Water

Waste water is mainly result of Anthropogenic activities. Origin of waste water: 1) Domestic waste water 2) Industrial waste water 3) Muncipal Waste water Domestic waste water is that which discharge from residential and commercial complex is. Human waste, usually from lavatories: (faces, used toilet paper, wipes, urine, other bodily fluids) also known as black water Washing water (personal, clothes, floors, dishes, etc.) also known as grey water or sullage Rainfall collected on roofs, yards, hard-standings, etc. (traces of oils and fuel but generally clean) Surplus manufactured liquids from domestic sources (drinks, cooking oil, pesticides, lubricating oil, paint, cleaning liquids, etc.) Muncipal Waste water In urbanized areas, municipal wastewaters (mainly sewage) generally are conveyed to a point of treatment through sewers. Sewers carry some level of flow during all hours of the day and night. Groundwater infiltrated into sewerage. Urban rainfall run-off from roads, car-parks, roofs, side-walks or pavements (contains oils, animal faces, litter, fuel residues, rubber residues, metals from vehicle exhausts etc) Industrial waste: Industrial site drainage (silt, sand, alkali, oil, chemical) Industrial cooling waters (biocides, heat, slimes, silt) Industrial process waters Organic - bio-degradable - includes waste from abattoirs and creameries and icecream manufacture. Organic - non bio-degradable or difficult to treat - for example Pharmaceutical or Pesticide manufacturing Solids and Emulsions - e.g. Paper manufacturing, food stuffs, lubricating and hydraulic oil manufacture agricultural drainage - direct and diffuse

Waste water constituents: Suspended solids can cause sludge deposits and anaerobic conditions in the environment, eg. sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics, etc. 1

 Biodegradable organics can cause anaerobic conditions in the environment & Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, biodegradable organics are measured most common in terms of BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) and COD (chemical oxygen demand). If discharged untreated to the environment, their biological stabilization can lead to the depletion of natural oxygen resources and to the development of septic conditions Pathogens transmit disease, eg. bacteria, viruses, prions and parasitic worms Nutrients can cause Eutrophication Heavy metals toxicity to biota and humans Refractory organics toxicity to biota and humans Dissolved solids interfere with reuse, eg. ammonia, road-salt, sea-salt, cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, etc Emulsions such as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants, emulsified oils, etc. Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.

Water Pollutants & their Effects Oxygen demanding Waste: 1. Dissolved Oxygen: Dissolved Oxygen is essential for sustaining the plant and animal life in aquatic system. The difference between the saturation concentration and the concentration of oxygen actually present in water at given time is called as oxygen deficit (D). D = CS CL. When the oxygen level falls below the saturation value, oxygen from the atmosphere diffuses into the water body, at the rate proportional to Deficit. This is known as Reaeration. During day time the aquatic plants, while undergoing Photosynthesis, gives out Oxygen, hence the concentration of DO increases, During night the Plants as well as microorganisms compete for Oxygen, thus decreasing the concentration of oxygen. When the oxygen demanding waste enter the aquatic system causing its deoxygenation, since the dissolved oxygen is consumed in their breakdown by microorganisms, hence the organic substance are said to exert demand on availability of dissolved oxygen.

 Pollution results when the oxygen demand exceeds the oxygen availability. The discharge of waste into the water body results in the depletion of dissolved oxygen level as they are oxidized by the bacteria. This process is opposed by reaeration which replaces oxygen. The simultaneous action of deoxygenation and reaeration produces what is called as Oxygen Sag Curve. The sag curve initially drops as the depletion of Oxygen in waste water is faster that reaeration. At the point where the DO level is minimum, the rate of reaeration becomes equal to the rate of deoxygenation, and the DO level begins to increase and return to normal. DC is critical concentration of dissolved oxygen, corresponding to Critical time. Critical time is the time at critical point when the conditions will be at its worst. The DO level will be minimum and if it reaches zero, then anaerobic conditions may prevail leading to death of aerobic aquatic inhabitants.
Saturation value DO

DC

DO

Time

Oxygen Sag Curve 2. Biological Oxygen Demand: Biological Oxygen Demand is a measure of the oxygen utilized by micro organisms during the oxidation of organic materials. It is the most widely known measure for assessing the water pollution potential of a given organic waste.

 The demand for oxygen is directly proportional to the amount of organic waste that has to be broken down. BOD is direct measure of oxygen requirements and indirect measure of Biodegradable organic matter. Drinking water has BOD of less than 1 ppm (mg/lt), water with BOD = 5 ppm has doubtful purity. When the waste water contains carbonaceous as well as nitrogeneous materials than we get two stage BOD. During the first stage the carbonaceous materials are broken down into CO2 and H2O and NH3. The nitrifying bacteria oxidizes NH3 to nitrites and then to nitrates. Hence the second hump, as the nitrifying bacteria exerts additional oxygen demand.

B O D

Nitrification Stage

Carbonaceous Stage

TIME

3. Disease Causing Agents: Pathogens are the disease causing micro organisms, carried by the water bodies coming from sewage, farms, industries, etc. Some of these bacteria are water borne, responsible for disease like cholera, typhoid, dysentery, etc. Polio viruses and infectious hepatitis viruses are also part of the sewage water. 4. Synthetic Organic Compounds: These include pesticides, synthetic organic chemicals and detergents. These compounds are not biodegradable and hence may persists for long periods. These are of greater concerns, as these compounds are accumulative toxic poisons and may ultimately reach the objectionable levels in water bodies.

 The polyphosphate builders released from detergents are the major problem as they contribute to increased phosphate levels in water stream which eventually acts as nutrients for aquatic life, thus posing the trouble of eutrophication. 5. Plant Nutrients: In waste water the nutrients are present in abundance in the form of phosphates, nitrates, ammonia or combined organic nitrogen. When unusually high levels of nutrients are present in water bodies, it leads to excess growth of algae. This produces green slime layer over the surface of water body and subsequently leads to eutrophication. This layer also reduces light penetration and restricts atmospheric reoxygenation of water. The excess algal growth can result in clogging of filter in the treatment plants. If high concentration of nitrates is present in the drinking water, these nitrates are converted into nitrites in the intestine by bacterial action. When these enter the blood stream, it becomes attached to hemoglobin, forming a complex called methaemoglobin. As a result oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is reduced. 6. Inorganic Chemicals: Inorganic acids are the major source of water pollution. Acids can cause corrosion of metals and concrete and is fatal to fish. Cadmium, discharged with effluents from pigment, textile, electroplating industries, etc. and be lethal to aquatic plants and animals even at the concentrations of 0.1 ppm. The permissible level in drinking water is 0.01 ppm. Lead is a cumulative poison and concentrates preliminary in the bones. Permissible limits in drinking water are 0.05 ppm. Mercury is the most toxic aquatic pollutant. Its permissible levels are 0.002 ppm. Silver is also cumulative poison and can cause discoloration of skin in humans. Its permissible limit in drinking water is 0.05ppm. 7. Thermal Discharges: An increase in temperatures of water bodies decreases the oxygen saturation percentage and lowers the DO levels.

 The hot layer, which itself holds less oxygen, prevents the reoxygenation of cooler layers below it, thus the DO levels falls rapidly. The metabolic activity of micro organisms increases with temperature at the rate which is double for every 10 0 C increase in temperature. Thus increase in temperature causes decrease in oxygen available and an increase in oxygen consumption.

Impact of Discharge on Natural Cycles The impact on cycles in the receiving water varies based on the following factors: 1. Degree and type of treatment Wastewater receiving only Primary Treatment will have a greater negative impact on the receiving stream than wastewater receiving Primary and Secondary Treatment. 2. Discharge flow rate A greater volume of flow will carry a greater mass of pollutants to the receiving stream. 3. Discharge characteristics The more pollutants that are removed during treatment, the lesser the impact on the receiving stream. 4. Dilution in receiving stream Relates to discharge flow rategenerally, the greater the dilution with the receiving stream, the lesser the impact of the discharge. 5. Ambient quality of receiving stream Characteristics of the stream before discharge is introduced will impact on the amount of additional pollutants the stream can receive and still regenerate itself. 6. Amount of mixing of discharge with receiving stream Mixing affects dilution of the discharge. Generally, better mixing of the discharge with the receiving stream will prevent localized impacts from a concentrated discharge. 7. Use of receiving stream Some uses (e.g., recreation or drinking water source) will require that the wastewater meet stricter discharge limits, requiring a higher degree of treatment. Determination of Organic matter: Dissolved Oxygen: Procedure: It is based on the reaction of dissolved oxygen with manganese Ions to form a precipitate of manganese dioxide.

 The manganese dioxide is then treated with iodine ions when iodine is liberated in an amount chemically equivalent to the original dissolved oxygen. The liberating iodine is determined, by titrating it with sodium thiosulfate. The presence of nitrites and iron in the solution can interfere with original DO determination. This is eliminated by use of azide, permanganate and the alum to remove nitrite, iron and suspended solids respectively. Biological Oxygen Demand: Procedure: Two standard 300 ml BOD bottles are filled completely with the waste water of which the BOD is to be measured and the bottles are sealed. The waste water may have high oxygen demand to deplete all the dissolved oxygen in the sample before the end of 5 days, thus interfering with the test. Hence the sample is diluted to a large extent with high purity water, the diluting water is made up of deionized water, appropriate nutrients, phosphate buffer, trace elements and seeding organisms (usually small amount of sewage water). A blank titration is carried out on diluting water, which is subtracted from the results of the actual waste water. DO content of one bottle is determined immediately. The other bottle is incubated at 20 C for 5 days in total darkness, after which its oxygen content is measured. The difference between the two DO values is the amount of oxygen that is consumed by microorganisms during the 5 Day. Incubation of 5 days @ 20 C is required for complete breakdown of carbonaceous matter. The oxygen demand for nitrifying bacteria is assumed to be negligible, as the nitrification is very slow.

Chemical Oxygen demand: In COD the oxidizing bacteria of BOD test are replaced by a strong oxidizing agent under acidic conditions. The COD test does not distinguish between organic matter that are biodegradable and those that are not, hence gives the measure of total oxidizable organic matter in sample.

 COD test is valuable for wastes where BOD test is not applicable due to presence of toxic substance, low oxidizing rates, presence of algae in the waste water. BOD / COD ratio are indicators of degree of biodegradability of the waste. Ratios of 0.8 or higher indicate wastes that are highly positive to biological treatment, where as ratios lower than 0.8 indicate that the waste are not favaourable to biological treatment. Procedure: Waste water sample is mixed with excess with an excess of potassium dichromate and sulfuric acid and the mixture is heated under total reflux conditions for 2 hours. Chlorine interference can be eliminated by adding mercuric sulfate to the sample prior to the addition of other reagents. During digestion the chemically oxidizable organic material reduces a stoichiometrically equivalent amount of dichromate, the remaining dichromate is titrated with standard ferrous ammonium sulfate solution. The amount of potassium dichromate reduced gives a measure of amount of oxidizable organic material. Chlorine and nitrites present in the waste interferes with the COD tests by oxidizing and thereby reducing dichromate, resulting in inorganic COD, which makes the result erroneous. Total Organic carbon (TOC): It is oxidation of total carbon (organic as well as inorganic carbon) present in the waste sample, measure by NDIR. TOC can be performed in short span of time and hence offers valuable support to COD and BOD results. Empirical correlation between TOC, COD and BOD, for a specific plant, can be estimated and established and it possible to obtain a tentative estimate of the plant performance quickly. Suspended Solids: The determination of suspended matter is extremely important, as it contributes to significant oxygen demand since majority of the suspended solids are organic in nature. Two types of suspended solids: 1) filterable solids and 2) suspended solids. Filterable solids are those, that pass through filter media and consists of colloidal and dissolved solids. Suspended solids are retained by the filter media and their min diameter is 1 micron.

 The suspended solids are treated at 600 C, the organic matter is oxidized at this temperature is known as Volatile suspended solids (VSS) and the inorganic remains as ash is termed as Non Volatile Suspended Solids (NVSS) In Actual analysis, the waste water is evaporated and at the temperatures of 105 110 C and the residue is dried and weighed. The residue weight is the TSS. Alkalinity: Alkalinity is due to presence of bicarbonates, carbonates and hydroxides of Calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. Determination of total alkalinity is important parameter for water softening, chemical treatment of waste water, corrosion control, etc. It is measured by titrating the sample against the standard (N/50) sulfuric acid. If the pH of the sample is > than 8.3 than phenolphthalein indicator is used for titration until the solution becomes colorless, which gives the bicarbonate alkalinity. The titration is further carried on, now using methyl orange indicator, which gives colour change from yellow to red. This gives total alkalinity. Drinking water standards: Parameters Turbidity Taste and odour pH TDS DO BOD Hardness (CaCO3) Chlorides Sulfates Fluorides Nitrates Iron Zinc Hg and Phenol Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons Acceptable limit (ppm) 10 NTU Acceptable 6.5 8.5 1000 1500 > 6 ppm < 2 ppm 200 250 250 150 0.8 1.5 45 0.1 5 0.001 each 0.001

TREATMENT PROCESS Preliminary Treatment Screening Degritting Pre-Aeration Flow Metering and Sampling Primary Treatment Sedimentation and Flotation Secondary Treatment Biological Treatment Sedimentation

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Removes rags, sticks, and other debris; protects pumping equipment Removes settleable inorganic grit Adds oxygen to the wastewater to reduce odors Measures and records flows; sample wastewater for analyses of components

Removes settleable organic and inorganic particles and floating debris such as fats, oils, and greases

Removes dissolved and remaining colloidal organic matter; can convert ammonia-nitrogen to nitrate-nitrogen Separates biomass and chemical precipitates from treated wastewater

Tertiary (Advanced) Treatment Chemical Phosphorus Removal Biological Nutrient Removal Multimedia Filtration

Adds chemical to form precipitate with phosphorus for removal in the secondary clarifiers Removes nitrogen and phosphorus using specialized microorganisms Removes additional suspended solids (beyond that obtained by simple settling) using gravity or pressure filters

Disinfection Disinfection Solids Treatment Digestion Disposal

Kills pathogenic organisms

Stabilizes remaining organic matter; results in overall net reduction in solids Moves stabilized solids from plant to farmland for recycling or to landfill

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PRIMARY TREATMENT Primary treatment comprises of pretreatment and sedimentation step. 1) PRIMARY TREATMENT Waste water is pretreated to remove large floating and suspended solids which could interfere with normal operation of subsequent treatment process. Pretreatment sometimes also involve chlorination to prevent any odour that may emanate during subsequent process. Pretreatment consists of screening and grit removal a) screening: Screen of different shapes and sizes are used depending on the type of solid to be removed. Screens are either manually or mechanically cleaned. Bar screens are the most commonly used screens, they are either manually raked or mechanically raked. They are parallel metal bars having aperture size of 20 60 mm for coarse screening and 10 20 mm for fine screening. Screening produces material that must be disposed off in satisfactory manner that may include incineration, burial, grinding or digestion. Removes or reduces size of solids which may interfere with downstream processes. Designed to remove floating material and larger suspended solids. Generates head loass.

Screenings Disposal Screenings material is very offensive. Stinks. Attracts vermin and flies. May contain organic material. Disposal in accordance with environmental regulations or permit requirements. Generally landfilled.

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b) Grit Chamber: Grit is the heavier mineral matter found in wastewater. Sand, cinders, eggshells, etc. Will not decompose. Causes excessive wear on pumps and other mechanical equipment. Can clog pipes or accumulate in tanks and digesters. Should be removed as soon as possible after reaching plant. Grit Chambers are generally long chambers, with very low inlet velocity of waste water so as to facilitate the settling of grit. The grit can be removed by scrapping. Grit consists of sand, gravel, cinders and pebbles. Grit chambers are preceded by screens Grit chambers are provided to protect pumps from abrasion and to reduce the formation of heavy deposits in pipes and channels. When comminutors are used than it is preceded by Grit Chamber.

Grit Disposal Disposal in accordance with environmental regulations or permit requirements. Generally landfilled c) Comminutors: Comminutor is the device used to avoid disposal problems faced by screening. It replaces screening Cuts and shreds retained material to approximately size. Material not removed from flow. Material removed by sedimentation later in the treatment process. Comminutors grind larger solids which can later be handled by sedimentation tanks.

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2) SEDIMENTATION Settle able solids are removed by gravity settling under quiescent conditions. The sludge is formed at the bottom of the tank and is removed by vacuum suction or by raking it to the discharge point at the bottom of the tank for withdrawal. The clear liquid known as overflow is removed from top. It should not contain readily settleable particles. Minimum time spend by the liquid in settling tank is 2 3 hrs. Three types of flow is possible in the settling tank: o Rectangular horizontal Flow: Feed is introduced at one end along the width of the tank and the overflow is collected at the surface across the other end. An endless conveyor scrapper is used to scrape the floating material and pushes it into sludge trough/hopper. o Circular radial Flow: Feed is introduced through a centre well and the clarified effluent is collected at the weirs along the periphery of the tank. Sludge removal occurs by the help of rotary sludge scrapper which forces the settled down the sloping bottom into the central hopper, from where it is withdrawal. Often used in large ETPs. o Vertical Flow: feed enters at a point along the bottom and the clarified effluent is collected at top. A sludge blanket is maintained in the lower part of the tank through which suspension rises. It is important to bleed the sludge timely so as maintain the desired blanket. SETTLING THEORY Discrete Particle and flocculent particle behaviour are the two particles behaviour that occurs in sedimentation tanks. The discrete particle behaviour, particles do not interfere with one another their shape, size and mass remains constant during settling. In flocculent settling the particles agglomerate during the settling and do not posses constant characteristics. The settling of particles in suspension depends on the concentration and the flocculating properties. Discrete Settling: Sedimentation of particles from suspentions is unhindered by the presence of other settling particles and is function only of the properties of the fluid anf 13

the particle under consideration. In discrete settling all particles having velocities greater than terminal velocity of the critical particles will settle, where as the particles having velocities lower than the terminal velocity of the critical particle will not settle. The critical particle is the one that enters at the top of settling zone and settles with velocity (Vt) just sufficient enough to reach the bottom of the sludge zone. Terminal settling velocity of the slowest settling particle that could be completely removed in an ideal settling tank depends on the flow rate of entering waste stream and the surface area of the sedimentation tank and not on the depth of the tank. Flocculent Settling: It occurs when settling velocities of particles increases due to coalescence with other particles. Coalescence increases with increase in bed depth and overflow. This phenomenon is clearly observed in primary clarifiers. Zone Settling: It occurs when suspension is dense and the particles are so closely placed that the velocity field of fluid displaced by the adjacent particles during settling overlap. There is upward displacement of fluid with the reduction in the settling velocities of the particles. (hindering effect). It occurs at very high concentrations where the suspension tends to settle with distinct interface between the settling solids and the clear liquid above it. (zone settling). This type of settling is observed in activated sludge process. 4 zones are clearly observable: Initially the solid concentration is uniform, but with time a clear liquid forms at top and an interface develops. Zone A: Clear Liquid. Zone B: Uniform Concentration: Hindered settling condition occur in this zone. Zone C: Transient Zone: The velocity decreases due to high concentration of solids. Zone D: Sludge : The main mechanism is compressive settling as the solids are supported mechanically by the particles beneath them. Ultimately only two zones remain viz clarified liquid and sludge.

Coagulation & Flocculation

What are Colloids? Small particles (0.001 to 1 m) Usually negatively charged Particles repel so suspension is considered stable 1. Very small particles causing turbidity do not settle due to gravitational forces. 2. This colloids are minute, charged particles (usually negatively charged), exhibit Brownian motion and are held in suspension. 3. Colloids are stable, hence if this destabilization is removed and smaller particles are made to combine with the bigger mass by addition of coagulant like alum or Iron salts, settling will take place easily, quickly and readily in the sedimentation tank. What is Coagulation? Charge neutralization is the commonly termed as coagulation.

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What is Flocculation? Building of larger flocs from the smaller particles is called as flocculation flocculation is a "process of contact and adhesion whereby the particles of a dispersion form larger-size clusters". Flocculation is synonymous with agglomeration and coagulation. Many flocculants are multivalent cations such as aluminum, iron, calcium or magnesium. These positively charged molecules interact with negatively charged particles and molecules to reduce the barriers to aggregation. In addition, many of these chemicals, under appropriate pH and other conditions such as temperature and salinity, react with water to form insoluble hydroxides which, upon precipitating, link together to form long chains or meshes, physically trapping small particles into the larger floc. Examples of coagulants: Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O Ferric chloride: FeCl3 Ferric sulfate: FeSO4 Polyelectrolytes Reaction with coagulants: Al2(SO4)314H2O 2Al3++ 3SO42-+ 14H2O 2Al3+ + colloids neutralize surface charge 2Al3+ + 6HCO3- 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 If insufficient bicarbonate is available: Al2(SO4)314H2O 2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4 -+ 14H2O o Optimum pH: 5.5 to 6.5 o Operating pH: 5 to 8 Steps of Coagulation: Addition of Coagulants Neutralization of particles. Aggregation and Binding Factors influencing coagulation: pH of water: pH of water is important for selecting a coagulant, Alum works in slightly alkaline pH (6 - 8), whereas iron salts are effective in pH (5 9). High Temperatures: At higher temperatures, viscosity of water (resistance to settling) decreases, hence flocs settle better. Turbidity: More the turbidity more is the removal. Addition of activated Silica / polyelectrolyte: Addition of activated Silica or polyelectrolyte (having characteristics of polymer and electrolysis) aid the process of coagulation. Floatation: Used for Industrial wastewater treatment containing finely divided particles or oily matter. Particles of density close to water are difficult to settle and takes longer time for settling.

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In floatation separation is brought about by introducing fine gas bubbles into the liquid phase. The bubbles attach to the particulate matter and the buoyant force of the combined particle and gas bubbles is great enough to cause particles to rise to the surface. The advantage of floatation over sedimentation is that, very small or light particles that settle slowly can be easily removed in a short span of time. Used in paper industry, oil industry, metal finishing industry , pharmaceutical industry. To aid in the floatation process, chemical coagulants are added like aluminium and ferric salts or polymer coagulants. This chemical increase the flocculent structure so that they can easily entrap air bubbles

Types of Floation: 1) Dissolved air floatation 2) Dispersed air floatation 3) Vacuum Floatation Dissolved Air Floatation: Air is dissolved in waste water under a pressure of several atmospheres, followed by release of pressure to atmospheric level. In small tanks the entire flow is held in retention tank under pressure for several minutes to allow time for the air to dissolve. It is then admitted through a pressure reducing valve to a floatation tank, where the air comes out of solution in form of minute bubbles through the entire volume of liquid. In some larger units portion of clear effluent is recycled, pressurized and semi saturated with air with the result that air comes out of solution at the entrance of the tank Dispersed Air Floatation: In this system, air bubbles are formed by introducing the gas phase directly into the liquid phase through a revolving impeller or through diffusers. Disadvantage of this process, it causes turbulance which breaks up fragile flocs. Vacuum Floatation: It consists of saturating the waste water with either direct aeration or dissolved air floatation. Partial vacuum is applied which causes the dissolved air to come out of solution as minute bubbles. The bubbles and the attached minute particles rise to the surface to form a blanket which is removed by skimming mechanism.

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SECONDARY TREATMENT: Why secondary treatment? Dissolved impurities are removed. The organic matter that exerts high demand for oxygen must be reduced further so that the effluent is rendered suitable for the discharge into water bodies. Provide BOD removal beyond what is achieved in primary treatment removal of soluble BOD additional removal of suspended solids Microorganisms stabilizes the waste matter. Convert colloidal and dissolved carbonaceous organic matter into various gases and cell tissue known as protoplasm. Density of protoplasm is higher than water, it can be easily removed by settling. Two methods: Aerobic Process Anaerobic Process Biological or secondary treatment is very similar in concept to natural biodegradation of organic matter by aerobic bacteria. In biological treatment plant the oxygen supplied to the bacteria is consumed under controlled conditions so that most of the BOD is removed in treatment plant rather than in watercourse. Aerobic Process: Wide spectrum of organic matter could be oxidized. Gives very stable end products The end product includes CO2, Water and new cell tissues. Capable of high growth rates thus generates large amount of biological sludge. Suitable for waste water containing BOD5 less than 700 mg/l Anaerobic Process: This process does not require oxygen for breaking the organic matter. Complex organic compounds are broken down and converted to low molecular weights fatty acids by acid formers (acetic and propionic acids). Methanogenic bacteria convert the organic acid into methane gas and CO2. Cell production is very low, hence low sludge formation. Generally used to stabilize the sludge produced in aerobic process and waste water with BOD more than 700 mg/l. Basic Ingredients for Secondary treatment: High density of microorganisms (keep organisms in system) Good contact between organisms and wastes (provide mixing) Provide high levels of oxygen (aeration) Favorable temperature, pH, nutrients (design and operation) No toxic chemicals present (control industrial inputs)

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Classification of Micro organisms Nutritional Requirements: On the basis of chemical form of carbon required, microorganisms are classified as Autotrophic: organisms that use CO2 or HCO3- as their sole source of carbon. Heterotrophic: organisms that use carbon from organic compounds. Energy Requirements: On the basis of energy source required, microorganisms are classified as Phototrophs: organisms that use light as their energy source. Chemotrophs: organisms that employ oxidation-reduction reactions to provide energy. They are further classified on the basis of chemical compounds oxidized (i.e., electron donor) Chemoorganotrophs: Organisms that use complex organic molecules as their electron donor. Chemoautotrophs: Organisms that use simple inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia as their electron donor. Temperature Range: On the basis of temperature range within which they can proliferate, microorganisms are classified as Psychrophilic: organisms whose growth is optimum within 15 to 30C. Mesophilic: organisms whose growth is optimum within 30 to 45C. Thermophilic: organisms whose growth is optimum within 45 to 70C. Oxygen Requirements: On the basis of oxygen requirement microorganisms are classified as Aerobes: organisms that use molecular oxygen as electron acceptor. Anaerobes: organisms that use some molecule other than molecular oxygen as electron acceptor. Facultative organisms : organisms that can use either molecular oxygen or some other chemical compound as electron acceptor. Microorganism Growth: LAG Phase: The bacteria initially acclimatize to their new surroundings and starts synthesizing new cells. Need to regenerate pools of essential nutrients before growth can resume. LOG GROWTH Phase: The bacteria cell divide exponentially depending upon their ability to process food and their generation time. Cells in optimum growth state, divide repeatedly by binary fission at maximal rate STATIONARY Phase: As the food becomes exhausted the log growth phase tapers off. The population remains constant as a result of balance between growth of new cells and death of old cells. DEATH Phase: As the limitation of food supply increases, bacterial death rate increases the production of new cells.

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Types of Secondary treatment: Dispersed Growth suspended organisms Activated sludge Oxidation ditches/ponds Aerated lagoons, stabilization ponds Fixed Growth attached organisms Trickling filters Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs)

Activated Sludge Process:

Activated sludge consists of sludge particles, teeming with living organisms, produced in either raw or settled wastewater by the growth of organisms (which include bacteria) in aeration tanks where dissolved oxygen is present. The Activated Sludge Process is one of several biological wastewater treatment alternatives in Secondary Treatment. When Activated Sludge is added to wastewater, the organisms in this mixed liquor quickly decompose the wastes in the wastewater being treated. After a required period of aeration and agitation in the aeration tank, the mixed liquor usually flows to a separate tank called a clarifier where the activated sludge is allowed to settle out and the remaining liquid is discharged as effluent. The settled sludge is either disposed of as waste activated sludge or reused in the aeration tank as return activated sludge. Some sludge must always be returned to the aeration tanks to maintain an adequate population of organisms.

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Process uses microorganisms to speed up decomposition of wastes. Food is known as Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). Organism mass is called Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS). When wastewater is added to activated sludge: Microorganisms feed and grow on waste particles in the wastewater. As organisms grow and reproduce, waste is removed and wastewater is partially cleaned. Organisms need a balance of food (BOD) and oxygen. BOD is inherent in the wastewater and oxygen is added by aeration equipment. The balance of food to organism mass is known as F/M ratio, food to microorganism ratio. An appropriate F/M ratio is necessary to obtain proper performance from the activated sludge process. Oxidation and removal of soluble or suspended solids is the result of the activated sludge process in waste treatment. This treatment takes place in a few hours in an aeration tank. Stabilized soluble or suspended solids occur when organisms partially oxidize solids. Organism activity forms carbon dioxide, water, sulfate, and nitrate compounds. Remaining solids are changed to a form that can be settled and removed as sludge during sedimentation.

F/M Impact: Low F/M (low rate of wasting) starved organisms more complete degradation larger, more costly aeration tanks more O2 required higher power costs (to supply O2) less sludge to handle High F/M (high rate of wasting) organisms are saturated with food low treatment efficiency More sludge Aeration Types: Conventional Systems Tapered aeration Step aeration Complete mix system

Oxidation Ditches Continuous channel extended aeration process. Usually no primary settling. 20

 Mixing and aeration provided by brush rotor assemblies. Organic loading, Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) 2000 to 6000 mg/L.

Trickling Filters: Good adaptability to handle peak shock loads Ability to function satisfactorily after a short period of time Affected by weather Used mainly for milk processing, paper, pharma and domestic waste water. Rotating distribution arm sprays primary effluent over circular bed of rock or other coarse media, 1 3 m in depth. Air circulates in pores between rocks Biofilm develops on rocks and micro-organisms degrade waste materials as they flow past As the microorganisms utilize the organic matter, the thickness of the biofilm increases, it is no longer supported by solid and gets detached from the surface. This process is known as sloughing. The sloughs are removed in settling tank that follows the filter Not a true filtering or sieving process Material only provides surface on which bacteria to grow Can use plastic media lighter - can get deeper beds (up to 12 m) reduced space requirement larger surface area for growth greater void ratios (better air flow) less prone to plugging by accumulating slime

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Abnormal Conditions
Ponding Results from a loss of open area in media bed. Causes Excessive organic loading. Lack of primary clarification. Improper media selection. Accumulated fibrous material filling media voids. Odors Aerobic process no serious odors should exist.

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 Foul odors indicate anaerobic conditions. Filter Fly Tiny, gnat-sized fly (psychoda). Most frequently found in low-rate filters. Control Increase recirculation rate. Apply approved insecticides. Flood filter. Results in poor effluent quality. Should be carefully monitored. Apply chlorine dose. Sloughing Excessive film loss is an indication that there are problems with the biological activity within the filter media.

Rotating Biological Contactors:

A fixed film system similar to trickling filters. A Rotating Biolgoical Contactor (RBC), is a secondary biological treatment process which utilizes a rotating shaft surrounded by plastic media discs. RBCs utilize a fixed film media system similar to a trickling filter. The microbial growth is passed through the wastewater, however, while the wastewater is passed through the microbial growth in a trickling filter. Biological growth attaches to the media discs and form a slime layer over the discs. The rotation of the shaft alternately exposed the biomass with the wastewater and then with the oxygen in the atmosphere. RBCs are typically preceded by preliminary treatment processes such as screening and grit removal as well as primary treatment such as primary settling. RBCs are typically followed by secondary settling tanks and disinfection. Media

Media is moved through wastewater. Rotating shaft surrounded by plastic discs called media. Slime grows on plastic media. As media drum rotates, media is alternately submerged in wastewater and exposed to air. Consists of series of closely spaced discs mounted on a horizontal shaft and rotated while ~40% of each disc is submerged in wastewater Discs: light-weight plastic Slime is 1-3 mm in thickness on disc

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Appearance of Media A gray, shaggy appearing biological slime is indicative of a system designed strictly for BOD removal. A brown, thinner, less shaggy biological slime is indicative of a nitrifying system. Sloughing : Sloughing is the term used to refer to the process in which excess microbrial growth separates from the media and is washed to the secondary clarifiers with the treated wastewater. The excess slime will settle out in the secondary clarifiers and be removed from the system. Covered Generally covered for reasons relating to climatic conditions. Protect slime from freezing. Prevent rain from washing slime from media. Avoid exposure to sunlight o Prevents growth of algae. o Prevents deterioration of media. Provides some protection for operators from sun, rain, snow, wind, etc. during maintenance.

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LOW TECH SOLUTIONS/ ADVANCED BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT: The terms, treatment ponds and treatment lagoons, are used interchangeably. There are three basic classifications, or types, of ponds utilized for wastewater treatment. These include aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative ponds. Aerobic Ponds contain dissolved oxygen (DO) throughout the entire depth of the pond all the time. Treatment is accomplished through the stabilization of organic wastes by aerobic bacteria and algae. Dissolved oxygen can be introduced into a pond through several means. Algae, like other plants, emit dissolved oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis.. Wind, blowing across the surface of a pond, will cause oxygen to be absorbed into the water. Mechanical aeration devices agitate the water surface to cause spray and waves so that oxygen can be absorbed from the air. Some mechanical devices include paddle wheels, mixers, and rotating brushes. Diffused aeration utilizes a blower system to discharge air into the water. The air stream is broken into fine bubbles; the smaller the bubbles, the greater the oxygen transfer. Anaerobic Ponds function without dissolved oxygen (DO) throughout any of its depth. Treatment is accomplished by anaerobic bacteria at the bottom of the pond, which ferment the sludge. Anaerobic ponds have a depth of eight (8) to twenty (20) feet, and a typical detention time of 20 to 50 days. These ponds are ideal for pretreating strong industrial wastewater, such as that from food processing functions. A deep sludge blanket covers the bottom of these ponds, while a scum layer covers the surface. The scum layer is important to the pond because: It helps to minimize offensive odors It blocks transfer of DO through surface contact It helps insulate the pond or lagoon to ensure ideal conditions for sludge fermentation. Facultative Ponds contain a supernatant (upper) layer that is aerobic, and lower layers that are anaerobic. Facultative ponds typically range from three (3) to eight (8) feet in depth.5 The detention time can be as short as 25 days or as long as 180 days.6 The primary operational problem with facultative ponds is that the presence of algae in the effluent results in high total suspended solids. Advantages of Ponds Compared to conventional treatment processes, ponds and lagoons offer many advantages for smaller installations. Treatment ponds and lagoons: 1. Are economical to operate 2. Are capable of handling high flows 3. Are adaptable to changing loads

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 Have an increased potential design life Serve as wildlife habitat Consume little energy. Disadvantages of Ponds There are a few disadvantages to ponds and lagoons. The facilities: 1. May cause odors 2. Require large land areas 3. Are affected by climactic conditions 4. May have high suspended solids levels in effluent 5. Might contaminate groundwater. Do not have the daily sludge wasting that a conventional system has. After 5 - 10 years of operation sludge has built up and needs removed. Lagoon operators should put aside a portion of their budget each year for sludge removal, even though actual removal may be only once every 5 years. Removal of sludge from a lagoon requires quite a bit of time and labor, especially when compared to a conventional system Chemical Oxidation Chemical oxidants such as Chlorine, Ozone and Hydrogen peroxide are used for removing organic materials that are resistant to biological or other treatment processes. Widely used as disinfectants Chlorine inactivates the bacteria present in waste water before it is discharged to receiving streams. When added to water chlorine forms hypochlorous acid (HOCl). Waste water normally contains ammonia, thus hypochlorous acid reacts with it forming monochloramine, dichloramine and trichloramine. This choramines are stable and can be removed easily. Chlorine is also used to oxidize cyanide to CO2 and NOx. It is carried out in the alkaline pH (~8.5) to prevent generation of poisonous Hydrogen cyanide gas Ozone is the powerful oxidizing agent and disinfectant used in substitute for chlorine. It is useful for removal of color, taste and odor. Advantage of ozone is, it leaves no undesirable byproducts such as organic chlorides. Effective in oxidation of many organic materials including pesticides, surfactants, cyanides and phenols.

SLUDGE TREATMENT & DISPOSAL Handling and disposal of sludge from waste water treatment plant is a big problem and costs around 50 % of cost of treatment plant. Primary treatment sludge contains around 5% solids Secondary treatment (activated sludge) contains ~ 1% solids.

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 Trickling filters contains ~ 2% solids. Volume reduction is the most economical method. Sludge also needs to be stabilized (to stop biological activity) Characteristics of Sludge: Primary sludge contains organic matter as well as inorganic matter Secondary sludge contains bacterial biomass High level of plant nutrients. Enhanced level of toxic metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, zinc, copper, chromium. Pathogens POPs. Treatment & Disposal Methods: Steps in sludge removal are: Concentration: Digestion Conditioning Dewatering Oxidation Ultimate Disposal Concentration: The purpose of concentration is remove water and reduce the volume of sludge. Common methods employed for this are gravity settling / floatation. Gravity settlers concentrate the sludge to 5 9% solids whereas floatation concentrates the sludge to 4 5% solids. Sludge is concentrated to reduce the volume as far as possible so that sludge can be handled more effectively. Digestion: The sludge is stabilized by digestion after thickening. Digestion is done either under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. In anaerobic digestions (most common method) the organic content of the sludge is decomposed to give methane and CO2 at the same time bound water is released from the sludge. Properly digested sludge is black in color and has a faint smell and is stable. Raw sludge is fed to active digestion zone and gas lifts the sludge particles and other materials which forms supernatant layer on top of digestion zone. The gas is collected at top and the digested sludge is withdrawn from bottom. Normal detention period in standard digester varies from 30 70 days. In aerobic digestion the sludge is aerated in an open tank for about 20 days. During the process substantial portion of sludge is oxidized reducing the solid content by ~30%.

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Conditioning: The sludge after stabilizing is conditioned to improve its dewatering characteristics. Conditioning is carried out by adding chemicals like iron salts, alum, lime and polyelectrolyte. These chemicals bind the sludge particles together and encourage the release of absorbed water. Sometimes sludge is heated under pressure, this breaks down the gel structure of the sludge and water is released. This treatment has advantage of sterilizing the sludge, also allowing the oxidization of sludge thus completely stabilizing it. Dewatering: Dewatering is done for efficient handling of sludge. Methods employed are centrifugation and filtration. In centrifugation the solid cake from bowl is conveyed by screw conveyor to the oxidation treatment. Drying beds are also used, it consists of filtering medium on which sludge is applied and dewatering takes place by combination of evaporation and drainage. Heat drying is the modern technique used in application where the sludge needs to be incinerated or when it is a saleable commodity. Oxidation: Final oxidation is carried out to remove bacteria and reduce the volume of sludge. Incineration is common technique used (either in furnace or fluidized bed dryer). It results in oxidation of sludge and vaporization of moisture. The dried sludge is finally disposed. Wet oxidation is also used in which sludge is ground, mixed with air and subjected to high temperature and high pressure in a reactor. The mixture of gas liquid and ash leaves the reactor Ultimate Disposal: Wet sludge is sprayed on croplands/ fields where it works as fertilizer or fertilizer base.

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 Dried sludge is used as landfill or soil conditioner. Methods of Ultimate disposal: Land fill

Sea Dumping

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Agriculture land application

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Sylviculture and Forestry application

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Land reclaimation

Incineration with energy recovery

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Gasification

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