What is VSWR?

Everyone has heard at least. Many knows that a bad VSWR affects the performance of the Network. But what about you: do you know what it means, and why we need to know how to use these measures?

VSWR
To understand what is VSWR, we need to talk a little bit about signal propagation in radio frequency systems. Simply put, the radio frequency signals are driven by electric cables between transmitters / receivers to their respective antennas.

By its definition, VSWR or Voltage Standing Wave Ratio is a ratio of peak voltage on the minimum amplitude of voltage of standing wave. It does not help much, does it? In radio frequency systems, the characteristic impedance is one of the most important factors to consider. In our case this factor is typically 50 Ohms. This is a constructive parameter, ie is some characteristic determined by its construction. In the case of a cable for example, depends on the size of the inner and outer conductors, and the type of insulation between them. All components of a link cables, connectors, antennas - are constructed to have the same impedance. When we insert an element in our system, we have what we call the Insertion Loss, which can be understood as something that is lost, taking into account what that actually went in and came out. And this loss occurs in two ways - by Attenuation - especially on cable - and y Reflection. As for the attenuation along the cables, there's not much we can do. Part of the signal is lost along the cable by the generation of heat and also by unwanted radiated off the handle. This loss is characteristic of the same, and defined in terms of dB per lenght unit - the longer the cable is, the greater is the loss. This attenuation also increases with increasing temperature and frequency. Unfortunately, these factors are not much scope of our control, since the frequency is already preset by the system we use, and the temperature will be exposed to climatic variations of where the cable has to pass . The most we can do is try to use cable with less attenuation , ie, cableswith high quality materials used in its construction of the drivers internal and external and insulating dielectric . As a rule, the larger the diameter of the cable, the lower your attenuation. Typical values of diameters are 1/2 ", 7/8" and 1 5/8 ". The choice of coaxial cable for the system is a process that requires a very comprehensive analysis, taking into account its characteristics (is it softer, etc ...) and costs of several options of existing cables,

necessary cable length - and the consequent loss that it will introduce, the loading of the tower or brackets where cables will be posted, among others.

But the other form of loss that we have in our system, and can be controlled a bit more is the loss by reflection, ie loss of the signal, which has just returned, lost by the end where it was injected. For this reason we call the Return Loss. If there is any problem in the middle between the transmitter / receiver and antennas - such as a fold or infiltration of water - half ends with the impedance mismatch. So, part of the signal which ideally should leave by the antenna, then returns reflected! Speaking in terms of the matching impedances, if the value of X, Y and Z are equal, we have the following.

Now with values close to the real impedance unmatched scenario, have the following.

If we consider an ideal transmission line, the VSWR would be 1:1, ie all the power to reach your destination, with no reflection (nothing lost).

And the worst means of transmission in the world, we would have infinite VSWR, ie all the power would be reflected (lost).

In practice
It is clear that there is an ideal system, one that is not the worst in the world. What happens is that there are maximum VSWR that each application can accept. The typical value in our case is 1.5:1. So what are the problems that we can in a bad VSWR (very large)? Besides the power radiated effectively be much smaller than it should be, may also occur the burning of electronic components that have no protection for that unwanted reflected signal. So as basic recommendations:
Avoid bending the cables to the fullest - making turns as smooth as possible - and tighten the connectors: isolating the system that does not suffer problems like water seepage or poeira. o In addition, the connectors and cables must be made by professionals, and using professional equipment. It does not help tighten a connector evil feito. Use always the best quality components possible: no equipment is perfect, and even the processes of production glitches arise. The quality of the material and manufacturing process of the elements is paramount so as to achieve a better quality of sinal. Check that all elements of the system have the same impedance.

Tables and Graphs

Is not the goal here to explain what are the standing waves, because understanding requires significant wave theory, but a simple and very interesting for you to see - and understand - as these waves are formed is shown on the site bessernet.com. Be sure to visit the link below. Enter a value of return loss, hit enter, and check! http://www.bessernet.com/Ereflecto/tutorialFrameset.htm The magnitudes of reflection VSWR, Return Loss dB and Power Reflected% are related, and can be converted into one another, using the formulas or tables below. For the standing wave (please visit link above to understand first):

And for the power transmitted and reflected:

With some values we have tabulated the table below.

Here comes a good tip: Understand the return loss as 'How much weaker, in dB, the reflected unwanted signal is, compared with the transmitted signal? " In the case of 1.5:1, power is 14 dB below the original value, or 4% was lost. Note that a VSWR of 1.9:1 almost 10% of energy is lost!

Conclusion
To conclude, we can then understand the VSWR as an indicator of signal reflected back to the transmitter radio frequency, always taking the value 1 in the denominator. And the lower this index, the better! Thus, a radio frequency system with 1.4:1 VSWR is better than one with 1.5:1! And another with 1:1 VSWR would have a perfect impedance matching. In other words, occurs only in theory. Finally, the VSWR in a radio frequency system can be measured by special equipment. One of them, and well known, is the Master Site. With mode "Distance-To-Fault" you can identify the location of problems in a damaged system.

Parameter Timing Advance (TA)

The Timing Advance parameter is very important in many applications and procedures of the GSM system.

What is Parameter Timing Advance (TA) in GSM?

The Timing Advance is a parameter that allows the GSM BTS to control the signal delays in their communication with the mobile. More specifically, is calculated by the delay of information bits in Data Access Burst received by BTS.

Recalling a little: GSM uses TDMA with sequential designated timeslots to allow different users sharing the same frequency. A burst represents the physical content of a timeslot and can be of 5 types: Normal, Frequency Correction, Synchronization, Access or Dummy.

Each burst can carry bits of different types: Information, Tail, Training Sequence. We have eight timeslots, each user transmits within 1 / 8 of that time, periodically. The arrival time in each slot is then known. Users are randomly located around the station, a closer and more distant, yet we can consider the propagation environment as being the same for everyone. So if we know the time and speed that the signal travels, we calculate the distance! And how to use this parameter, not only to just check how far we are from BTS?

Applications
A major application of this parameter, you control the time at which each mobile can transmit a burst of traffic within a timeslot in order to avoid collisions of transmissions of the other adjacent users.

The TA signal is transmitted in the SACCH as a number between 0 and 63, in units of bit periods (3.69 microseconds). If the signal travels at 300 meters per microsecond, each TA is a distance of approximately 1100 meters. Because this is the distance round, each increase in the value of TA corresponds to a distance 550 between the mobile and BTS. For example, TA = 0 means that the mobile is up to 550 meters from the station, TA = 1 means it is between 550 and 1100 meters, TA = 2, from 1100 to 1650 meters and so on.

The maximum distance allowed by the TA between the MS and BTS is 35 km (GSM 850 / 900) * 63 or 550 meters. So, for example during a test drive, we can measure how far we are from the BTS through the value of TA. He does not give us the position exta, but gives an accurate range of 550 meters. Controlling interference by continually adjusting the TA, we have less data loss, and improve the quality of our signal. As this is a parameter directly related to distance, it is natural that the TA is also used in locating applications. Another good application is the handover control. Imagine you have a cell that uses two concentric bands. You can set as a condition to allow the handover from one band to another. More specifically: if you have a cell with 850/1900, you can set the band 850 as BCCH, and 1900 only to traffic. The TA threshold to control the terminal so it does not make for the 1900 handover if you're far from the BTS.

Extended Range
Despite the limitation of the GSM standard is 35 km as we speak, you can enable a feature that allows the TA is greater than 63. For this, the station receives the uplink signal in two adjacent timelots, instead of just one.

Conclusion
This was a brief explanation of the parameter TA in GSM.

What is Antenna Electrical and Mechanical Tilt (and How to use it)?
The efficiency of a cellular network depends of its correct configuration and adjustment of radiant systems: their transmit and receive antennas. And one of the more important system optimizations task is based on correct adjusting tilts, or the inclination of the antenna in relation to an axis. With the tilt, we direct irradiation further down (or higher), concentrating the energy in the new desired direction. When the antenna is tilted down, we call it 'downtilt', which is the most common use. If the inclination is up (very rare and extreme cases), we call 'uptilt'. Note: for this reason, when we refer to tilt in this tutorial this means we're talking about 'downtilt'. When we need to talk about 'uptilt' we'll use this nomenclature, explicitly. The tilt is used when we want to reduce interference and/or coverage in some specific areas, having each cell to meet only its designed area.

Although this is a complex issue, let's try to understand in a simple way how all of this works? Note: All telecomHall articles are originally written in Portuguese. Following we translate to English and Spanish. As our time is short, maybe you find some typos (sometimes we just use the automatic translator, with only a final and 'quick' review). We apologize and we have an understanding of our effort. If you want to contribute translating / correcting of these languages, or even creating and publishing your tutorials, please contact us: contact.

But Before: Antenna Radiation Diagram

Before we talk about tilt, it is necessary to talk about another very important concept: the antennas radiation diagram. The antenna irradiation diagram is a graphical representation of how the signal is spread through that antenna, in all directions. It is easier to understand by seeing an example of a 3D diagram of an antenna (in this case, a directional antenna with horizontal beamwidth of 65 degrees).

The representation shows, in a simplified form, the gain of the signal on each of these directions. From the center point of the X, Y and Z axis, we have the gain in all directions. If you look at the diagram of antenna 'from above', and also 'aside', we would see something like the one shown below.

These are the Horizontal (viewed from above) and Vertical (viewed from the side) diagrams of the antenna.

But while this visualization is good to understand the subject, in practice do not work with the 3D diagrams, but with the 2D representation. So, the same antenna we have above may be represented as follows.

Usually the diagrams have rows and numbers to help us verify the exact 'behavior' in each of the directions.
The 'straight lines' tells us the direction (azimuth) as the numbers 0, 90, 180 and 270 in the figures above. And the 'curves' or 'circles' tells us the gain in that direction (for example, the larger circle tells you where the antenna achieves a gain of 15 db).

According to the applied tilt, we'll have a different modified diagram, i.e. we affect the coverage area. For example, if we apply an electrical tilt of 10 degrees to antenna shown above, its diagrams are as shown below.

The most important here is to understand this 'concept', and be able to imagine how would the 3D model be, a combination of its Horizontal and Vertical diagrams.

Now yes, what is Tilt?

Right, now we can talk specifically about Tilt. Let's start reminding what is the Tilt of an antenna, and what is its purpose. The tilt represents the inclination or angle of the antenna to its axis.

As we have seen, when we apply a tilt, we change the antenna radiation diagram. For a standard antenna, without Tilt, the diagram is formed as we see in the following figure.

There are two possible types of Tilt (which can be applied together): the electrical Tilt and Mechanical Tilt.

The mechanical tilt is very easy to be understood: tilting the antenna, through specific accessories on its bracket, without changing the phase of the input signal, the diagram (and consequently the signal propagation directions) is modified.

And for the electrical tilt, the modification of the diagram is obtained by changing the characteristics of signal phase of each element of the antenna, as seen below.

Note: the electrical tilt can have a fixed value, or can be variable, usually adjusted through an accessory such as a rod or bolt with markings. This adjustment can be either manual or remote, in the latter case being known as 'RET' (Remote Electrical Tilt) usually a small engine connected to the screw stem/regulator that does the job of adjusting the tilt. With no doubt the best option is to use antennas with variable electrical tilt AND remote adjustment possibility, because it gives much more flexibility and ease to the optimizer. However these solutions are usually more expensive, and therefore the antennas with manual variable electrical tilt option are more common. So, if you don't have the budget for antennas with RET, choose at least antennas with manual but 'variable' electrical tilt only when you have no choice/options, choose antennas with fixed electrical tilt.

Changes in Radiation diagrams: depends on the Tilt Type

We have already seen that when we apply a tilt (electrical or mechanical) to an antenna, we have change of signal propagation, because we change the 3D diagram as discussed earlier.

But this variation is also different depending on the type of electrical or mechanical tilt. Therefore, it is very important to understand how the irradiated signal is affected in each case. To explain these effects through calculations and definitions of db, null and gains on the diagram is possible. But the following figures shows it in a a much more simplified way, as horizontal beamwidth behaves when we apply electrical and mechanical tilt to an antenna. See how is the Horizontal Irradiation Diagram for an antenna with horizontal beamwidth of 90 degrees.

Of course, depending on the horizontal beamwidth, we'll have other figures. But the idea, or the 'behavior' is the same. Below, we have the same result for an antenna with horizontal beamwidth of 65 degrees.

Our goal it that with the pictures above you can understand how each type of tilt affects the end result in coverage one of the most important goals of this tutorial. But the best way to verify this concept in practice is by checking the final coverage that each one produces. To do this, then let's take as a reference a simple 'coverage prediction' of a sample cell. (These results could also be obtained from detailed Drive Test measurements in the cell region).

Then we will generate 2 more predictions: the first with electrical tilt = 8 degrees (and no mechanical tilt). And the second with only mechanical of 8 degrees.

Analyzing the diagrams for both types of tilt, as well as the results of the predictions (these results also can also be proven by drive test measures) we find that: With the mechanical tilt, the coverage area is reduced in central direction, but the coverage area in side directions are increased. With the electrical tilt, the coverage area suffers a uniform reduction in the direction of the antenna azimuth, that is, the gain is reduced uniformly.

Conclusion: the advantages of one tilt type to another tilt type are very based on its application when one of the above two result is desired/required. But in General, the basic concept of tilt is that when we apply the tilt to an antenna, we improve the signal in areas close to the site, and reduced the coverage in more remote locations. In other words, when we're adjusting the tilt we seek a signal as strong as possible in areas of interest (where the traffic must be), and similarly, a signal the weakest as possible beyond the borders of the cell. Of course everything depends on the 'variables' involved as tilt angle, height and type of antenna and also of topography and existing obstacles. Roughly, but that can be used in practice, the tilt angles can be estimated through simple calculation of the vertical angle between the antenna and the area of interest. In other words, we chose a tilt angle in such a way that the desired coverage areas are in the direction of vertical diagram. It is important to compare:
the antenna angle toward the area of interest; the antenna vertical diagram.

We must also take into account the antenna nulls. These null points in antenna diagrams should not be targeted to important areas. As basic formula, we have:

Angle = ArcTAN (Height / Distance) Note: the height and distance must be in the same measurement units.

Recommendations
The main recommendation to be followed when applying tilts, is to use it with caution. Although the tilt can reduce interference, it can also reduce coverage, especially in indoor locations.

So, calculations (and measurements) must be made to predict (and check) the results, and if that means coverage loss, we should re-evaluate the tilt. It is a good practice to define some 'same' typical values (default) of tilt to be applied on the network cells, varying only based on region, cell size, and antennas heights and types. It is recommended not to use too aggressive values: it is better to start with a small tilt in all cells, and then go making any adjustments as needed to improve coverage/interference. When using mechanical tilt, remember that the horizontal beamwidth is wider to the antenna sides, which can represent a problem in C/I ratio in the coverage of neighboring cells. Always make a local verification, after changing any tilt, by less than it has been. This means assessing the coverage and quality in the area of the changed cell, and also in the affected region. Always remember that a problem may have been solved ... but another may have arisen!

Documentation
The documentation is a very important task in all activities of the telecommunications area. But this importance is even greater when we talk about Radiant System documentation (including tilts). It is very important to know exactly 'what' we have currently configured at each network cell. And equally important, to know 'why' that given value has changed, or optimized. Professionals who do not follow this rule often must perform rework for several reasons simply because the changes were not properly documented. For example, if a particular tilt was applied to remove the interfering signal at a VIP customer, the same should go back to the original value when the frequency plan is fixed. Other case for example is if the tilt was applied due to problems of congestion. After the sector expansion (TRX, Carriers, etc), the tilt must return to the previous value, reaching a greater coverage area, and consequently, generating overall greater revenue. Another case still is when we have the activation of a new site: all neighboring sites should be reevaluated both tilts and azimutes. Of course that each case should be evaluated according to its characteristics and only then deciding to aplly final tilt values. For example, if there is a large building in front of an antenna, increasing the tilt could end up completely eliminating the signal. In all cases, common sense should prevail, evaluating the result through all the possible tools and calculations (as Predictions), data collection (as Drive Test) and KPI's.

Practical Values
As we can see, there's not a 'rule', or default value for all the tilts of a network. But considering the most values found in field, reasonable values are:
15 dBi gain: default tilt between 7 and 8 degrees (being 8 degrees to smaller cells). 18 dBi gain: default tilt between 3.5 and 4 degrees (again, being 4 degrees to smaller cells).

These values have tipically 3 to 5 dB of loss on the horizon.

Note: the default tilt is slightly larger in smaller cells because these are cells are in dense areas, and a slightly smaller coverage loss won't have as much effect as in larger cells. And in cases of very small cells, the tilt is practically mandatory otherwise we run the risk of creating very poor coverage areas on its edges due to antenna nulls. It is easier to control a network when all cells have approximately the same value on almost all antennas: with a small value or even without tilt applied to all cells, we have an almost negligible coverage loss, and a good C/I level. Thus, we can worry about - and focus - only on the more problematic cells. When you apply tilts in antennas, make in a structured manner, for example with steps of 2 or 3 degrees document it and also let your team know this steps. As already mentioned, the mechanical tilt is often changed through the adjust of mechanical devices (1) and (2) that fixes the antennas to brackets.

And the electrical tilt can be modified for example through rods or screws, usually located at the bottom of the antenna, which when moved, applies some corresponding tilt to the antenna.

For example in the above figure, we have a dual antenna (two frequency bands), and of course, 2 rods (1) and (2) that are moved around, and have a small display (3) indicating the corresponding electrical tilt one for each band.

And what are the applications?

In the definitions so far, we've already seen that the tilts applications are several, as to minimize neighboring cells unwanted overlap, e.g. improving the conditions for the handover. Also we can apply tilt to remove local interference and increase the traffic capacity, and also cases where we simply want to change the size of certain cells, for example when we insert a new cell.

In A Nutshell: the most important thing is to understand the concept, or effect of each type of tilt, so that you can apply it as best as possible in each situation.

Final Tips

The tilt subject is far more comprehensive that we (tried to) demonstrate here today, but we believe it is enough for you to understand the basic concepts. A final tip is when applying tilts in antennas with more than one band. This is because in different frequency bands, we have different propagation losses. For this reason, antennae that allow more than one band has different propagation diagrams, and above all, different gains and electrical tilt range. And what's the problem? Well, suppose as an example an antenna that has the band X, the lower, and a band Y, highest. Analyzing the characteristics of this specific antenna, you'll see that the ranges of electrical tilt are different for each band. For example, for this same dual antenna we can have:
X band: electrical tilt range from 0 to 10 degrees. Y band: electrical tilt range from 0 to 6 degrees.

The gain of the lower band is always smaller, like to 'adjust' the smaller loss that this band has in relation to each other. In this way, we can achieve a coverage area roughly equal on both bands of course if we use 'equivalent' tilts. Okay, but in the example above, the maximum is 10 and 6. What would be equivalent tilt? So the tip is this: always pay attention to the correlation of tilts between antennas with more than one band being transmitted! The suggestion is to maintain an auxiliary table, with the correlation of these pre-defined values. Thus, for the electrical tilt of a given cell:
X Band ET = 0 (no tilt), then Y Band ET = 0 (no tilt). Ok. X Band ET = 10 (maximum possible tilt), then Y Band ET = 6 (maximum possible tilt). Ok. X Band ET = 5. And there? By correlation, Y Band ET = 3!

Obviously, this relationship is not always a 'rule', because it depends on each band specific diagrams and how each one will reach the areas of interest. But worth pay attention to not to end up applying the maximum tilt in a band (Y ET = 6), and the 'same' (X ET = 6) in another band because even though they have the same 'value', actually they're not 'equivalent'. After you set this correlation table for your antennas, distribute it to your team so, when in the field, when they have to change a tilt of a band they will automatically know the approximate tilt that should be adjusted in the other(s).

And how to verify changes?

We have also said previously that the verifications, or the effects of tilt adjustments can be checked in various ways, such as through drive test, coverage predictions, on-site/interest areas measurements, or also through counters or Key Performance Indicators-KPI.

Specifically about the verifications through Performance counters, in addition to KPI directly affected, an interesting and efficient form of verification is through Distance counters. On GSM for example, we have TA counters (number of MR per TA, number of Radio Link Failure by TA). Note: we talked about TA here at telecomHall, and if you have more interest in the subject, click here to read the tutorial. This type of check is very simple to be done, and the results can be clearly evaluated. For example, we can check the effect of a tilt applied to a particular cell through counters in a simple Excel worksheet.

Through the information of TA for each cell, we know how far the coverage of each one is reached. So, after we change a particular tilt, simply export the new KPI data (TA), and compare the new coverage area (and also the new distributions/concentrations of traffic). Another way, perhaps even more interesting, is plotting this data in a GIS program, for example in Google Earth. From the data counters table, and an auxiliary table with the physical information of cells (cellname, coordinates, azimuth) can have a result far more detailed, allowing precise result checking as well.

Several other interesting information can be obtained from the report (map) above. When you click some point, we have its traffic information. The color legend also assists in this task. For example, in regions around the red dots, we have a traffic between 40 and 45 Erlangs. In the same logic, light yellow points between 10 and 15 resulting Erlangs according to legend see what happens when we click at that particular location: we have 12.5 Erlangs.

Another piece of information that adds value to the analysis, also obtained by clicking any point, is the percentage of traffic at that specific location. For example, in the yellow dot we have clicked, or 12.5 Erlangs = 14% out of a total of 88.99 Erlangs that cell has (the sum of all points).

Also as interesting information, we have the checking of coverage to far from the site, where we still have some traffic. In the analysis, the designer must take into account if the coverage is rural or not. If a rural coverage, it may be maintained (depends on company strategy). Such cases in sites located on cities, are most likely signal 'spurious' and probably should be removed for example with the use of tilt!

The creation and manipulation of tables and maps processed above are subject of our next tutorial 'Hunter GE TA', but they aren't complicated be manually obtained mainly the data in Excel, which already allow you to extract enough information and help.

Conclusion
Today we've seen the main characteristics of tilts applied to antennas. A good tilts choice maintains network interference levels under control, and consequently provides best overall results. The application of tilt always results in a loss of coverage, but what one should always bear in mind is whether the reduced coverage should be there or not! Knowing well the concept of tilt, and especially understanding the different effects of mechanical and electrical tilt, you will be able to achieve the best results in your network. As always, we do that our last ever request: If you liked this tutorial, please share it with your friends: so you give us reason to continue publishing new articles like this! Thank you!

What is Modulation?
When we think about communication in a telecommunications system, the first thing that comes to mind is someone talking to another person. Although it may seem simple, the transmission and reception of information is quite complex, considering the many possibilities and scenarios where this may occur. And one of the main schemes is involved in the modulation. So try to understand what it is today. Note: Our goal here is to be as simple and straightforward as possible. For example, do not reach the level of demonstration of theorems such as Nyquist and Shannon - involved in the issue. This reading, however it is recommended further or if you have more interest in the subject. Anyway, try to pass the ideas and concepts. Later, you can extend your studies, if any, so much clearer.

What is modulation?
Let's start with the basic function of any communication system, transmitting information from one location to another. Speaking simply so, it seems a simple process ... but it is not! To try to identify the many concepts and processes involved, let us consider a communication between two people. If these people are close, one speaks and another listens.

We already can observe some basic concepts.

The information power where the sound of the voice, is given by the capacity of the lungs of each which can whisper, talk or sream. The transmission medium this information is the air or free space. Who speaks is the transmitter, and who is listening is the receiver.

If these people are far away, then the communication needs other means, such as a telephone line or a radio channel frequency.

Note that now we introduce new digital devices, besides other techniques to allow the original data - in this case the voice - is crafted so as to reach the other person. The information coming out of the transmitter needs to be changed (modulated) to then be transmitted. At the receiver, must do the reverse process, or the demodulation of the information, converting the same to the original information.

More concepts ...

Modulation : changing the characteristics of the signal being transmitted. Demodulation , the reverse process of modulation.

So far so good? So let's continue ... Our voice, as well as most of the sounds found in nature, is analog. Until there are purely analog transmitters, such as the transmission of AM and FM. But let us not worry about it, almost everything today is even digital. Before our voice to be transmitted, it must be converted. For this, there are digital devices that convert analog voice through a process of sampling and quantization.

The analog signal is first sampled first, then quantified into levels. Each of these levels is then converted to a binary number. Below, we see an analog signal (blue) with its equivalent digital signal (red). Using only two levels, we have:

If we use 4 leves, we have the following:

A specific type of modulation, PCM - Pulse Code Modulation is the method used to convert the voice signal into digital signal, and generally used in telephony. Between the maximum amplitude and minimum signal levels are set 16 (0 to 15), and these are encoded as binary numbers (0000, 0001, ..., 1111).

For our voice is considered an effective bandwidth - lower limits 300 Hz, and upper limit between 3500 and 4000 Hz. Sampling rate is 8000 / s. We have a stream of 64 Kb / s: 8000 samples x 1 byte = 64.000 bits / second (64 kbps). Okay, at this point we have then the signal of our voice digitally represented by binary numbers. Now let's see how the other digital modulation techniques? Digital modulation has advantages over analog. For example, it is much easier to recover the signal, because we avoid the accumulation of noise and distortion - compared to the analog modulation. (In cases of various modulations/remodulations). Furthermore, the streams of digital bits are much more suitable for various multiplexing schemes.

But while the benefits are large, digital modulation also has its disadvantages. The main one is that it requires more bandwidth than analog methods. And then come the techniques developed to minimize this problem.
The digital signal compression: to reduce the number of bits needed to carry the same information. The use of advanced modulation techniques: increasing the number of bits carried by Hertz or bandwidth - QPSK, OQPSK, GMSK, etc ...

So let's talk a little about these modulation techniques. First, let's get used to the characteristics of modulation (change) of the RF signal. It can be basically of three types:
Frequency Amplitude Phase

The following figure helps to understand this, where we see a reference signal - the first - and their corresponding modulations altering the frequency (1), amplitude (2) and phase (3).

All of these techniques alter a parameter in the sine signal somehow representing the information we have. Let us now make one more little analogy that will help us establish the concepts of modulation.

Imagine a person, a night in an apartment like the one shown below, with two windows. Suppose further that this person wants to communicate with his girlfriend, far away.

This person has combined with his girlfriend that he turn the light on the right, it means 1. If he turn the light on the left, means 0. We say that this signal then has 1 dimension, because the person uses only one dimension (goes from one side to another) to indicate a change of symbol. When it glows, we have a symbol. (Since we have two windows, we have two symbols. In this case a symbol represents a bit). Congratulations, you just know a modulation technique for the first phase: BPSK!

BPSK
BPSK means Binary Phase Shift Keying modulation. This modulation uses a sinusoidal signal and varies its frequency to transmit information. In our example, turning on the light from every window. Each symbol is indicated by the change of position. In BPSK, is signaled by changing the phase of sinusoidal signal, a phase of 0 and one with 180 degrees. So, could you understand? Bringing the xy axis, the BPSK signal will have only the x-axis. Given our signal as a vector, it is like it switches back and forth that axis. Indeed, the axis here is no longer called xy, but IQ. The letter I means a carrier 'In Phase' with the carrier signal. And in the letter Q means 'Quadrature' (or perpendicular). Then we have the figure below represents the BPSK modulation.

As an example, see how it is transmitted at 0110 bits sequence using BPSK modulation. Note: For demonstration purposes, we use a frequency of 1 Hz, where it is easy to see the variations. Actually, this frequency is much higher, but would expose what we want.

QPSK
Now let's return to the example of lovers. Suppose now the boyfriend has moved to a different apartment, as shown below. Now, see that he combined a new code for each lamp was lit. In other words, each symbol carries two bits. For example, if it light up right on the top floor means 11.

You've probably made the analogy with the xy axis, or rather IQ:

OQPSK
Offset QPSK is a variation of QPSK, where only one channel I or Q can vary by time. The goal is to offer better performance in some applications, with a lower rate of bit errors. The signal is more 'friendly'to the transmitter.

In the case of lovers, the boy who was in the right window of the upstairs could only go down or sideways.

In the diagram below you can see the possibilities of transition of OQPSK and QPSK.

FSK
In FSK - Frequency Shift Keying, signal carrier always has the same amplitude, and never suffers from discontinuous phase changes. That signal is switched between two frequencies, according to the value of the bits.

This type of signal is called envelope-constant, and suffers less distortion in applications with high-power amplifiers.

MSK

Minimal Shift Keying is a particular type of FSK, in which the deviation of the peak frequency is equal to half the bit rate.

This minimum frequency separation allows the detection of two orthogonal binary states. This type of modulation has many advantages. It has an improved spectral efficiency, compared to other PSK modulation schemes. It's kind of envelope-constant - as we speak, and suffers less distortion in applications with high-power amplifiers. For mobile phones, this contributed to a lower consumption of battery - good thing, isn't it?

GMSK
GSMK is basically the MSK signal applied to a Gaussian filter, which reduces the speed of the rapid transitions of frequencies, which ended before spreading the energy in adjacent channels. With this spectrum modulation turns out to be even smaller.

Well, we only show some of the existing modulation schemes. Anyway, these are the key, and our initial objective - the concept of modulation - has been shown.

Other Modulation Schemes

Although complex modulation schemes are able to encapsulate large amounts of data in a relatively small bandwidth, they are much more vulnerable to noise and distortion during transmission. Other important modulation schemes are:
/4 DQPSK 8PSK (it's like 2 x QPSK - 000 ... 111) 16 QAM 64 QAM

A more detailed explanation of these types is then for another opportunity, because until now we have extended too much for today. Finally, here is a table with some comparisons of modulation schemes.

Conclusion
This was a brief explanation of modulation scheme used to change the characteristics of the signal being transmitted, allowing for greater efficiency in this process. We explained the basic concepts, and know some of the main types of modulation, particularly those used in Telecom and IT.

RSSI: Signal Strength

What is Signal Strength/RSSI?

The Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) or Signal Strength is a measure of how strong the most recent signal was when it reached its destination. The RSSI value ranges from 0 to 255. Higher RSSI values indicate a stronger signal. Reliable communication can best be achieved with RSSI values greater than 70. If the RSSI is too low the wireless communications may become intermittent or fail entirely. Sometimes the RSSI value will have signal strength bars next to it. These bars are designed to give an easily understood indication of the relative signal strength based on the RSSI. Commissioners should take the RSSI indication into account when setting up and installing a system. The Control system will inform the user if the RSSI is too low for reliable communications and the installer should use one of the methods available to boost or increase the RSSI level

What should I do if the signal strength is too low? Signal strength is affected by the distance between the devices and any objects that are directly between them. Metal and liquids can block the signal that wireless products use to communicate. The best ways to improve signal strength are to remove metallic objects from the path of the signal and move the devices closer together if possible. If the signal is still too low, repeaters or additional antennas can be used to extend the range of the network. For more information on extending the range of a wireless network please refer to the Repeaters and Signal Boosters and Wireless Accessories pages.

Received Signal Strength Indication

In telecommunications, received signal strength indicator (RSSI) is a measurement of the power present in a received radio signal. RSSI is a generic radio receiver technology metric, which is usually invisible to the user of the device containing the receiver, but is directly known to users of wireless networking of IEEE 802.11 protocol family. RSSI is often done in the intermediate frequency (IF) stage before the IF amplifier. In zero-IF systems, it is done in the baseband signal chain, before the baseband amplifier. RSSI output is often a DC analog level. It can also be sampled by an internal ADC and the resulting codes available directly or via peripheral or internal processor bus. RSSI in 802.11 implementations In an IEEE 802.11 system RSSI is the relative received signal strength in a wireless environment, in arbitrary units. RSSI is an indication of the power level being received by the antenna. Therefore, the higher the RSSI number (or less negative in some devices), the stronger the signal.

RSSI can be used internally in a wireless networking card to determine when the amount of radio energy in the channel is below a certain threshold at which point the network card is clear to send (CTS). Once the card is clear to send, a packet of information can be sent. The end-user will likely observe a RSSI value when measuring the signal strength of a wireless network through the use of a wireless network monitoring tool like Wireshark, Kismet or Inssider. As an example, Cisco Systems cards have a RSSI_Max value of 100 and will report 101 different power levels, where the RSSI value is 0 to 100. Another popular Wi-Fi chipset is made by Atheros. An Atheros based card will return an RSSI value of 0 to 127 (0x7f) with 128 (0x80) indicating an invalid value. There is no standardized relationship of any particular physical parameter to the RSSI reading. The 802.11 standard does not define any relationship between RSSI value and power level in mW or dBm. Vendors provide their own accuracy, granularity, and range for the actual power (measured as mW or dBm) and their range of RSSI values (from 0 to RSSI_Max). The subtlety of 802.11 RSSI comes from how it is sampled; RSSI is acquired during the preamble stage of receiving an 802.11 frame. To this extent 802.11 RSSI has (for the most part) been replaced with Received Channel Power Indicator. RCPI is an 802.11 measure of the received RF power in a selected channel over the preamble and the entire receivedframe with defined absolute levels of accuracy and resolution. RCPI is exclusively associated with 802.11 and as such has some accuracy and resolution enforced on it throughIEEE 802.11k-2008. Received signal power level assessment is a necessary step in establishing a link for communication between wireless nodes. However, a power level metric like RCPI generally can't comment on the quality of the link like other metrics such as travel time measurement (ToA).
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Dropped-call rate
In telecommunications, the dropped-call rate (DCR) is the fraction of the telephone calls which, due to technical reasons, were cut off before the speaking parties had finished their conversation and before one of them had hung up (dropped calls) This fraction is usually measured as a percentage of all calls. A call attempt invokes a call setup procedure, which, if successful, results in a connected call. A connected call may be terminated (disconnected) due to a technical reason before the parties making the call would wish to do so (in ordinary phone calls this would mean before either of the parties has hung up). Such calls are classified as dropped calls. In many practical cases this definition needs to be further expanded with a number of detailed specifications describing which calls exactly are counted as dropped, at what stage of the call setup procedure a call is counted as connected, etc. In modern telecommunication systems, such as cellular (mobile) networks, the call setup procedure may be very complex and the point at which a call is considered successfully connected may be defined in a number of ways, thus influencing the way the dropped-call rate is calculated. The dropped-call rate in conventional (so-called land-line) networks is extremely low and is significantly less than 0.01%. In mobile communication systems using radio channels the dropped-call rate is higher and may range for commercial networks between 0.1% and a few percent. The main reasons for dropped calls in mobile networks are lack of radio coverage(either in the downlink or the uplink), radio interference between different subscribers, imperfections in the functioning of the network (such as failed handover or cell-resellectionattempts), overload of the different elements of the network (such as cells), etc. The dropped-call rate is one of the key performance indicators (KPI) used by the network operators to assess the performance of their networks. It is assumed to have direct influence on the customer satisfaction with the service provided by the network and its operator. The dropped-call rate is usually included, together with other technical parameters of the network, in a key performance indicator known as call retainability.

The operators of telecommunication networks aim at reducing the call dropped rate as much as practical and affordable. In mobile networks this is achieved by improving radio coverage, expanding the capacity of the network and optimising the performance of its elements, all of which may require considerable effort and significant investments on the part of the network operator.