustion engine. It is subjected to large, rapid variations of load, speed, temperature and lubricant availability. In one single stroke of the piston, the piston ring may experience boundary, mixed and full fluid film lubrication w9x as illustrated in Fig. 1. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication of piston rings is also possible in both gasoline and diesel engines on the highly loaded expansion stroke after firing w10x. The historical development of piston ring analysis emphasises the theme of this paper most succinctly. In 1959, Furuhama w11x developed a dynamic hydrodynamic analysis of piston ring lubrication for a piston ring profile consisting of a flat central land bounded by two half parabolas, which incorporated the effect of the cyclic variation of both load and sliding speed. This pioneering effort correctly identified the importance of squeeze film action in maintaining hydrodynamic load capacity but the likelihood of surface contact was not considered. A key research effort in the experimental field was that of Hamilton and Moore w12x in the 1970s who developed miniature capacitance film thickness transducers mounted flush in the cylinder wall to measure piston ring film thickness. They complemented their experiments on a motored engine with a theoretical analysis w13x, which yielded predicted film thickness values up to eight times greater than those measured. Brown and Hamilton w14x later accounted for this discrepancy by considering the effect of lubricant starvation on predicted film thickness. Further theoretical analyses subsequently emerged with increasing degrees of sophistication and fewer limiting assumptions e.g. Refs. w15,16x.. One major criticism of these analyses is that they assume the rings operate in either a full fluid film lubrication regime or in an extremely simplified boundary lubrication regime. No consideration is given to the transitional

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Fig. 3. Initial top ring profile and topography w21x.

Fig. 5. Wear of the second compression ring w21x.

mixed lubrication regime, where surface roughness can influence hydrodynamic performance or to the nature of the contact occurring between the surfaces in the mixed and boundary regimes. Rohde w17x remedied this situation by developing an innovative piston ring lubrication model that incorporated detailed mixed lubrication and surface asperity contact models based on the work of Patir and Cheng w18,19x and Greenwood and Tripp w20x respectively. 2.1. Profile and topography Piston rings are generally manufactured from cast iron or steel and are often surface treated or coated on the periphery, and occasionally the flanks, to increase wear resistance. The initial form and topography the piston ring offers to the cylinder wall is a combination of design features and artifacts of the coating process. Fig. 3 shows the initial profile and topography of a top compression ring from a modern gasoline engine after Priest w21x. The ring is manufactured from spheroidal graphite cast iron with a flame sprayed molybdenum coating on the periphery. The barrel-faced, convex form of the profile is a design feature but the deep valleys in the profile are pores formed in the molybdenum coating during manufacture. Fig. 4 shows the same ring after 120 h running at a constant speed and load w21x.

It can be seen that the profile has worn significantly with the initial curvature much reduced. However, the deep valleys of the porosity persist in the topography, which is an aspect hitherto neglected in analysis of piston ring lubrication. The second ring of this particular engine is a plain cast iron Napier scraper ring with compression and oil-control functions. This wears much more rapidly in service as shown in Fig. 5, which shows the change in profile and topography over the first two hours of running. Fig. 5 highlights the complex geometry of the piston ring as new, with the fine turning marks deliberately left in place, and the dramatic wear that can occur during running-in with more than 10 mm lost from the peak of the profile. Fig. 6 gives the brake specific fuel consumption bsfc. of the engine for the early stages of running and shows a dramatic fall during the first hour. Although, there are other mechanisms involved, such as changes in the lubricant, it is argued w21x that this dramatic reduction in fuel consumption and, hence, friction, is mainly attributable to the wear of the second compression ring as shown in Fig. 5. Wear of the other rings in the ring pack is also crucially important to the performance of the engine as is that of the cylinder wall, although this tends to occur more slowly. Fig. 7 shows the surface topography of the cylinder wall, manufactured from grey cast iron, as new and after 120 h running in the mid-stroke region. No attempt has been made to evaluate the amount of wear in this data; the origin of the radial coordinate data is simply the mean line. However, there are clearly significant changes evident in surface topography, which have a major effect on the lubricant supply to the ring pack and the nature of surface contact between the components. Note that data for the

Fig. 4. Top ring profile and topography after 120 h running w21x.

Fig. 6. Variation of fuel consumption in the early stages of running w21x.

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shows the profile of the cylinder at this position after more than 628 h running marked with the approximate locations of the ring reversal points, the positions where they come to rest at the end of the upstroke. Ring 1 is the top compression ring and ring 4 is the oil-control ring, which has two distinct load bearing regions, or lands. Deep wear scars have developed in the cylinder wall surface, manufactured from induction hardened cast iron in this instance, at the ring reversal positions reflecting the low film thicknesses and high loads at these points. This is especially true for the top compression ring. 2.2. Wear prediction The observed wear of the piston rings and cylinder walls in the above examples has a significant effect on the performance of the piston assembly. Yet traditionally, no wear modelling has been included in piston ring tribological analyses. This is because incorporating a consideration of wear in the analysis adds a further layer of complexity to an already sophisticated model. It is further compounded by the fact that wear is the least understood of the three main processes in tribology: friction, lubrication and wear. A piston ring tribology model incorporating prediction of the change in ring face profile with wear in the engine has recently been reported by Priest et al. w22,23x. It assumes that the wear of the ring profile may be described by the Archard wear equation, in the form proposed by Lancaster w24x V s kWx s where, V k W xs . The wear factor, k, is a function of the interacting materials, their surface topography, the lubricant and the operating conditions. This can alternatively be expressed s s s s worn volume m3 . wear factor m3 my1 Ny1 . load N. sliding distance m.

Fig. 7. Cylinder wall topography variation w21x.

mid-stroke region has been presented where least wear of the liner is encountered and where many traditional analyses of piston ring lubrication predict full fluid films and thus no wear. Full details of the experiments undertaken on this gasoline engine can be found in Ref. w21x. Similar comments could be made about the profile and topography of the components in a diesel engine and their change with running time in an engine. Comparable data for a diesel engine can be found in Priest et al. w22x. One aspect of the experiments undertaken on the diesel engine distinct from the gasoline was longer-term running of the engine. Particularly interesting in this respect was the wear of the cylinder wall at top dead centre. Fig. 8

Fig. 8. Diesel engine cylinder wall at top dead centre after long-term running w21x.

Fig. 9. Variation of wear factor with film thickness ratio w23x.

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Fig. 10. Predicted and measured ring profiles w22x.

as a variation of wear factor with film thickness ratio l. relative to the wear factor in the boundary lubrication regime, k 0 , as shown in Fig. 9. The wear factor in the boundary lubrication regime, k 0 , is determined from bench test rig experiments using actual components and lubricant at operating conditions of load, speed and temperature indicative of boundary lubrication. This empirical input to the model clearly exposes our lack of fundamental understanding of the wear processes taking place in such tribological interfaces. This approach, however, has been applied successfully in automotive valve train wear modelling w25,26x. With this relationship and the cyclic variation of minimum film thickness predicted by the lubrication analysis, the wear factor can be determined at each crank angle in the engine cycle. Thus, it is possible to predict, interactively, the changes in wear and lubrication of the piston ring that take place with running time in the engine. An example, taken from Priest et al. w22x, of the application of this model is given in Fig. 10. The measured new and worn ring profiles are shown overlaid using two different methods. Firstly by geometry, visually matching the unworn outlying regions of the profile, and secondly by mass, converting the weight loss of the ring to an evenly distributed volume loss around the ring circumference. The predicted ring profile, after 120 h simulated running, is also shown and this correlates well with the measured data.

3. Valve train The improvement in engine breathing was one of the ways in which increased power for the internal combustion engine was gradually realised 100 years ago. It continues to be an important area for study with the poppet valve train, the first effective means of introducing air and fuel into the combustion chamber and for exhausting the burnt gases, still dominant in applications. Attempts to replace the poppet valve train by other devices, notably rotary and

sleeve valves have consistently failed though efforts still sporadically continue. Although the poppet valve train has established itself as the favoured method of introducing the combustible charge and exhausting the used gases, primarily because of tribological problems with the alternatives, it too has experienced severe difficulties. The introduction of the overhead camshaft exacerbated design difficulties since the lubrication, or tribological performance, of such an arrangement proved to be inherently poor. In the last 20 years, most automobile manufacturers have experienced operating problems with cam and follower lubrication and the engineering science background to this has been widely studied. Details may be found in Taylor w27,28x. Analytical developments to enable the prediction of the cyclic variation of important parameters such as minimum film thickness, maximum Hertzian stress and power loss, based upon elastohydrodynamic lubrication theory, have taken place to enable designers to effect the most advantageous mechanical schemes to promote cam and follower durability e.g. Refs. w29,30x.. However, although it has been convincingly demonstrated that lubrication of a hydrodynamic nature does have a role to play, the modern cam and follower has traditionally been associated with the boundary lubrication regime where the role of chemical actions in thin surface films is vital. This is linked to the additive package of the lubricant and in particular to extreme pressure additives, of which forms of zinc dialkyldithophosphate ZDDP. are the most common. This serves to emphasise that, at least for parts of the cam and follower cycle, surface interaction takes place. Clearly, surface topography may have a very significant role and it is this aspect of valve train studies which will be highlighted in the remainder of this section. The most common materials for cams and followers are irons and steels with a variety of metallurgies according to preparation. There is a range of possible surface treatments to assist running-in and prevent early failure. Ceramic followers are, however, becoming more common. The failure modes are pitting, polishing and scuffing all of which are influenced by materials, lubrication, design and operating conditions. The durability and type of failure can vary considerably depending upon the combination of materials chosen to work together, their surface treatment and the lubricant and its additive package. Only very small dimensional tolerances are permitted on finish ground cams. The development of the lift profile to promote satisfactory engine breathing over a range of operating conditions is a complex process in its own right, and one that does not seem to have been linked directly to the tribological operating environment. The surface finish of automotive metallic cams and followers would be typically 0.2 mm Ra, with the implicit view that smoother finishes are better to promote elastohydrodynamic lubrication.. However, the picture in reality is not that simple with evidence that both roughening of smooth surfaces can

M. Priest, C.M. Taylorr Wear 241 (2000) 193203 Table 3 Cam surface roughness before and after 100-h tests in a laboratory simulator w4x Cam roughness mm. nominal. Average Ra. across cam at specific points Nose before 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 a 1.6
a a

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3.2. Surface roughnessr wainess-analysis As has been noted, Patir and Cheng w18,19x developed in the late 1970s a stochastic analysis approach to study the effects of surface roughness height and distribution between components upon the lubrication of machine elements. By incorporation of an asperity interaction model developed by Greenwood and Tripp w20x, it proved possible to investigate mixed lubrication situations. For example, Ruddy et al. w32x have applied the approach to study oil-control piston ring effects on oil consumption. The approach has also been used to assess cam and follower performance e.g. Refs. w33,34x.. For the direct acting cam and follower situation shown in Fig. 11, Dowson et al. w33x studied the predicted effects of surface roughness upon nominal film thickness, power loss and load carried by the asperities. Whilst some interesting predictions emerge from such analysis, for example, the small proportion of the load carried by the asperities because of the non-conformal nature of the camrfollower contact, it must be observed that currently the value of such analyses is limited in relation to the prospect of influencing design. One reason for this is the use of data extrapolated beyond the film thickness ratio limit for which it was established. Potentially of more value in the longer term, is the application of deterministic studies of waviness rough-

Flanks after 0.50 0.17 0.22 0.55 0.34 before 0.14 0.27 0.42 0.78 1.47 after 0.15 0.28 0.41 0.77 1.45

Base circle before 0.14 0.28 0.48 1.27 2.41 after 0.14 0.27 0.48 1.27 2.40

0.20 0.28 0.31 0.52 0.96

Damage on the nose caused by run-out on cam.

occur and that lubricant retention in surface troughs can be important. A few aspects of surface topography considerations in relation to cam and follower performance and analysis will be briefly touched upon. 3.1. Initial surface roughness Few studies seem to have been directed to the influence of initial surface roughness on the subsequent performance of automotive cams and followers. Roylance et al. w31x undertook a study to examine wear behaviour during the running-in period as influenced by surface topography and hardness. Two test apparatus were adopted, a motored cylinder head and a laboratory cam and tappet machine. With the motored head it was noted that the cam and rocker enjoyed a smoothing of their surfaces during their flushing runs but that both roughened up during the 40-h run-in period. It was suggested that the smoothing process might not have encouraged lubricant retention in the contact, hence, promoting subsequent damage. For the laboratory apparatus, less wear was reported for smoother surfaces and for cases where the hardness of the cam was less than that of the follower. Taylor w4x has reported studies using a laboratory apparatus to test a direct acting mechanism. The cams were steel; induction hardened to 2.5 mm depth, stress relieved, ground and phosphated. Cams with different surface roughness initially were run against nominally similar followers for 100 h at a fixed camshaft speed and temperature. The data is recorded in Table 3. It can be seen that on the cam flanks, there was little change in roughness reflecting healthy oil film thickness at these sites. The cam and follower were mechanically separated over the base circle and, hence, there was no change in this region. Over the nose region, there was evidence on the rougher cams of an improvement in surface finish reflecting removal of asperity tips and surface flattening. It will be noted that the smoother cam roughened up, and there was a tendency for the final roughness at the nose to move towards the same value irrespective of initial roughness. It is worthy of note that in another series of tests the temperature of the bulk apparatus was varied up to 1208C, but this did not appear to be an influential factor.

Fig. 11. Roughness considerations in a cam and follower w33x.

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properties have been investigated. Tanimoto et al. w37x used statistical methods of multi-regression analysis, based upon theoretical and experimental studies, to establish the correlation between material properties and wear resistance. 3.4. Wainess OConnor and Spedding w38x undertook an experimental study of the effect of surface waviness on a cam profile. Such waviness was influenced by the form imposed onto the grinding wheel by the roller dresser. Wear and oil retention characteristics of the automobile camshaft surface were investigated. It was suggested that the wavy cam surface could offer good oil retention characteristics but that with time the release of hard wear particles due to the wave peaks could be problematical. It was proposed that a cam surface having the same roughness, but zero or reduced waviness, would show improved performance. Waviness on automotive cams remains an issue and it is interesting to note that analysts are now in a position to contribute to the debate on the overall influence e.g. Ref. w37x..

Fig. 12. Effects of waviness orientation in EHL contacts w35x.

ness. in elastohydrodynamic lubrication. At the present time with the exponential advance in computing power, and the development of increasingly more powerful numerical analysis techniques, there is rapid development of non-smooth surface, elastohydrodynamic lubrication analysis. This has enormous significance in the design and development of concentrated contacts to operate under increasingly severe conditions. Ehret et al. w35x have studied the effects of various surface textures, described by either an orientated waviness or a uniform distribution of asperities, for rolling and sliding conditions. Fig. 12 shows the predicted variation of the minimum film thickness to maximum Hertzian deformation ratio with waviness orientation angle, zero degrees being transverse waviness, for pure rolling and pure sliding, after Ehret et al. w35x. It is clear that whilst the orientation of waviness is only moderately influential upon film thickness with pure rolling, this is not the case for pure sliding. Surface texture can lead to important differences and in pure sliding it is shown that the best lubrication condition is produced for transverse waviness. The definitive linking of surface texture to improved machine element performance in, say, a cam and follower, would be a powerful technique. 3.3. Wear prediction The prediction of wear in machine elements is a notoriously difficult task. In Section 2 of this paper, a technique was described with regard to the piston ring and cylinder liner contact. The same technique was first applied to the analysis of pivoted follower valve train systems e.g. Refs. w25,26x.. It is encouraging to report that such modelling has proved of value in identifying critical conditions for wear, including the positions of maximum wear. The reasons for the observed severity of wear can be identified and this has proved of value in developing laboratory testing apparatus with appropriate kinematic conditions w36x. Of course, the influence of the dimensional wear coefficient in predicting wear magnitudes is crucial as with the piston ringrcylinder liner contact. It is also worthy of note that empirical techniques for predicting cam follower wear as influenced by material

4. Engine bearings The Mobility technique for the analysis of dynamically loaded engine bearings w39,40x was established some 30 years ago and remains the most common approach. The method assumes that the hydrodynamically generated load capacity due to pressures in the lubricant film balances the applied load, thus precluding the possibility of instability effects as inertia loading is neglected. The technique has proved amenable to simple computerised analysis yielding the cyclic minimum film thickness, an important design parameter, amongst other predictions. It is, however, important to recall that there is a wide range of assumptions implicit in the use of the Mobility method as it is normally applied. These include, i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Short bearing analysis highly inaccurate at high eccentricity ratios. Circumferential symmetry grooverhole effects neglected. Rigid surfaces manifestly not so in many circumstances. Perfect alignment little known about misalignment issues. Newtonian lubricant behaviour very high shear rates encountered. Non vibrational instability shaft inertia omitted Isothermal lubricant film heat transfer effects can be important.

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These restrictive assumptions clearly imply that any predictions can only be benchmark and point to the importance of field experience being used alongside predictions in order to make sound design prognostications for improvements. Taylor w4x has detailed a range of research studies in which some of the assumptions detailed above have been relaxed. The thinning film alluded to by Dowson w5x is evident in relation to engine bearings. In the early 1970s, the benchmark prediction for a satisfactory minimum lubricant film thickness was about 2.5 mm. Twenty-five years later, predictions of minimum film thickness a factor of 5 or more less than this are being made for engine bearings in passenger cars. A minimum film thickness in the range 0.51.0 mm implies that asperity interaction may occur between the journal and bearing for at least part of the engine cycle. This is one of three surface topography aspects that will be addressed in relation to automotive bearings.
Fig. 14. Lobe size and frequency effects in engine bearings w42x.

4.1. Asperity interaction The likelihood that an engine bearing would have to perform part of its operational envelope with some contact between the journal and bearing for a part of each cycle was addressed by Conway-Jones and Gojon w41x. This situation is being influenced by the introduction of smaller engines and, hence, smaller components such as bearings, whilst the specific power output is increasing. Thus, very high maximum specific loads are being encountered in engine bearings. The effect of such asperity interaction would be to increase friction and, hence, give a larger average torque over a cycle. Evidence of this was presented by the authors and is shown in Fig. 13. With an increase in bearing temperature, the predicted torque and minimum film thickness fall according to hydrodynamic theory. However, at a predicted oil film thickness of 1.2 mm an increase in measured torque was encountered, this being attributed to asperity interaction. Conway-Jones and Gojon w41x discussed the effects of surface topography upon the additional friction and heat generation. noting that for their experimental data the run-in roughnesses of the components were 0.35 and 0.26 mm Ra. They developed an empirical method of calculating the asperity loading, hence, enabling heat generation to be determined on a m PV basis, V being the surface velocity. 4.2. Journal wainess Mehenny et al. w42x have considered the effect of circumferential waviness on engine bearing performance. There is a clear evidence that the machining process for, say, big-end bearings may have a significant effect on bearing failure due to the creation of a lobed crankpin. Experimental evidence of such lobing with any frequency between 1 and 21 on a journal has been obtained and lobes may be of the order of 5 mm in amplitude on a 50-mm nominal diameter shaft. Clearly, this is large compared with predicted minimum film thickness. Mehenny et al. w42x developed an analytical approach to assess the effects of lobe size and frequency and presented data to indicate the influence upon minimum film thickness and maximum pressure Fig. 14.. Comparison with some early data of DeHart and Smiley w43x, who had measured bearing weight loss due to wear with imperfect journal geometries, was encouraging. 4.3. Bearings with microgrooes Kumada et al. w44x reported the continuing development of bearings with circumferential microgrooves, with the intention of enabling engine bearings to operate under increasingly severe conditions. Their evaluation revealed that the initial wear process and deformation at the mi-

Fig. 13. Surface asperity influence in engine bearings w41x.

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crogroove peaks led to good conformability, lower temperatures because of higher oil flow and resistance to seizure because of the oil retention properties. The improved conformability was assessed through friction measurements, which with stepwise decreases of bearing film thickness, stabilised in a much shorter time than with plain bearings. Temperatures 10%20% lower were obtained with the microgrooved bearings used as main bearings whilst the claim to improve seizure characteristics was judged by the time taken to failure when the supply of lubricating oil was cut off. Further references to associated research in this field can be found in Ref. w44x and it is interesting to note that the use of grooving in cylinder liners is also adopted w45x, though the orientation of the grooves is normal to the piston primary motion. Since the attention paid to engine bearing design in the 1960s and 1970s, it is interesting to observe that research in the tribology of the piston assembly and valve train has been more prevalent. The increasingly severe operating conditions, however, are leading to an increasing propensity to bearing failures and attention to all aspects of design is appropriate. The role of surface topography considerations alongside improved consideration of elastic and thermal effects is needed.

need to use scarce natural resources more efficiently and precipitated an intense study of the efficiency of the internal combustion engine: the piston assembly, valve train and engine bearings. Such studies have remained vibrant and have been further driven by the increasing recognition of the fragility of our environment and the need to accommodate growth in the automobile sector in a sustainable manner. This paper has reviewed the current position regarding the tribological design and friction associated with the tribological components of the engine with a specific focus upon surface topography and surface interaction considerations. Much remains to be achieved in this important field and significant areas for future attention have been identified.

References
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5. Future challenges There remain extensive challenges for those interested in the tribological design of automotive piston assemblies, valve trains and engine bearings. The following are important aspects meriting detailed research and development in pursuit of improved performance and durability. i. ii. Improved surface profile, surface roughness and mixed lubrication considerations. Development of a linkage between lubrication mechanics and chemical mechanics, with a better understanding of the role of additives in reaction films. Consolidation of the developments in the understanding of lubricant rheology to make more effective design prognostications. Wear modelling linking to failure, materials, lubrication and thermal considerations. Satisfactory provision of lubricant, especially in the cam and follower interface. Improved materials, surface coatings and surface engineering.

iii.

iv. v. vi.

6. Conclusions It is about a quarter of a century since the energy crisis of the 1970s. This led to an enhanced awareness of the

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