STAGE 1 What is psychology?

Science, study, behaviour Science: Based on evidence (as opposed on opinion) There will be a demonstration (kantlamak) about this towards the end. Study: Experimentation, observation. Behaviour: Anything we do (talk, listen, think) WILHELM WUNDT -Founded the firs psychology laboratory. -Aim to understand conscious experience. -By breaking it down into sensations, perceptions, feelings... -This approach is called STRUCTURALISM. WILLIAM JAMES -Also interested in consciousness -Believed mental process such as consciousness served certain functions. FUNCTIONALISM: Psychology, the study of mental process, should focus on the function served by these mental processes. JOHN B. WATSON -Founded behaviourism: -Psychology should be the study of observable behaviour (and not of the mental processes, which can be directly observed) MAX WERTHEIMER: GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY The whole is greater then the sum of its parts. Experience is more than the sum of sensations. Your brain seeks patterns and predictability. Mental experience cannot be understood by breaking it down into its component parts. Because: mental experience is different than the sum of the sensations that make it up. SIGMUND FREUD -Focussed on the unconscious. -Freud believed behaviour is controlled by conscious as well as unconscious motivations.

PSYCHO-ANALYSIS: A therapy method for treating patients by resolving these unconscious conflicts. 1-Behavioural Perspective: The focus is still on behaviour. Social-Cognitive Theory: In addition to reward and punishments, cognitive factors are also important in shaping behaviour. (dllendirme, cezalandrma vs. baz kavramlar davranlarmzda etkilidir.) Contribution (katk) to clinical psychology: Behaviour therapy. 2-Psychodynamic Perspective The focus is still on the role of unconscious motivations and childhood experiences in shaping behaviour. 3-Humanistic Perspective -Heavy emphasis on free will and conscious choice. -Different from behaviourism- humans are not machines behaviour of which can only be changed by rewards and punishments. -Different from psycho-dynamic perspective- behaviour of humans is not determined (belirlemek) by unconscious conflicts or motives. 4-Physiological Perspective -The focus is on the biological basis (kaynak) of behaviour. All mental processes and behaviour is generated in the brain. 5-Cognitive (kavramsal) Pespective -Focus is on how people acquire (elde etmek) knowledge -Acquire knowledge- learn, form concepts, solve problems, make decisions, remember things and use language. 6-Sociocultural Perspective -Focus on how social and cultural factors affect (etkilemek) behaviour. 7-Contemporary Perspectives -None of these perspectives on their own offer a complete view of the human mind. OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE 1-DESCRIPTION: (Tanmlama) Inference (sonu karma) is subjective: Motivations (gd), intentions (niyet), feelings are not directly observable.

Description is objective: Behaviour is directly observable. 2-EXPLANATION: (aklama) Theory, is an explanation which organizes observations into meaningful patterns. 3-PREDICTION: (ngr) Theories are only as good ad the validity (geerlilik) of their predictions. 4-CONTROL Help people better control their behaviour and mental abilities. This is similar to how medical science helps people control spread (yaymak) of disease (hastalk) using knowledge. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1) Develop a RESEARCH QUESTION based on theory or observation. 2) Frame the research question in the form of a HYPOTHESIS a prediction based on the research question. 3) Gather (toplamak) evidence to test the hypothesis 4) Draw conclusions about the hypothesis RESEARCH METHOD -The survey method: Information is gathered from a large number of people using interviews or questionnaires. Structured Interview: An interview which uses questions set before the interview. Happens face to face Questionnaire: A written set of questions or statements to which people can reply by marking responses on an answer form. -Naturalistic Observation: Directly observe the behaviour of humans or animals in their natural environments. Advantage: The behaviour of people or animals may be more reliable in their natural environment than in front of a psychologist. Disadvantages: The observer may only see what he/she wants to see. -Correlational Method: A method used to study if two variables are related. -Experimental Method: A method of scientific investigation allowing causal inferences to be made. Dependent and independent variable. It is important to use OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS to describe all variables.

Control: The variable of interest (dependent variable) is likely to be affected by factors other than the independent variable. When measuring intelligence, only use people with similar education level and age. Control Groups: The group who gets the puzzles is called experimental group, and the group that gets no puzzles is called the control group. Placebo effect: If the people in the aspirin group (experimental group) feel better than the placebo group. We have more confidence that it was the aspirin and not just the expectation that lead to the positive effects. STAGE 2 The neuron: The building block of the nervous system. Brain, spinal cord, nerves are made of neurons. Soma: Cell body, carry genes, metabolic functions. Axon: Cable-like, transmits messages out. Terminal buttons: Carry neurotransmitters. Dendrites: Part of the neurons receiving neurotransmitters released by neighbouring neurons. Synapse: A gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released. There are 3 kinds of neurons: Sensory Neurons: (afferent neurons) Transmit information from the outside world to the spinal cord/brain. Motor Neurons (efferent neurons): Transmit command from spinal cord/brain to muscles and glands. Inter-neurons (associative neurons): Connect neurons to other neurons. A nerve is bundle of axons up to millions of neurons. Glial Cells: Hold neurons together, repair and nourish neurons, speed up transmission by forming myelin sheathes. Myelin Sheath: -Cover axons -Nodes of Ranvier -Lead to a white appearance. At the resting state the number of ve ions inside the neuron is greater than the number +ve ions outside the neuron. Leads to a negative electrical potential of -70mV inside the neuron. (resting potential) Na+ ions outside the neuron is greater than inside. Influx of+ions=general decrease in negative potential in the neuron. Depolarization.

If the stimulation is strong, depolarization leads to an electrical potential of +40mV (from -70mv) This sudden (ani) reversal (tersine evirme) of potential is called action potential. All-or-none principle: If the stimulation is not strong enough, the neuron will not fire. Refractory (inat) Period: Post-action potential period where a neuron can not generate another action potential. (cant fire) Neurotransmitters: Neurons do not physically touch each other. They are separated by synapses. Action potentials cant jump from neuron to neuron. Excitatory: Make the post-synaptic neuron more likely to fire. Inhibitory: Make the post-synaptic neuron less likely to fire. Reuptake: NT molecules not taken up by the post-synaptic neuron are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron. Antogonist: A chemical that prevents (engellemek) the functioning of a NT by physically blocking its receptor site. Antogonist can be used to treat (tedavi etmek) problems caused by too high concentrations of NT. Dopamine, levels are associated with hallucinations. Antipsychotic drugs are chemicals which act as antagonist and block the receptor sites for dopamine. Agonist: Enhance (arttrmak) the effects of NTs by a number of ways: -Binding (balayc) to their receptor sites and mimicking (taklit yapmak) their effects -Increasing their availability -Increasing their effectiveness Endorphine associated with painkiller effects. Narcotic drugs like heroin and morphine act as agonists to endorphins by binding to their receptor sites. The nervous system 2 parts: Central Nervous system: Brain+spinal cord: The main information processing centre. (sensations, movement, heart rate, reasoning) Peripheral Nervous system: Nerves that connect central nervous system to the rest of the body. Sends sensory information from the sense organs and internal organs to the central nervous system and transmits information from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Divided into 2 parts: Somatic nervous system: -Composed of sensory and motor neurons. -It connects or sensory organs and muscles to the central nervous system. Autonomic nervous system: Involved the control of internal bodily functions such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion and dilation of the pupils. Divided into two: Sympathetic nervous system: Activation energizes and prepares the body for stressful event (fight or flight mode). Sugar is released from stores to the blood. Parasympathetic nervous system: Activation leads to conservation of energy. (rest and digest mode) Digestion leads to extraction of sugar from food which can be used later as a source of energy. SPINAL CORD -A column of nerves, an extension of your brain. Reflex= automatic, unlearned reaction to a stimulus Spinal reflex= a reflex that is controlled by the spinal cord. (Brain is not involved) THE BRAIN 1-Hindbrain: includes medulla, pons and cerebellum. Medulla: Controls heart rate, breathing, swallowing, coughing and sneezing. Pons: Regulates wakefulness and sleep. Cerebellum: Involved in balance and coordination. 2-Midbrain: Connect hindbrain to forebrain. Structures (dzenlemek) in the midbrain are involved in automatic eye movements. Reticular formation: A structure in the midbrain plays a key role in regulating states of attention, alertness and arousal. 3-Forebrain: Thalamus: A relay station near the middle of the brain. -Routes sensory information from different senses to specialized areas in the cerebral cortex. Hypothalamus: Helps regulate hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature etc. -Also involved in secretion of important hormones. Limbic System: A network where parts of thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdale and hippocampus are connected and serve important memory and emotional processes.

Amygdala: Triggers emotional response of fear when faced with threatening stimulus or situation. Hippocampus: Crucial role in forming new memories. Cerebral Cortex: 80% of brains total mass. -Serves higher mental functions such as thinking, language and problem solving. -Controls voluntary movement, motivation, emotional arousal and processing of sensory information. Left&Right cerebral hemisphere -Connected by corpus callosum -Corpus callosum enables communication between two hemispheres. Occipital lobe: Process visual information -Damage-> blindness Parietal lobe: Includes the somato-sensory cortex, which process sensory information from the skin, muscles and joints. Frontal Lobes: The executive centre. -Associated with the ability to make long term plans, self awareness, and access relevant Memories make decisions, solve problems etc. -Contains motor cortex. Motor cortex: Control voluntary movement. Temporal Lobes: Received and process information from the ears, producing the experience of hearing. Association Areas: Higher order mental functions, thinking, planning, problem solving Non-invasive techniques: Mdahalesiz Electro encephalograph EEG: Records electrical activity in the brain Computed Tomography CT: Produces 3d image of the brain using xRays. Tumors, blood clots, stroke. Positron Emission Tomography PET: Produces image of the brain parts which are activated. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Provides a structural image of the brains. Difference from CT Scan, CT scan uses x-rays, MRI uses magnetic fields. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging fMRI: Can be used to image not only structure but the functions of the brain.

Invasive methods Lesioning: Destroy a part of the brain to see its effect on behavior and mental processes. Electrical recording: Insert an electrode in the animals brain, and record its activity as the animal is engaged in a behavior or mental processes. Electrical Stimulation: Electrically stimulate group of neurons and see its effect on behaviour.

STAGE 3 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation: The process by which we receive, transform and process stimuli from the outside world to create sensory experiences of vision, touch, hearing, taste, smell and so on. Psychophysics: the field of science interested in the relationship between physical properties of stimuli and the sensations we experience. Absolute threshold: The minumum intensity of a given stimulus for a person to sense it. Difference threshold: The minumum difference between two stimuli that a person can sense. Webers Law: The principle that the amount of change in a stimulus needed to detect a difference is given by a constant ratio or fraction, called a constant of the original stimulus. Signal Detection: The threshold for detecting a signal depends not only on the properties of the stimulus itself, such as its intensity, but also on the level of background stimulation and also on the biological and psychological characteristics of the perceiver. Sensory adaptation: The process by which sensory receptors adapt to constant stimuli by becoming less sensitive to them. Vision: The process by which light energy is converted into neural impulses that the brain interprets to produce the experience of sight. Light: Physical energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The Eye: Eye is the organ with receptors cells that respond to light. There are two kinds of photoreceptors in the eye: 1. Rods: are sensitive to intensity of the light, but not to colour. They can detect very low intensity light, but not its colour. 2. Cones: are sensitive to the colour of the light, but not to the intensity of the light. Two important parts of the Retina: 1. The part of the retina where the nerve leaves the eye is known as the blind spot. This part of the retina contains no photoreceptors and thus is not sensitive to light. 2. The part of the retina that corresponds to the centre of our gaze is the fovea. Our visual acuity is at its sharpest at this part of the retina. Only contains cones.

Feature Detectors: Hubel and Wiesel (1981) found that were individual neurons in the visual cortex which responded selectively to the orientation, direction of movement, angles of a line. These cells which respond to certain features of the line are called feature detectors. Colour Vision: Tri-chromatic theory: Eyes have 3 kinds of colour receptors. (cones) Each kind is sensitive to a different wavelength of light. -Blue-violet cones are sensitive to short wavelengths. -Green cones are sensitive to middle wavelengths. -Red cones are sensitive to long wavelengths. When only red cones are activated, we see red. When all three cones fire with different intensities, we experience a wide range of colours. Hearing: The sense of hearing is called audition. Vibrations reach the eardrum, ossicles, oval window and then onto the cochlea. Olfaction Sense of smell: The ability to detect shapes of molecules of odorous chemical substances in our nose. Smell is the only sense in which sensory information does not go through the thalamus. Olfactory information goes straight from the receptors the olfactory bulb. The Skin: Skin receptors are sensitive to touch, pressure, warmth, cold pain. Kinesthesia: the body sense that keeps us informed about the movement of the body parts and their position in relation to each other. Vestibular sense: Sense of balance and position in space. Vestibular sense organ is the semicircular canal. Perception: The process, by which the brain integrates, organizes and interprets sensory information about the external world to create internal representations of the world. Attention: Attention is the first step in perception. -Habituation: You may hear the noise of the air-conditioner when it is first turned on. But soon it is filtered out; you do not perceive it, even though the receptors in the ear still respond to it. Perceptual Set: The tendency for perceptions to be influenced by expectations or preconceptions. Modes of Visual Processing: Two modes of visual processing, to help account for how the brain transforms visual stimuli into meaningful patterns. 1. Bottom up: The contribution of the sensory information to our perception. 2. Top down: The contribution of our expectations, based on prior experience.

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization: -Figure vs. Ground -If you look at me, I am the figure and the blackboard is the ground. -If you were to look at what I am drawing, the drawing becomes the figure and I stay on the ground. Gestalt laws of Grouping: People group bits and pieces of sensory information into unitary forms or wholes. A number of gestalt principles of grouping: 1. Proximity 2. Similarity 3. Good continuity 4. Closure Perceptual Consistencies: Every time we change our position when looking at an object, the shape of that object on retina changes. 1. Shape consistency 2. Size consistency Depth Perception: The retina is a 2D surface. 1. Binocular cues: Cues used by the brain from both eyes, to judge the distance. 1.1 Convergence: The brain can infer distance of an object based on how much tension there is on the eyes when looking at it. 1.2 Retinal disparity: The brain can infer distance of an object based on how different the two images of the object are. 2. Monocular cues: Cues used by the brain to infer the distance of an object, which come from one eye only. 2.1 Relative size: When two objects are the same size, the one that appears larges is perceived to be close. (Nehirdeki iki kayk resmi) 2.2 Interposition: When objects block or otherwise abscure our view of other objects we perceive the obscured object to be further. (dikdrtgenin nne daire) 2.3 Relative Clarity: Dust, smoke and moisture in the atmosphere create a haze that makes distant objects appear more blurry than nearer objects. The more blurry an object, the further away it is likely to be. (am aalar) 2.4 Texture gradient: The relative coarseness or smoothness of an object is used as a cue for distance. Closer objects have a more detailed texture than more distant objects. (kiremitler) 2.5 Linear perspective: Perception of parallel lines converging as they recede into the distance. As we look straight ahead, objects and the distances between them appear smaller the farther away they are from us. (tren yolu) 2.6 Shadowing: We assume the light is coming from the above. Thus, if an object is bright on top and dark on the bottom, we perceive it to be convex, and if it appears dark on top and light on the bottom, we perceive it to be concave. (daireler) Visual Illusions: 1. Classic illusions: Muller-Lyer Illusion: The centre lines are equal for each figure. The reason the one on the left feels larger is because the outward wings suggest it is further away. 2. Ponzo Illusion: Sar eritler.

STAGE 4 CONSCIOUSNESSES
Consciousness: Consists of whatever you happen to be ware of at any given moment in time. (feelings, se56nsations, perceptions, thoughts) 3 states of consciousness: 1. Focussed awareness (wide awake, fully alert, completely engaged in whatever you are doing) 2. Drifting consciousness (mind drifting from thought to thought, daydreaming) 3. Divided consciousness (when we perform/attend to two different tasks at the same time) The biology of sleep: When you sleep and when you wake up typically follows a ~24 hour cycle. This is true for other changes in your body such as your body temperature. This rhythm is called circadian rhythm. Important hormone in the regulation of sleep-wake cycles: melatonin. Melatonin makes you feel sleepy as the day descends into night. Exposure to darkness increases the production of melatonin. Exposure to bright light decreases the production of melatonin. Stages Sleep: What your brain is doing during sleep is typically studied using EEG. EEG records brain waves. Brain waves vary in intensity and frequency. -Stage I: Brain waves become small and irregular with different frequencies. Can be easily awakened. -Stage II: 2 minutes after stage I. Brain waves are characterized by spindle-shaped waves called sleep spindles. Relatively deeper, but the person can still be awakened. -Stage III&IV: Characterized by slow and large amplitude delta waves. Called slow-wave sleep or delta sleep. Difficult to wake up at these stages. REM sleep: Rapid Eye Movement: Eyes move about very quickly under closed eyelids. Stages go 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM. Dreams are most closely associated with REM sleep. Dreaming also possible in other stages, but tent to be briefer, less frequent and more thought-like. The brain becomes very active during REM sleep. Brain waves during REM sleep are similar to those during states of alert wakefulness. Is also called paradoxical sleep: Despite a high level of brain activity, muscle activity is blocked to the point that the person is practically paralyzed. Why do we sleep? Most animals spend a lot their lives sleeping. If sleep doesnt sever an absolutely vital function, it is the biggest mistake evolution ever made. Theories: 1. Protection: From predators/darkness. 2. Energy conservation: Body heat decreases during sleep. This may give more energy to maintain the higher body temperature during the day. 3. Restoration: Help brain recover from daily wear and tear. Replenish biological resources used during the day.

4. Consolidate memories: New information is better remembered after 12 hours, if those 12 hours includes sleep. 5. Strengthen the immune system: People who sleep less than 7 hours are 3x more likely to develop a cold after exposure to a virus than people who sleep 8 or more hours. Dreams and Dreaming: What is the function of dreams? We dont know for sure. There is some evidence that: May help the consolidation of newly acquired memories. Help us think about problems faced during the day. Activation Synthesis Hypothesis of dreaming: There are random electrical discharges in your brain during the REM sleep, some generated by the brain stem. These random activations reach the cortex, and your cortex tries to make sense out of them. This leads to sensations, emotions and feeling of moving. Altering Consciousness through Drugs: Psycho-active drugs: Chemical substances that act on the brain to affect emotional and mental states. (Mood, thought processes, perceptions, behaviour) Drug abuse: When repeated drug use starts to harm the person or the people around the person using the drug. Drug dependence: Drug related problem characterized by impaired control over the use of the drug. Physiological dependence: Your bodys chemical balance relies on the supply of the drug. Major classes of Psycho-active drugs: 1. Depressants: Drugs that reduce central nervous system activity, slowing down bodily processes like heart rate and respiration rate. Lead to feelings of relaxation, relief from anxiety and tension. Addictive and can be deadly at high doses. 1.1 Alcohol: Intoxicant: A chemical that induces a state of drunkenness. Affects: Concentration, ability to judge to consequences of a behaviour, impulsivity (release inhibitions), and depth perception. 1.2 Barbiturates: Effects: Mild sedation to total anaesthesia. (When used medically). Highly addictive, used illegally for relaxation and euphoria. Overdose can lead to convulsions, coma, and death. When used with alcohol can be lethal. Act through enhancing GABA activity, a NT that reduces excess nervous system activity. 1.3 Tranquilizers: Medically used to treat anxiety and insomnia. Less toxic than barbiturates, but can still be dangerous and lethal at high doses and used with other drugs like alcohol. Works by boosting availability of GABA. 1.4 Opioids: These are the narcotic drugs. Addictive drugs that have pain-relieving and sleep inducing properties. Include morphine and heroin, derived from the poppy plant. Medical use: painkiller. Effects: (illegal use) Rush of pleasurable excitement, dampening of awareness and personal problems. Act by mimicking the effects of endorphins. They are similar in structure and activate the same receptor sites. Reminder: Endorphins are the bodys natural pain killers and regulate states of pleasure.

2. Stimulants: Drugs that heighten the activity of the central nervous system. 2.1 Amphetamines: Activate the sympathetic autonomic nervous system. Effects: -Increase heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure. -At low rates, boost mental alertness and concentration, reduce fatigue, and lessen need for sleep. -At high doses, can induce an intense pleasurable rush. Act by increasing the availability of neurotransmitters nor epinephrine and dopamine. At high doses, can lead to extreme restlessness, hallucinations and delusions, come or death. 2.2 Cocaine: Produce states of pleasure through increasing the efficiency of the available dopamine NT by blocking the process of reuptake. Reminder: Dopamine is involved pleasure and results in a euphoric high. This leads to states heightened pleasure and results in a euphoric high. High doses and prolonged use may lead to damage to the circulatory system, anxiety irritability and depression, as well as hallucinations and delusions. 2.3 MDMA Ecstacy: Effects: Mild euphoria and hallucinations. May lead to anxiety, imsonia, paranoia and psychotic symptoms. Heavy use is associated with cognitive deficits (memory, learning, attention.) Help release the NT serotonin, block the reuptake of serotonin. Serotonin affects mood, sleep, appetite. 2.4 Nicotine: Effects: Speeds up heart rate, dampens appetite and produces a mild rush or psychological kick. Heightens arousal, alertness and concentration. It may also lead to feelings or relaxation or mental calmness. 2.5 Caffeine: Found in coffee, tea, cola drinks chocolate. Desirable effects include enhancing wakefulness and mental alertness. High doses may lead to jitteriness or nervousness. Inhibits the activity of the NT adenosine. Adenosine decreases neural activity. Decreased activity of adenosine is associated with increased activity of dopamine. 3. Hallucinogens: Drugs that alter sensory perceptions, producing hallucinations in visual, auditory, or other sensory forms. May induce feelings of relaxation and calmness on some people and paranoia or panic in others. Not lead to physiological but may lead to psychological dependence. 3.1 LSD (acid): Produces vivid hallucinations and other sensory distortions. Experience of using the drug is called a trip and may last as long as 12 hours. May lead to distortions of time and space. Psychological effects depend not only on the amount used but also on the users personality, expectations from the drug and the context in which it is used. 3.2 Mescaline, psilocybin and PCP: Mescaline derived from cactus plants, psilocybin derived from a mushroom and PCP is a chemical synthesized in the lab. PCP leads to delirium: A state of mental confusion characterized by excitement, distortion, and difficulty in focussing attention. 3.3 Marijuana: Derived from the cannabis plant. Psychoactive chemical in it is THC. Alters perceptions and can produce hallucinations in high doses. At lower doses, lead to relaxation and mild euphoria and feeling of time slowing down. No clear evidence on whether it leads to physiological dependence.

LEARNING STAGE 5

A relatively (dierlerine gre/nazaran; her ey gz nnde tutulursa, nispeten) permanent (kalc, daimi) change in behaviour that results from experience. 3 major forms of learning: -Classical conditioning -Operant conditioning -Cognitive learning

Classical conditioning:
First reported by Ivan Pavlov. -Observed that dogs salivated to sounds in his laboratory that had become associated with food, such as the sound of metal carts in which the food was brought in the lab. -The dogs learned the association between the sounds (stimulus 1) and the food (stimulus 2). -The natural response of salivation to the food had become associated with the sounds. -Unconditional response (UR): Natural response to a stimulus. Salivating in response to the sight of a favorite meal The stimulus that leads to the unconditioned response -Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus (tone), that becomes associated with a US (food) to trigger a conditioned response (salivation), as a result of classical conditioning. -Conditioned Response(CR): A learned response (salivation to the tone) to a conditioned stimulus. (tone that triggers salivation) Extinction: If you present the tone without the food, salivation response will stop. Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, the CR may spontaneously return. A day after the salivation response to the tone is extinguished, hearing a tone might spontaneously trigger the salivation response. Reconditioning: After the extinction, it takes less time to learn the association between the CS and CR compared to learning it for the first time. Stimulus Generalization: A dog which learned to salivate to a specific tone might also salivate to a slightly different tone. The CR or salivation is generalized to other stimuli. Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between a CS and other similar stimuli. Higher Order Conditioning: When a conditioned stimulus triggering a conditioned response becomes associated with another stimulus, which starts to trigger the same conditioned response. Stimulus Characteristics that Strengthen the Conditioned Responses: 1-Frequency of pairings: the more often a CS is paired with the US, the stronger/reliable the CR will be. 2-Timing: The strongest CRs occur when the CS is presented just before the US. If the CS is presented too early or too late then the relationship will not be as strong.

3-Intensity of the US: A stronger US lead to faster conditioning. If the food is your favorite meal, the tone and salivation will become associated much quicker. If the food is something you do not like that much, it will take longer for the tone be associated with salivation. Operant Conditioning: Classical conditioning can explain how we get to learn simple behavior like salivation, fear or disgust, but not more complex behaviours such as exercising or socializing. In classical conditioning, learning results from the stimuli presented before a response occurs. In operant conditioning of a response with its consequences on the environment. Thorndike and the Law of Effect: Responses that have satisfying effects are strengthened and become more likely to occur again in a given situation, whereas responses that lead to discomfort are weakened and become less likely to occur -Built his theory on his observations: Placed a hungry cat in a box, put some food outside the box where cat could see and smell. The only way the cat can escape the box the get the food is by pressing a pedal. That cat randomly performs different actions in the box and by chance presses the lever, which then opens the door. -The cat is allowed get the food and then placed back in the box. This process is repeated and by trial and error, the cat eventually eliminates useless actions and learns that pressing the pedal is the way out to the food. B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning: Skinner studied animal learning using a device now called Skinner box. A cage that contains a food release mechanism the animal activates when it responds in a certain way. Positive and Negative Reinforcement: Any stimulus that leads to the strengthening of a response is a reinforcer. This can be achieved through the presentation of a desirable stimulus (positive) or the removal of an aversive (negative). Positive reinforces: Food, money, social approval. Negative reinforces: Loud noise, cold, pain. Reinforcement= Strengthening of response. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers: -Primary reinforcers are intrinsically rewarding: they satisfy basic biological needs or drives. Food, water, sleep, relief from pain, sexual stimulation -Secondary reinforcers acquire their reinforcement value through being associated with a primary reinforcer. Money (food), good grades (gifts, approval from parents) Discriminative Stimuli: Driving: the green light is a discriminative stimulus for a safe crossing of the road. When the green light is not on, passed is not possible/safe. Shaping: Reinforcement of a target response in small steps Schedules of Reinforcement: In the Skinner box, the animal can be reinforced for each peck or bar press or for some portion of the pecks or bar presses. Schedule of reinforcement: Predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement in response to an action.

Schedule of Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement follows each instance of the response. Pressing the bar=Foof pellet. The responses are learned the most rapidly under continuous reinforcement. Leads to rapid extinction if the reinforcer is withheld. Schedule of partial reinforcement: Only a portion of responses are reinforced. More resistant to extinction. Two kind of partial reinforcement: -Ratio schedules: Fixed Ratio and Variable Ratio -Interval schedules: Fixed Interval and Variable Interval Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a specified number of correct responses. Leads to constant and high rate of responding, with a dip right after the reinforcement -Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule: The number of responses needed varies around an average. More resistant to extinction than fixed ratio schedules Leads to high and steady rate of responding -Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule: Reinforcement is given only for a correct response made after a fixed amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement. -Variable Interval (VI) Schedule: The amount of time that must elapse before reinforcement is given for a correct response varies rather than remaining fixed. Lead to slow but steady rated of responses. More resistant to extinction than fixed interval schedule Escape Learnin: An organism learns to escape an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response. -The Skinner box can be configured in such a way that a mild electric shock is delivered to that rat, and doesnt stop unless the rat presses a lever. Avoidance Learning: Learning a response that avoids/prevents an aversive stimulus -What is learned in this case is the pressing of the bar in response to the light which leads to avoidance of an aversive stimulus. (Electric shock) Punishment: The opposite of reinforcement. Reinforcement makes a response more frequent. A punishment makes a response less frequent. A response that is punished becomes less frequent. Positive Punishment: An aversive stimulus is imposed as a consequence of a response/behaviour. Negative Punishment: Removal of a desirable stimulus as a consequence of a response/ behaviour. Punishment vs. Reinforcement -Negative reinforcement can be confused with Punishment.

-The key point to consider is the final effect of a stimulus on the frequency/strength of the action. -If the action becomes more frequent as a result of the stimulus then it has been reinforced. -If the action becomes less frequent as a result of the stimulus then it has been punished. -Positive and negative refers to whether reinforcement or the punishment has been accomplished by delivery/ presentation of a stimulus or the removal of a stimulus. Cognitive Learning: Learning: A relatively permanent change in behaviour that results from experience. Hard to explain as classical or operant conditioning Cognitive Learning: Learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it. Learning of a novel response without prior reinforcement. It involves mental processes (rather than random trial and error) that cannot be directly observed. 3 kinds: Insight learning, latent learning, observational learning. Insight Learning: The process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs. We may call this sudden realization or sudden insight the aha! moment. This is no trial and error of different responses. The insight doesnt just appear all of a sudden. Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided. -Tolman and Honzik (1930): Trained rats to run a maze for 10 days. Some rats were rewarded with food at the end of the maze; others were not rewarded at all. The rewarded rats learned the maze very fast; they could easily their way to the end. Those not rewarded didnt: They made many wrong turns. On the 11th day, researchers rewarded the rats which were not rewarded for the first 10 day. The next day, researchers found that the rats which were not rewarded for the first 10 days, who seemed not to have learned the maze, made even less errors that those which were rewarded! The rats must have learned the maze earlier, without reinforcement, but only demonstrated what they had learned when they were reinforced for doing so. This is an example of latent learning: Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided.

Observational Learning: Learning by observing and imitating the behaviour of others, modelling. 2 factors: Modelling effects are stronger when the model is similar to the learner and when positive reinforcement for performing the behaviour is evident.

STAGE 6 MEMORIES

They system by which we retain information and bring it to mind. Without memory, learning and experience would leave no mark our behaviour. 3 basic processes of memory: Encoding, storage, retrieval. Memory Encoding: The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. Information comes in the form of sensory inputs. We can encode information acoustically (by sound), or semantically (its meaning). Example for acoustic encoding: Trying to remember a phone number by repeating it to you, or trying to remember a melody by singing it. Example for visual encoding: Trying to remember someones face, trying to remember the location of restaurant by remembering its location o a map. Semantic Encoding: Transforming bits of information (sounds and visual images) into words that express meaning. Example of semantic encoding: -Word hippocampus- hard to remember -You can try to remember it if you associate it with its English meaning, which is the seahorse. Hippocampus makes no sense when you hear it for the firs time and for that reason it is hard to remember, but if you associate it with information that makes sense to you, it will be easier to remember. Remember what someone says not in sound but meaning. Memory Storage: The process of retaining information in memory. Some information is retained for a lifetime, some only a fraction of a second. More on this later Memory Retrieval: The process of accessing stored information to bring it to mind. Some memories are easier to retrieve than others. Sometimes use of retrieval cues hep retrieve memories. Cues associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories. Example: When trying to remember what topic we covered in the last lecture you may try to remember where you sat, what you were wearing, what I was wearing etc. These cues may make it easier for you to remember the actual thing you wanted, the topic. Tendency for information to be better recalled in the context in which it was originally learned is called the context-dependent memory effect. Example: Students often perform better in exams if they take the exams in the room they learned the material. Example: Godden&Baddeley (1975) made swimmer students learn list of words. Group 1: On the beach Group 2: Submerged in water

The context dependent memory effect is explained by the encoding specificity principle, which holds that memory retrieval, is more successful when cues available during recall are similar o cues present when the information was first encoded. If cues present at retrieval are similar to cues present at the time of encoding, retrieval will be easier.

Three Stage Model of Memory: Some memories last for years, whereas some only for minutes. Three-stage model of memory proposes three distinct stages that account for the length of time that information is held in memory: Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory. Sensory Memory: A memory system for storing sensory information for a very short period of time (<1-4 seconds. Your senses are constantly bombarded by ever-changing sensory information. Most of the incoming sensory information is irrelevant and is not held in memory for long. Sensory register: A temporary storage device for holding sensory memories. -Iconic memory: A sensory store for holding a mental representation of a visual image. -Echoic memory: A sensory store for holding a mental representation of a sound. Short Term Memory (STM): Sensory information can be transferred into short term memory for further processing. It allows for retention and processing of newly acquired information for up to ~30 seconds. Also called working memory because it is used to work on information we hold in mind for a brief period of time. Example: Holding a phone number in your head or doing arithmetic calculations in your head. According to George Millers studies, the number of items that could be held in the short term memory is 7 (plus or minus 2). Chunking: The process of enhancing retention of a large amount of information by breaking it down into smaller, more easily recalled chunks. Baddeleys (2001) Model of Working Memory: Baddaley developed a model to account for how working memory functions. It is composed of 4 parts: 1-Phonological Loop: -Speech-based, verbal part of working memory. -Stores auditory information. -Think of a tape which records sounds but the sounds quickly start to fade-away. 2-Visiuo-spatial sketchpad: -Is like a drawing pad for storing visual information. -Think of a blackboard, where the chalk you use to write on starts to quickly disappears. 3-Episodic Buffer: -The workspace of working memory. -A storage device for bringing together information from different modalities. -Enables integration of information from different sources and sensory modalities. Knowledge about the country: semantic Shapes and colors: visual.

Sound of the country: auditory 4-Central Executive -The master control unit (doesnt storage information) -Receives input from other components and long term memory. -Coordinates the working memory system by controlling what information is processed by slave system. Long Term Memory (LTM): Is a storage system that allows you to retain information for periods of time beyond the capacity of short-term memory. Information may remain only for days or weeks or permanently. Capacity for long-term memory is unlimited. One process by which information is transferred to long-term memory is through consolidation. -Consolidation: The process by which the brain converts unstable, fresh memories into stable, long-term memories. The first 24 hours after the acquisition of the memory are critical. Another process which facilities the transfer of information from short-term memory to longterm memory is elaborative rehearsal. -The process of transferring information to long-term memory by consciously focussing on the meaning of the information. Example: I friend of mine has a phone number ending in 1985. I never forget that friends number as that is the year I was born in. Elaborative rehearsal is different than maintenance rehearsal which is the process of extending the retention of information held in short term memory by consciously repeating the information. Semantic Network Model (Collings&Loftus 1975): According to this influential model of LTM organization, information in LTM is retained within network of inter-linking concepts. In these networks, items which are closely related to each other are found closed to each other on the network compared to items which are not related. Contents of LTM- Types of memories: 1-Declarative Memory: Memory for facts and personal information that requires a conscious effort to bring to mind. Split into semantic and episodic memory. Type: 1.1 Semantic Memory: Memory of facts. Semantic memories are better remembered when they are retrieved and rehearsed from time to time. 1.2 Episodic Memory: Memory of personal experiences that constitute the story of your life. Time Frame: 1.1 Retrospective Memory: Memory of your past experiences, such as where you went to school or information you learned in the past, such as what a dependent variable is. 1.2 Prospective Memory: Memory of things you need to do in the future.

2- Procedural Memory: Memory of how to do things. Requires no conscious effort: One a procedural memory is acquired is no need to think about how to retrieve that information. Different than declarative memory in that information recalled is not verbal. Procedural memory involves motor or performance skills, which are difficult if not impossible to verbalize.

STAGE 7 MEMORIES PART 2

Implicit Memory: Memory accessed without conscious effort. Example: Smell of a perfume might evoke pleasant feelings associated a past experience. Explicit Memory: Memory accessed with conscious effort. Example: What is the capital of Finland? Reliability of Long-Term Memory: Our memories do not always accurately reflect events we witnessed or experienced. Memory doesnt video camera that records exact copies of personal experiences. According to constructionist theory personal memory is a representation or reconstruction of the past, not an exact copy. Flashbulb Memories: Extremely stressful or emotionally arousing personal or historical events may leave vivid and highly detailed memories called flashbulb memories. Eye-witness Testimonies: All of these can be caused by providing false information to people. -Misinformation effect: A form of memory distortion that affects eyewitness testimony and that is caused by misinformation provided during the retention interval. 1. Ease of recall: People who respond to a question without hesitation are more likely to be accurate than people who take a long time. People who more quickly identify a perpetrator from a line up also tend to be more accurate than those who take longer. 2. Degree of confidence: Highly confident witnesses are generally more accurate than those with less confidence in their memories. 3. General knowledge of a subject: People who are more knowledgeable about a subject are more likely to be reliable witnesses than are less knowledgeable people. 4. Racial information: People are better able to recognize faces of people from he same race. 5. Types of questions: Leading or suggestive questions (was the car red?) can result in false statements, whereas open-ended questions (what colour was the car?) tend to increase the accuracy of eye-witness testimonies. 6. Facial characteristic: Faces with distinctive features are much more likely to be accurately recognized than non-distinctive faces. Also, highly attractive or highly unattractive faces are more likely to be accurately identified than are those of average attractiveness. Theories of Forgetting:

Decay Theory: Hermann Ebbinghaus Memories consist of traces laid down in the brains that gradually deteriorate over. Ebbinghaus stuied memory on his own. He was only participant. -He invented non-sense syllables. -He made word lists made up these syllables and presented these to him multiple times. -The he determined number of trials it took for him to recall them perfectly. -He then tested himself again at different times to determine the how much he would forget over time. He found that forgetting occurred rapidly in the first few hours after learning and then declined more gradually: by the and of the first day %66 of the information had been lost; after a month, nearly 80% was gone. Saving method: Comparing the number of trials needed to learn a list for the first time and a second time. Massed vs. Spaced practise effect: If you attempt to learn the material in 5 chapters in 1 night, you will not be able to retain as much information compared to if you attempt to learn that material in 5 days.

Interference of Theory of Forgetting: Another theory of forgetting, according to which forgetting happens due to interference from other memories. As a general principle, the greater the similarity between events, the greater the interference of one over the other Two kinds of interference: 1. Retroactive interference: When new memories interfere with old memories. 2. Proactive interference: When old memories interfere with new memories. Serial position effect: The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list, such as a shopping list, better than those in the middle of the list. 1. Primacy effect: The tendency to recall items better when they are learned first. 2. Recency effect: The tendency to recall items better when they are learned last. As the delay between learning and recall/retrieval lengthens primacy effects become stronger whereas recency effects become weaker. Retrieval Theory of Forgetting: A theory of forgetting which proposes that forgetting is the result of failing o access stored memories. Inability to remember can be caused by inability to encode information. Inability to remember can also be caused by inability to retrieve stored information. Comment on Theories of Forgetting: Different theories of forgetting are better at explaining certain forms of forgetting than others, but no single theory can account for all sorts of forgetting. Ways of Measuring Memory: Methods used to measure memory: 1. Recall task: One is asked to reproduce information you have committed to memory. 1.1 Free recall: Recall as much information as you can in any order you wish. (What are the 4 objectives of science?) 1.2 Serial recall: Recall a series of items in a particular order.

1.3 Paired associates recall: You learn word pairs. (shoe-mouse, number-room) You are hen shown one item and asked to recall the other item. (shoe-?) 2. Recognition task: You are asked to pick out the correct answer from among a range of alternative answers. (multiple choice questions) Tests of recognition memory generally produce much better retrieval cues, and thus make it easier retrieve information. Amnesia Memory Loss: Amnesia can be caused by physical factors. (e.g blows to the head or degenerative brain disease, e.g. Alzheimers) Amnesia can also be psychological factors: -Memory loss resulting from psychological causes is called dissociative amnesia. -Memories of traumatic experience may become dissociated from consciousness, producing a form of events occurring during a specific time. -Usually, it is the memory of traumatic event that is affected. Types of Amnesia: 1. Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory of past events. A boxer knocked out in the ring may not remember the fight. A blow to the head can interfere with memory consolidation. 2. Anterograde Amnesia: When the ability to form new memories is impaired or lost. 3. Childhood Amnesia: Theory 1: Memories formed before language develops are not well organized in the brain. They are thus difficult to retrieve through the word-based or verbal memory system. Theory 2: Brain structures need to form lasting memories do not mature until a child is about 2 or 3 years of age? The Biology of Memory: Where is all the information stored in the brain? If a part of the brain contains a specific bit of information, than removing that part should make the animal forget that bit of information. Karl Lashley: 1. made rats learn mazes and then 2. remove parts of their cortex 3. test the rats again to see if the animal still knows the maze He found that no single part of the brain was responsible for holding the spatial information about the maze. He concluded that memories are not housed in any specific brain structure but must be scattered about the brain. Memories are not stored in individual brain cells but are stored within intricate circuitry of a collection of neurons. Memory circuits exist in many parts of the brain especially in the cerebral cortex. The circuit that is activated or laid down, when information is first learned becomes memory and then is fired again whenever the memory is either accessed or recalled. Hippocampus: A sea-horse shaped structure in the forebrain. Essential for forming new memories of facts and general information and life experiences No hippocampus, no new memories!

STAGE 7 THINKING, LANGUAGE AND INTELLIGENCE

Thinking: Mental representation and manipulation of information. Information can be represented in our minds in the form of images, words, and concepts. (Truth, beauty, right) Information can be manipulated in our minds when we solve problems, make decisions and engage in creative pursuits. -Representation: Information in our heads is not exact copies of the information in its absolute form. It is a representation of it. Some information can be only be represented in visual form. -Concepts: Mental categories for grouping objects, events and ideas. Serves to bring a sense of order and predictability to the world Concepts can be separated into two major types. 1. Logical concepts: Concepts with clear boundaries/definitions. 2. Natural concepts: Concepts with poorly defined or fuzzy rules of membership. Hierarchies of concepts: Concepts can be organized into hierarchies that range from broader to narrower categories. One widely used model is based on a three-level hierarchy consisting of super ordinate concepts, basic level concepts and subordinate concepts. Problem solving: A form of thinking that focussed on finding a solution to a particular problem. Two problem solving strategies: 1. Algorithms: A step by step set of rules for solving a problem. As long as you apply the rules step by step, you are guaranteed as solution to the problem. Problem with algorithms: In real life, the steps one needs to take to reach a solution are not predefined. 2. Heuristics: A rule of thumb or mental shortcut used to solve problems or make judgements or decision. Dont guarantee perfect solution but make you reach one quickly. Mental set: The tendency to rely on strategies that worked in similar situations in the past but that may not be appropriate to the present situations. Functional Fixedness: The inability to see how familiar objects can be used in new ways. Cognitive Biases: People often rely on biased ways of thinking that hamper their ability to make rational or sound choices. (Predictably irrational: Dan Ariely) Many examples of cognitive biases: -Confirmation bias -Representativeness heuristic -Availability heuristic Language: A system of communication composed of symbols that are arranged according to a set of rules to form meaningful expressions. It is structures: grammar, syntax

It serves to express meaning. Components of Language: The basic of sound in a spoken language are called phonemes. Phonomes are different than letters. In English, the same letter might have different sounds in different word. (Acid, academic; one, two) The smallest units which carry meaning are called morphemes. Car, ball, fish, are all examples or morphemes. Suffices (singular suffix) like un, pre, post, ed, s are also morphemes because they also carry meaning. Syntax: The rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered within sentences and phrases to form meaningful expressions. Example: Buy I milk, sounds wrong because it violates a rule of syntax. Semantics: the set of rules governing the meaning of words. A sentence may obey all grammatical rules a still make no sense. According to linguistic relativity hypothesis: (Whorfian hypothesis) the language we use determines how we think and perceive the world. A very exaggerated prediction of this hypothesis: If there is only 5 words for describing colours in my language, I only perceive 5 colours.

STAGE 8- INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence: The capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully- maksatl and effectively in adapting to the environment and pursuing -srdrmek ones goal. Ability uses ones mental abilities to adapt o the environment. (E.g. solve problems, reach goals, etc.) Measuring Intelligence 1. History: 1904: Alfred Binet was asked to develop a method of identifying -saptamak children who were unable yapamaz, edemz to cope stesinden gelmek with the demands -talep of regular classroom instruction and required -gerektirmek special classes to meet their needs. Binet and Simon developed a test consisting meydana gelmek of memory tasks and other short tasks representing the kinds of everyday problems children might encounterzorlukla kar karya gelmek, such as counting coins. By 1908, Binet and Simon decided- karar vermek to scale- lmek the tasks according to the age of the child. Older children must be able to solve more difficult problems, because their mental abilities are more mature. The age at which the child can no longer solve the problems is the childs mental age.

Binet and Simon calculated intelligence by subtracting the childs mental age (MA) from his/her chronological age (CA). Intelligence= CA-MA A germen psychologist, William Stern suggested a different way computing intelligence: IQ= (MA/CA)x100 The aim- ama for calculating the mental age of a child is to use it as a measure of his problem solving skills compared to what is expected -beklemek from his/her age. A 10 year old child who can solve problems which 13 years olds find difficult would be considered intelligent. A 10 year old child who find it difficult to solve problems which are easy for 8 years olds would benefit from special education. 2. Norms: Norms are the standards used to compare an individuals performance on a test with the performance of others. 3. WAIS IV: The most widely used intelligence tests today are those developed by David Wechsler. They are called the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales WAIS. There are versions for children and adolescents -ergen as well as adults. It introduces the concept of deviation IQ: An IQ score based on the deviation of a persons test score from the norms. What Makes a Good Intelligence Test? 1. Standardization: Process of establishing tespit emek norms for a test by administering it to a large number of people. The people who the test is applied to are called the standardization sample. 2. Valid: (Geerlilik) Validity is the degree to which a test measures what is a purport to measure. If an intelligence test is valid, it should measure intelligence and not other abilities like memory, attention or mathematics skill. 3. Reliable: Reliability refers to the consistency of test score over time. IQ test is not reliable. Misuse of Intelligence Tests 1. Self-fulfilling prophecy: -kehanet Low(er) IQ scorer Parents and teachers lower their expectations -beklenti from the children Children start to perform even worse because of the lowered expectations. 2. Intelligence tests are usually developed by western communities. Because different cultures are associated with different environments and thus problems, IQ tests tend to be more difficult for non-western people than for western people not because they are less intelligent, but because they are from a different culture. This makes IQ tests culturally biased. Major Theories of Intelligence Theory 1: Spearmanss g: People who score well one test of mental ability tend to score well on other tests. Thus, there must be an underlying general factor of intelligence that allows people to do well on mental test. Charles Spearman called this ability the g for general intelligence. IQ tests like the WAIS are developed to measure Spearmens concept of general intelligence or g which is expressed as an IQ score.

Theory 2: Multiple Intelligences: There are scientists who dont believe that any single ability/factor can account izah etmek for intelligence. These theories include: -The 7 primary mental abilities theory of Thurstone -Multiple intelligences model of Gardner -Triarchic Theory of Sternberg These theories suggest ileri srmek that mental abilities such as numerical abilities, memory, linguistic, musical, social and motor skills all contribute pay olmak to ones intelligence. Sternbergs Triarchic Theory: Roger Sternberg emphasizes vurgulamak how we bring together different aspects a of our intelligence to meet the demands of our environment. These aspects are: -Analytic intelligence -Creative intelligence -Practical intelligence We need all there to solve the problems our environment present to us. Nature vs. Nurture Nature: You are born with your intelligence. Nurture: Your intelligence depends on external factors like the education you get, how much you use it. If genes determine intelligence, then people with identical genes should have identical intelligence. If environment determines intelligence, then people with identical environments should have identical intelligence.