Special

relativity

Special rela*vity postulate 1: The laws of physics hold true for all frames of reference. Special rela*vity postulate 2: The speed of light is a constant for all frames of reference.

Special relativity: Length Contraction

Objects travelling close to the speed of light seem to contract in the direc*on of mo*on
x x'

y z z'

y'

v2 L = L0 1 2 c

Special relativity: Time Dilation

Time is not an absolute quan*ty. It is rela*ve For objects moving close to the speed of light *me seems to run slower x x'

y z z'

y'

t=

t0 v2 1 2 c

The twin paradox

If you had a twin and when you were both 20 you boarded on a spaceship travelling at 95% the speed of light while they stayed here on Earth while you travelled for 25 years (as measured by your clock) and came back when you were 45, how old would your twin be?

t=

t0 v2 1 2 c

Relativistic mass
Rest (or invariant) mass = invariant quan*ty, same in all reference frames Rela*vis*c mass = dependent on the velocity of the observer The increase in eec*ve mass with speed is given by

mr =

m0 v2 1 2 c

Rela*vis*c mass is a term used when speaking about the total energy of a system.

Mass and energy

The energy E (in Joules) produced by a change of mass m (in kg) is given by 2

E = mr c

Where c = speed of light = 3108 m/s

In nuclear physics the eV is more commonly used as the unit of energy: 1eV = 1.610-19 J
1MeV = 1.6 10-13 J

Example
When 1kg of water absorbs 4.2103 J of energy to produce a temperature change of 1K. What is the increase in the mass of the water?

Example

226 88

Ra He +

4 2

222 86

Rn

If the mass decrease m for the decay of 1 atom of radium is 8.6x10-30kg, how much energy is released?

Uni?ied atomic mass

Energy can also be expressed in terms of mass The unied atomic mass unit (u) is dened as 1/12th the mass of the carbon atom 12C 6 How massive is 1 u? 1 u = 1.66 10-27 kg 1 u = 931 MeV

Binding Energy
The protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom are called nucleons The work of energy needed to take the nucleons apart is called the binding energy of the nucleus It is the energy associated with the strong nuclear force The mass defect (or mass dierence) of a nucleus is dened as the dierence between the mass of the separated nucleons and the combined mass of the nucleus The binding energy is the energy equivalent of the mass dierence (E=mc2)

Nuclear Forces and Binding Energy

These are the forces keeping atomic nuclei together They are always abrac*ve * They have a very short range (of the order of 2-3 femto- meters (x10-15)) A nucleus with a nucleon number (mass number) (N+Z) and a proton (atomic number) Z has Z protons and N neutrons Binding energy of atom N+Z X
Z

Binding energy = mass of N neutrons + mass of Z protons mass of nucleus N+Z X

Z

* at less than 0.5fm the nuclear force is repulsive so the nucleons do not touch

Example
A Helium nucleus has 4 nucleons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The mass of a proton is 1.0073 u and the mass of a neutron is 1.0087 u. If the mass of the Helium nucleus is 4.0015 u, what is a)the binding energy of the nucleus in MeV? b)the binding energy per nucleon in MeV? (1u = 931 MeV)

Binding energy curve

Fission

Fusion

Energy of disintegration
Consider a radioac*ve decay process by -par2cle emission
212 83
212 83

Bi He +
4 2

4 2

208 81

Tl + Q
208 81

atomic masses:

Bi = 211.99127u

He = 4.002604u

Tl = 207.98201u

Before: 211.99127u 83 me
Aker: (207.98201u 81 me) + (4.002604u 2 me) Mass loss: (total mass before) (total mass aker) = (211.99127u 83 me) (207.98201u 81 me + 4.002604u 2 me) = 0.006656u = 6.2 MeV

Energy of disintegration
Consider a radioac*ve decay process by -par2cle emission
90 38
90 38

Sr e + Y + v + Q
0 1

0 1

90 39

atomic masses:

Sr = 89.90730u

e = 0.00055u = me

90 39

Y = 89.90670u

Before: 89.90730u - 38 me
Aker: (89.90670u 39 me) + me Mass loss: (total mass before) (total mass aker) = (89.90730u 38 me) (89.90670u 39 me + me) = 0.00060u = 0.56 MeV

Energy of disintegration
Consider a radioac*ve decay process by +-par2cle emission
30 15
30 15

P e + Si + + Q
0 +1

0 +1

30 14

atomic masses:

P = 29.97832u

e = 0.00055u = me

30 14

Si = 29.97376u

Before: 29.97832u - 15 me
Aker: (29.97376u 14 me) + me Mass loss: (total mass before) (total mass aker) = (29.97832u 15 me) (29.97376u 13 me) = 0.00456u 20.00055u = 0.00346u = 3.22 MeV

Nuclear ?ission
Fission happens when a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei The nucleus is deeply divided into two large ssion fragments of roughly equal mass The mass decrease (and hence the energy released, Q) is appreciable Other neutrons are emibed in the process (called ssion neutrons)
235 92

U+ n

1 0

144 56

Ba + Kr + 2 n + Q

90 36

1 0

Chain reac2on: ssion neutrons produce further ssion

To Do
Read chapter 30 [p.614-626 Nuclear Energy]