Gas kick due to hydrates in the drilling for offshore natural gas and oil

! ! ! Leif Rune Helgeland Andreas Andersen Kinn Ole Flokketveit Kvalheim Anders Wenaas Department of Petroleum Engineering and Applied Geophysics NTNU, Trondheim, November 2012
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Abstract
Dissociation of gas hydrates are investigated as a possible reason for gas kicks during drilling. Gas hydrates are solid ice-like structures containing gas molecules. The basic principles of gas hydrates and kicks are explained, and methods for discovering gas hydrate zones before drilling commences are reviewed. An appraisal well on the Shenzi Bield in the northern Gulf of Mexico that may have had a hydrate related kick is used as an example. Gas hydrates are also investigated as a possible contribution to the 2010 Deepwater Horizon accident. The main focus is on avoiding gas hydrate problems when drilling, describing various drilling methods and mud designs found mainly in SPE literature. Managed Pressure Drilling and drilling with casing are described as drilling methods. Mud weight, composition and temperature of the mud are found to be important factors. Early identiBication of hydrate zones by acquiring seismic data was found to be a key factor in order to take preventive actions before hydrate problems occur. It was found that a further understanding of hydrates is needed to effectively solve the challenges currently faced.

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Table of contents
1. Introduction! 2. Gas hydrates!
2.1.Formation of gas hydrate zones! 2.2.Detection of gas hydrates!

1 2
4 5

3. Gas kick! 4. Drilling through hydrates!

4.1.Possible hydrate-related kick in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico! 4.2.Deepwater Horizon did hydrates cause the blowout?!

7 9
10 12

5. Avoiding gas hydrate problems!

5.1.Drilling techniques to help prevent problems with hydrates [24]! 5.2.Drilling uid design [25]! 5.3.Cement [27]!

14
15 16 17

6. Discussion! 7. Conclusion! 8. Abbreviations ! 9. References !

18 19 20 21

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1. Introduction
Gas hydrates have always provided challenges in offshore production of natural gas and oil. The most common problem is plugging of pipes and subsea equipment, a subject that has been thoroughly investigated and documented. This paper will focus on problems regarding hydrate dissociation leading to kicks during drilling operations. Kicks as a result of hydrate dissociation has not been given much attention, but it has previously been documented both kicks and blowouts caused by drilling through hydrate bearing sediments. Since presence of hydrates can result in both kicks and blowouts it is important to understand the behavior of hydrates, where they are located and how we can avoid the problems we are facing today regarding hydrates. Currently the most prominent drilling hazard related to hydrates is unawareness of its presence in the formation. In order to drill through hydrates in a safe manner, early detection of its presence is a key factor. Collecting seismic data is one way to map the presence and location of hydrates. If the data gives indication of hydrates in the formation, action can be taken to secure a safe drilling operation. Gas hydrates is also believed to have been a contributing factor in the Deepwater Horizon accident in the Gulf of Mexico. Formation of gas hydrates hampered the containment of the blow out after the catastrophe was a fact.

2. Gas hydrates
Gas hydrates are solid ice-like structures containing gas molecules. They belong to a group of substances called clathrates, which is a chemical substance consisting of a crystal structure of one type of molecule trapping and containing a second type of molecule [1]. In the case of gas hydrates, water creates the crystal structure and natural gas molecules are trapped inside, as shown in Figure 2.1. Three different structures of hydrates have been identiBied: I, II and H. These are illustrated in Figure 2.2. Gas hydrates usually form in the
Figure 2.1: Gas molecules trapped inside a crystal water structure [1]

two Birst structures. Structure I consists of 46 water molecules, forming small and large cages. The small cage is shaped like a pentagonal dodecahedron (a geometrical shape with twelve Blat faces each having Bive angels, written 512), and the large cage is shaped like a hexagonal truncated trapezohedron (14 Blat faces, twelve of them with Bive angles and two with six angles, written 51262). Structure II consists of 136 water molecules, also forming small and large cages. The small cage is the same as in type I, but the large one is shaped like a hexadecahedron (16 Blat faces, twelve of them with Bive angles and four of them with six angles, written 51264) [2]. These two structures are stabilized when gas molecules are trapped inside the cages [3].

Figure 2.2: Structures of hydrates [3].

Gases that are likely to form hydrates along with water are [4]: Light alkanes (methane and iso-butane) Carbon dioxide Hydrogen sulBide Nitrogen Oxygen Argon An important feature of gas hydrates is that one cubic meter of solid hydrate can contain up to 180 standard cubic meters of gas, depending on the gas. Methane is the predominant gas in natural occurring hydrates, making up >99% of hydrate in the ocean Bloor [5]. For methane, the value is about 164 sm3 [6]. Gas hydrates form when water and gasses are mixed at relatively high pressures and relatively low temperatures. While water form ice crystals at temperatures of 0C and below, gas hydrates can form at temperatures above this as soon as the pressure is higher than a few tens of bars, as shown in Figure 2.3. Typical conditions for formation of hydrates are pressures above 30 bars and temperatures below 20C [3]. Shallow depths offshore can have

these properties, usually between 100 m and 500 m below the ocean Bloor [4]. The depth where gas hydrates will form is called the Gas Hydrate Stability Zone (GHSZ).

Figure 2.3: Gas hydrate phase diagram [7].

2.1. Formation of gas hydrate zones The methane in gas hydrates is formed by bacteria in a process called anaerobic bacterial methanogenesis. Bacteria have been found at depths of up to 800 m below the sea Bloor in marine sediments, and can be active at temperatures up to 113C and pressures above 1000 bar [8]. This means that the methane may be formed within the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ), or it can migrate from deeper sediments until it reaches the GHSZ. At this depth, it will form gas hydrates if water is present. Gas hydrates in offshore sediments can exist in many different forms. In Bine silt/clay it often appears as nodules and veins, while in coarse-grained sediments it often forms as disseminated grains and pore Billings [6]. Different forms of gas hydrate occurrences are shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Potential gas hydrate occurrences [6].

2.2.Detection of gas hydrates To be able to plan how to move forward in drilling through Hydrate Bearing Sediments (HBS), it is crucial to detect the zones before drilling commences. In order to do this, acoustical methods are used, speciBically collection of seismic data. The presence of gas hydrates in sediments will be clearly indicated on the seismic data, as its acoustic velocity is very high (around 3.3 km/s, which is about twice the velocity of normal sediments) [9]. Two characteristics in seismic data are used to detect hydrate locations; Bottom Simulating ReBlection (BSR), and a phenomenon called blanking. BSRs are the most widely used indicator for gas hydrate zones offshore. The BSRs mark the phase boundary between the GHSZ and the free gas zone below. Seismic data records the reBlection strength, which is proportional to the change of acoustic impedance (the product of velocity and density). As both the density and seismic velocity in free gas is much lower than in gas hydrates, the boundary between the zones produces a very strong reBlection in the seismic data [9]. In seismic data, blanking is a location where there is reduction in seismic reBlections, resulting in a nearly blank zone. The presence of gas hydrates in porous media increases the average acoustical velocity in the layers, resulting in reduced velocity contrasts that are

required to create strong reBlections. In gas hydrate zones, blanking will therefore occur above the BSR [9]. Blanking and BSRs are shown in Figure 2.5 below.

Figure 2.5: Blanking and BSR [9].

3. Gas kick
The deBinition of a kick is Blow of formation Bluids into the wellbore during drilling. Formation Bluids will enter the wellbore whenever the wellbore pressure drops below the pore pressure (given that the pores are permeable). The formation Bluid will kick the drilling mud out of the well, resulting in a sudden increase in mud pit volume on the surface [10].

Figure 3.1: Formation uid entering wellbore [10]

Kicks can be categorized in two groups [11]: Underbalanced kicks: This type of kick is the result of mud weight being insufBicient of keeping the formation Bluid trapped. This can happen when drilling through zones with higher pore-pressure than expected, if the drilling Bluid is lightened or not to speciBication to begin with. Induced kicks: This type of kick occurs if dynamic and transient pressure effects lower the pressure in the well. For example when pulling drill string out of the well. Kicks due to hydrate dissociation will be explained in chapter 4. When detecting a kick, it is important to take action to prevent further loss of control of the well. For drillers it is important to be able to predict gas behavior, as small volumes of gas can be potentially dangerous because of the huge expansion. If the maximum allowed annular shut-in pressure is higher than the casing pressure, killing the well is the standard procedure. In order to kill a well, a new overbalance in the borehole

must be restored. Pumping drilling mud with higher density restores this overbalance. There are two main killing-methods used in the industry today [12]: Drillers method, in this method the formation Bluid is displaced before injecting the kill mud. This is the most common method of restoring an overbalance after a kick has been detected. Engineers method or the wait & weight method as it is often called, increases the mud weight and starts pumping in kill mud immediately. Failure to take proper action when a kick is detected can in worst case scenarios lead to the development of a blowout. A blowout is the uncontrolled Blow of reservoir Bluids into the wellbore. The most troublesome blowouts are the underground blowouts, where reservoir Bluid from a zone with high pressure Blows into a zone with lower pressure within the wellbore [11]. Underground blowouts are very difBicult to bring under control, and it may take months to stop the blowout. A blowout can result in serious damage. Loss of human lives, large material and economical losses are common.

4. Drilling through hydrates

When HBS are drilled through a change in pressure and temperature may occur and cause the hydrates to become unstable [13]. As explained in chapter 2, if 1m3 of methane hydrate dissociate, it will produce 164m3 methane gas. When a volume change like that happens it will result in a kick, or in worst case scenario a blowout. At the shallow depths where gas hydrates usually are encountered, the blowout preventer (BOP), riser, choke- and kill lines are normally not installed [4]. Hydrate dissociation in the formation may cause problems with wellbore stability and subsurface equipment, which can lead to reduced efBiciency and safety issues of drilling operations. Gas hydrates can also be encountered at greater depths when the BOP and riser are installed. Equipment on surface and subsurface are more exposed to danger in this case because the rapidly increase in volume will involve a huge strain on the equipment [4]. Wellbore instability due to hydrate dissociation is mainly caused by two problems: When the hydrates dissociate in the wellbore, the drilling mud will experience a reduction in density and a change in rheology due to dissolved gas. This may lead to an enlargement of the wellbore and even collapse of the hole. When hydrates dissociate, the surrounding sediments may experience an increase in permeability and a reduction in strength [13].
When drilling through HBS, several problems can be encountered. Some of these are:

Subsidence, stuck pipe, gas leaking on the outside of the casing and an inefBicient cement job. Another problem is that the drilling window in HBS is not well understood. When drilling through gas hydrates you need to stay above the collapse pressure, below the fracture pressure, and at the same time manage the dissociation temperature and pressure of the hydrates [15]. Failure to do this can lead to a gas kick. When dissolved gas Blows towards the surface, hydrates may again form. Some of the problems that may be encountered on subsurface equipment are described below [4]: Choke and Kill-line plugging: This causes difBiculty in the use of the lines during well circulation

 Plug formation at or below the BOP: Well-pressure monitoring below the BOPs becomes impossible or difBicult Plug formation around the drill string in the riser, BOPs or casing: Makes the drill string movement a problem Plug formation between the drill string and BOPs: This causes problems in the full closure of the BOPs when necessary Plug formation in the ram cavity of the BOPs: Causes difBiculty in opening the BOPs fully. Unawareness of HBS when drilling a well is currently the most prominent drilling hazard. [15]. In the future we are most likely forced to drill in deeper waters, arctic environments and possibly produce hydrates as a source of energy. In order to do this in a safe manner we need to understand and control the problems we currently are facing regarding gas hydrates.

Figure 4.1: Graphical sketch displaying the problems that may be encountered when drilling through HBS [4]

4.1. Possible hydrate-related kick in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico An appraisal well on the Shenzi Bield in the northern Gulf of Mexico experienced issues related to possible hydrate formations after cementing the 22 casing. The water depth at this particular well is 1323 meters. In such great water depths the pressure and temperature conditions are ideal for hydrates to form in a stable structure.

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The drilling operation was performed as following: The 22 casing was drilled to a depth of 2203 meters MD and cemented in place. When the cement returns reached the seaBloor, a minor annular Blow of Bluidized sediments dropping from the cement ports were detected by a subsea remotely operated vehicle (ROV). Further drilling operations where put on hold for over a week to check and repair equipment. During this week the ROV detected a decrease in Blow of Bluidized sediments, until only bubbles were Blowing slowly out of the cement ports which were partially clogged with hydrates. The ROV collected some samples of the bubbles and it was determined to be 100% methane. The drilling was resumed and 16 casing was set in salt at 3560 meters. The ROV detected that the Blow rate of bubbles increased during both drilling operations and when the casing was cemented in place. On the other hand, a decrease of bubble Blow rate were detected when drilling operations were put on hold for leak off test and equipment repairs. According to the information from the ROV the Bluidized sediments seems to be a result of an exothermic reaction during cementing and the circulation of warm drilling mud through the well. This evidence strongly suggests that the Bluidized sediments and subsequent gas bubbles were a result of dissociated in-situ gas hydrates [17]. Based on the fact that Bluidized sediments and bubbles were Blowing out of the cement ports, an improved 3D seismic obtained from measurements while drilling was screened for BSRs and other geophysical indications of hydrate deposits. A maximum negative amplitude extraction was generated on the surface to approximately 914 meters below mudline to identify possible high-amplitude gas anomalies. The results gave several indications of shallow gas anomalies, the shallowest at only 405 meters below mudline. A plot of the gas anomalies where made and is called a BSR, which is explained in chapter 2.2. Although hydrate dissociation in this particular case did not negatively impact the drilling operation, besides stopping drilling for a week, it is worth noticing that massive dissociation of hydrates could present a potential risk. Early observations of possible hydrate dissociation are therefore preferred. Possible techniques for determining the amount, distribution and presence of hydrates are geotechnical investigations, Measuring While Drilling, borehole wireline logging and seismic inversions [17]. .

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Figure 4.2: 3-D seismic showing gas anomalies, this kind of plotting is called a BSR. [17]

4.2. Deepwater Horizon did hydrates cause the blowout? The semi-submersible rig Deepwater Horizon experienced a gas release and a subsequent explosion at 21:49 Central Time on the 20th of April 2010 [18]. The blowout occurred when drilling an exploratory well in the Macando Bield in the Gulf of Mexico at 1500 meters sea depth. There were 126 persons working on the rig at the time of the accident, whereas eleven persons lost their lives [19]. Complications from the cement job are considered as
Figure 4.3: Incident site [19]

one of the reasons to the accident at Deepwater Horizon. Halliburton performed the cement job [20]. Just 20 hours before the accident, cement was pumped down the well to set casing [21]. The seabed in the Gulf of Mexico is well known for containing vast amounts of gas
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hydrates. As will be explained in chapter 5.3, the setting of cement leads to release of heat. The cement will be in direct contact with the formation, as it is pumped between the casing and the formation. One theory is that the heat released from the cement could have affected the stability of gas hydrates in the formation, leading them to melt. Another is that melting of hydrates during drilling created large caves in the well, so that when cement was pumped, it was not sufBicient to cement the entire casing in place. Further melting of the hydrates would then lead to a gas kick outside the casing, and with no cement to stop the gas, it would reach the surface. Survivors of the accident explained that just before the explosion, the pressure had been reduced in the drill column and heat was applied to set the cement seal around the wellhead. An expanding bubble of methane then broke through various safety barriers before exploding on the platform [22]. Gas hydrates also played a major role in the failure of containing the leak during drilling of the relief well. BP constructed a 100 tonne dome planning to place it over the leak, guiding the oil through a funnel to be collected on a vessel, as shown in Bigure 4.4. The dome was placed over the leak the 7th of May. Ten days later they concluded that the operation was a failure. As oil and gas was transferred up the funnel, the gas reacted with water to form gas hydrates, and quickly plugged the pipe [20].

Figure 4.4: Dome placed over the leak [23]

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5. Avoiding gas hydrate problems

HBS has been drilled through successfully, even though there have been reported cases of blowouts caused by hydrate dissociation. Both initial formation characteristics and bottom- hole conditions like mud temperature and pressure, will decide the amount of gas hydrate that is dissociated. To drill safely through HBS, we have to develop a better understanding of gas hydrates, so that we are able to identify problems that may occur and how to prevent them. Some techniques adopted so far [13]: Cooling the drilling Bluid. Increasing the mud weight to stabilize the hydrates, but avoiding fracturing the HBS. Adding chemical inhibitors and kinetic additives to the drilling Bluid to prevent hydrate formation and to reduce hydrate destabilization in the formation. Accelerating drilling by running casing immediately after hydrates are encountered and using a cement of high strength and low heat of hydration. To stay within a safe operational envelope when drilling through gas hydrates, you have to assess the allowable drilling parameters: Mud Weight Composition Temperature You also have to evaluate factors like [13]: Effect of drilling Bluid on heating the formation and changing the stresses and pore pressure Effect of heat on the formations thermodynamic stability of the hydrates and wellbore stability Effect of reduction in HBS strength and loss of cohesion due to hydrate dissociation. Therefore, modeling wellbore stability in HBS requires consideration of various mechanisms
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Gas hydrates can cause problems both during and after HBS are encountered. When drilling through, pieces of hydrate are carried up by the Bluid and turned into gas because of pressure and temperature changes. Once past the zone, gas hydrate at the front of the hole can continue to dissociate due to temperature and pressure in the mud. Both scenarios releases gas into the mud, altering its rheology, which can be dangerous if not taken into consideration when designing the mud. So it is important to choose the right drilling method and mud, to deal with the issue both during and after drilling.

5.1. Drilling techniques to help prevent problems with hydrates [24] Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD) MPD have a unique application, it is a drilling process used to control the pressure proBile throughout the wellbore. MPD techniques may prevent formation inBlux by ascertaining the pressures in the wellbore within the environment limits. It allows for faster corrective action, as it may include control of backpressure, Bluid density, Bluid rheology, annular Bluid levels, circulating friction and hole geometry. This provides better control if formation inBlux is encountered, which means that this technique can be used in wells with narrow pressure windows. Slim and Insulated Marine Riser Drilling in deep-sea and cold water, there is a need for insulated risers. Slimmer riser means the returns will have higher velocity. When drilling through HBS there will be less time for heat transfer to warm the returns, which again minimizes the dissociation of hydrates. Drilling with casing The formation might be rather fragile and the wellbore should be cased as quickly as possible. A one-trip drilling system, that carries casing with it and the possibility for fast cementing could be the answer. Drilling with casing solves this. Instead of drill pipe, casing is used and cemented in place as soon as the section is drilled. This protects wellbore from the formation and HBS and prevents inBlux.

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5.2. Drilling uid design [25]

When designing a drilling Bluid to be a gas hydrate inhibitor, characteristics included should be [26]: Lowest possible density with maximum hydrate suppression Compatibility with most common drilling Bluid components Compatibility with most salts to balance hydrates suppression and Bluid density Provide shale inhibition for adequate borehole and drill cuttings stability As hydrates can form in pipes, BOP, risers etc. it is important that once a well is in the GHSZ, hydrate inhibitors/suppressors are added to the drilling Bluid. Wells are being drilled deeper, and the need for improved and customized drilling Bluid to handle the varying condition is needed. It must deal with changing mud line temperatures to prevent hydrates from forming and maintaining the drilling Bluid properties. A good way to do this is making saline drilling Bluids, which means adding salts. This has proven successful in wells down to about 2300m in the gulf of Mexico. High performance drilling Bluids is a good way to help stop hydrates from blocking the BOP and choke lines. The North Sea has a lower mud line temperature, so thermodynamic inhibitors may not be sufBicient to prevent hydrates from forming and additional additives might be needed. Synthetic based mud Synthetic based mud is a low toxicity oil based mud. Depending on the pressure, the mud will absorb the gas and reduce the amount of gas reaching the BOPs and choke lines. Kinetic Inhibitors and Crystal ModiHiers Another way is to slow down the process and prevent the agglomeration of gas hydrate formation, one way to do that is by using crystal modiBiers. This is a process that uses mostly polymeric and surfactant-based chemicals to alter the nucleation (a physical reaction that occurs when parts of a solution starts to precipitate out) and growth of hydrate crystals. Can also use kinetic inhibitors to prevent critical nuclei from appearing and by that inhibiting formation. These chemicals will not stop gas hydrates from dissociating, but inhibiting
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formation of it in pipes, BOP etc. The challenge with this method is the surface acitivity of the kinetic inhibitor and choosing the right chemicals in high salinity drilling Bluid.

Gas hydrate pills Gas hydrate pills contain highly inhibitive formulations and can be utilized when needed. This means that the pills are placed in BOPs, choke and kill lines etc. and when a gas kick, shut down or abandonment occurs, these pills are activated, preventing gas hydrate from forming. 5.3. Cement [27] As casing is run in the hole, it has to be cemented in place as fast as possible to stabilize the wellbore. Cement has an exothermic reaction with water, heating the cement. The hydration rate depends on the various components of the drilling Bluid and also on the temperature of the surroundings. Deep water wells are a real challenge considering the low surrounding temperatures. Lower temperatures will decrease the hydration rate, causing the cement to set more slowly. The heat released will then have more time to destabilize the gas hydrates and possibly weaken the cement. To be able to deal with this problem, cement designed to prevent destabilization of gas hydrates has to be used. Ingredients have to be chosen depending on well properties and testing the adiabatic temperature rise to Bind a mix that do not release heat above the hydrate destabilization point. One example of this can be using C2S instead of C3S, as C2S only releases almost a third of the heat to the surroundings compared to C3S. 2C3S + 6H C3S2H3 + 3 CH; H = -114 KJ/mole 2C2S+4HC3S2H3 +3CH;H= - 43KJ/mole If running casing as quickly as possible after drilling past the HBS zone and choosing the right cement slurry, you can avoid a lot of problems and make a safer well.

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6. Discussion
There has only been reported minor incidents of kicks due to hydrate dissociation during drilling. As we are forced into colder environments, such as the arctic, this may become a more common problem. Hydrates can be encountered at shallow depths and pretty much all over the globe. The vast distribution of hydrates gives reason to believe that kicks due to hydrate dissociation occur fairly often. Dissociation of hydrates may have been a contributing factor in the blowout accident on Deepwater Horizon. Whether or not this actually was a contributing factor, is rather uncertain. It is documented and well known that the Gulf of Mexico contains vast amounts of gas hydrates, which poses the opportunity that hydrates may have dissociated and created a large bubble of methane. If this was the case on Deepwater Horizon, it may also have occurred in other places as well. In order to Bind more hydrocarbons in the future we are most likely forced into areas where hydrates are strongly present. Whether or not hydrates will pose a drilling hazard in these areas is somewhat unclear, but if large amounts of hydrates are encountered it may pose some serious risks that should be taken in account during well planning.

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7. Conclusion
This paper has explained and discussed hydrate challenges when drilling for offshore natural gas and oil. Gas kicks as a result of hydrates are not common in the industry today, but it is likely to see more of this in the future as the industry pushes forward to look for hydrocarbons in more extreme locations. Hydrates were also investigated as a potential contributor in the Deepwater Horizon accident. Hydrates was found to be a possible contributing factor to the accident, and it made attempts of limiting the extent of the damages harder. Attempts to place a dome on top of the well failed due to hydrates plugging the pipe. Different methods of altering the mud property and different drilling techniques were investigated as preventive measures against hydrate forming. Early identiBication of hydrate zones by collection of seismic data was also found to be key to ensure that preventive actions can be taken before hydrate problems occur. Although some solutions were proposed in this paper to prevent hydrate problems it was found that a further understanding of hydrates is needed to effectively solve the challenges ahead.

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8. Abbreviations
BOP - Blowout preventer BSR - Bottom Simulating ReBlection GHSZ - Gas hydrate stability zone HBS - Hydrate Bearing Sediments MPD - Managed Pressure Drilling ROV - Remotely Operated Vehicle

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9. References
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[13]: Khabibullin, T., Falcone, G. and Teodoriu, C., Drilling Through Gas Hydrate Sediments: Managing Wellbore Stability Risks, SPE-131332, June 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/131332MS. [14]: Kadaster, A. G., Millheim, K. K. And Thompson, T. W., The planning and drilling of hot ice #1 Gas hydrate exploration well in the Alaskan arctic, SPE/IADC-92764, paper presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 23-25 February 2005. http:// dx.doi.org/10.2118/92764-MS. [15] Qadir, M. I., Gas hydrates: A fuel for future but wrapped in drilling challenges, SPE-156516, paper presented at SPE/PAPG Annual Technical Conference, Islamabad, Pakistan, 22-23 November 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/156516-MS. [16]: Nimblett, J. N., Shipp, R. C. and Strijbos, F., Gas Hydrate as a Drilling Hazard: Examples from Global Deepwater Settings, OTC 17476, paper presented at the 2005 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 2-5 May 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.4043/17476MS. [17]: Williamson, S. C., McConnell, D. R. and Bruce, R. J., Drilling Observations of Possible Hydrate-Related Annular Flow in the Deepwater Gulf of Mexico and Implications on Well Planning, OTC 17279, paper presented at the 2005 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 2-5 May 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.4043/17279-MS. [18]: Rogers, S.,BP oil spill: the official Deepwater Horizon disaster timeline [online]. http:// www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2010/sep/09/bp-oil-spill-deepwater-horizon-timeline (in press; published online 9 September 2010, accessed 11 October 2012). [19]: BP, Deepwater Horizon accident [online]. http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle800.do? categoryId=9036575&contentId=7067541 (accessed 24 October 2012). [20]: Jones J. C., The 2010 Gulf Coast Oil Spill 2010, Birst edition: Ventus Publishing, http:// bookboon.com/no/laereboker/petroleum-gas-olie/the-2010-gulf-coast-oil-spill (accessed 21 October 2012). [21]: Shoegren, E., Cementing Becomes One Focus In Gulf Oil Probe [online]. http:// www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126536457 (in press; published online 5 May 2010, accessed 17 October 2012).
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[22]: Schwartz, N. and Weber, H. R., APNewsBreak: Series of failures led to rig blast [online]. http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9FIBKV00.htm (in press; published online 7 May 2010). [23]: BBC News, Oil spill in Gulf of Mexico in maps and graphics, [online]. http:// news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8651333.stm (in press; published online 10 May 2010, accessed 29 October 2012). [24]: Hannegan, D., Todd, R. T., Pritchard, D. M. and Jonasson, B., MPD Uniquely Applicable to Methane Hydrate Drilling, SPE-91560, paper presented at the SPE/IADC Underbalanced Technology Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 11-12 October 2004. http:// dx.doi.org/10.2118/91560-MS. [25]: Ebeltoft, H., Yousif, M. And Sgrd, E., Hydrate Control During Deepwater Drilling: Overview and New Drilling-Fluids Formulations, SPE-68207, March 2001. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.2118/68207-PA. [26]: Halliday, W., Clapper, D. K. and Smalling, M., New Gas Hydrate Inhibitors for Deepwater Drilling Fluids, IADC/SPE-39316, paper presented at the 1998 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., 3-6 March 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/39316-MS. [27]: Ravi, K. And Moore, S., Cement Slurry Design to Prevent Destabilization of Hydrates in Deewater Environment, SPE-113631, paper presented at the 2008 Indian Oil and Gas Technical Conference and Exhibition, Mumbai, India, 4-6 March 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/113631-MS.

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