Computer Networks UNIT - IV 4.

0 Introduction

The purpose of this lesson is to understand the fundamental concepts of security. This chapter will further include cryptography, Data Encryption Standard and ISO security recommendations.

4.1

Objective

The objective of this lesson provides a detailed description about the Network Security concepts. Security is all about protecting data and data systems and it provides authentication, authorization, and access controls. At the end of the lesson you learn about types of threats, Cryptography and Data Encryption Standard (DES) and so on.

4.2
4.2.1

Content
Network Security

In general, a secure network is one that is resistant to disruptions caused by unauthorized network use. Such a network is designed and operated to minimize unauthorized use and can recover from disruptions easily. Network security can be defined as the protection of network resources against unauthorized disclosure, modification, utilization, restriction or distraction. 4.2.2 Types of Threats A publication of the National Bureau of Standards identified some of the threats that have stimulated the upsurge of interest in security: 1. Organized and intentional attempts to obtain economic or market information form competitive organizations in the private sector. 2. Organized and intentional attempts to obtain economic information from government agencies. 3. Inadvertent acquisition of economic or market information. 4. Advertent acquisition of information about individuals. 5. Intentional fraud through illegal access to computer data banks with emphasis, in decreasing order of importance, on acquisition of funding data, economic data, law enforcement data and data about individuals. 6. Government intrusion on the rights of individuals.

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7. Invasion of individual rights by the intelligence community. These are examples of specific threats that an organization or an individual may encounter. The threats can be divided into the categories of passive threats and active threats.

Figure 4.1: Passive and Active Communications Security Threats The following lists the types of threats that might be faced in the context of network security. Passive Threats The monitoring and / or recording of data while the data are being transmitted over a communication facility. Release of Message Contents Attack can read the user data in messages. Traffic Analysis The attacker can read packet headers, to determine the location and identify the communicating hosts. The attacker can also observe the length and frequency of messages. Active Threats The un-authorized use of a device attached to a communication facility, to alter transmitting data or control signals or to generate spurious data or control signals.

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Message-Stream Modification The attacker can selectively modify, delete, delay, reorder and duplicate real messages. The attacker can also insert counterfeit messages. Denial of Message Service The attacker can destroy or delay most or all messages. Masquerade The attacker can pose as a real host or switch and communicate with another host or switch to acquire data or services. Passive Threats These are in the nature of eavesdropping or monitoring of the transmissions of an organization. The goal of the attacker is to obtain information that is being transmitted. Two types of threats are involved here: release of message contents and traffic analysis. The threat of release of message contents is clearly understood by most managers. A telephone conversion, an electronic mail message or a transferred file may contain sensitive or confidential information. The attacker must be prevented from learning the contents of these transmissions. In the second passive threat, traffic analysis is less applicable. The contents of messages or other information traffic can be masked, so that even if the attacker captures the message the information cannot be extracted from the message. The common technique for doing this is encryption. Passive threats are very difficult to detect since they do not involve any alteration of the data. However, it feasible to prevent these attacks from being successful. Thus the emphasis in dealing with passive threats is on prevention and not detection. Active Threats The second major category of threat is active threats. These involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false stream. This can be subdivided into three categories: message-stream modification, denial of message service and masquerade. Message-stream modification simply means that some portion of a legitimate message is altered or that message are delayed, replayed or reordered in order to produce unauthorized effect. The denial of service prevents or inhibits the normal use or management of communication facilities. This attack may have a specific target; for example, an entity may suppress all messages directed to a particular destination. Another form of service denial is the disruption of an entire network, either by disabling the network or by overloading it with messages so as to degrade performance.

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A masquerade takes place when one entity pretends to be a different entity. A masquerade attack usually includes one of the other two forms of active attack. Such an attack can take place, for example, by capturing and replaying an authentication sequence. Active threats present the opposite characteristics of passive threats, whereas passive threats are difficult to detect, measures are available to prevent their success. On the other hand, it is quite difficult to absolutely prevent active attacks, since this would require physical protection of all communication facilities and paths at all times. Instead, the goal with respect to active threats is to detect these attacks and to recover from any disruption or delays caused by the attack. Because the detection has a deterrent effect, this may also contribute to prevention. 4.2.3 A Model for Network Security A message is to be transferred from one party to another across some sort of internet. The two parties, who are the principals in this transaction, must cooperate for the exchange to take place. A logical information channel is established by defining a route through the internet from source to destination and by the cooperative use of communication protocols (e.g., TCP/IP) by the two principals.

Figure 4.2: Model for Network Security Security aspects come into play when it is necessary or desirable to protect the information transmission from an opponent who may present a threat to confidentiality, authenticity, and so on. All the techniques for providing security have two components: A security-related transformation on the information to be sent. Examples include the encryption of the message, which scrambles the message so that it is unreadable by the opponent, and the addition of a code based on the contents of the message, which can be used to verify the identity of the sender.

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Some secret information shared by the two principals is unknown to the opponent. An example is an encryption key used in conjunction with the transformation to scramble the message before transmission and unscramble it on reception. A trusted third party may be needed to achieve secure transmission. For example, a third party may be responsible for distributing the secret information to the two principals while keeping it from any opponent, or a third party may be needed to arbitrate disputes between the two principals concerning the authenticity of a message transmission. This general model shows that there are four basic tasks in designing a particular security service: 1. Design an algorithm for performing the security-related transformation. The algorithm should be such that an opponent cannot defeat its purpose. 2. Generate the secret information to be used with the algorithm. 3. Develop methods for the distribution and sharing of the secret information. 4. Specify a protocol to be used by the two principals that makes use of the security algorithm and the secret information to achieve a particular security service. 4.2.4 Network Security for LAN Securing Workstations and Servers To protect against both accidental and intentional breaches of network security, users must develop good workstation-protection habits. One simple habit is turning off workstations. When leaving so the screens do not attract wandering eyes and hands. Keeping boot (startup disks in a non-obvious drawer instated on a desk or in the workstations floppy drive) also reduces the likelihood of unauthorized access via an authorized users workstation. The most serious threat to workstation security is unauthorized users with malicious intent. A larger problem is unauthorized access to user workstations by guests or children of authorized users. Servers represent another point of potential vulnerability, especially if they are non-dedicated and also used as workstation. A single-user problem on a combined workstation-server can become a network-wide problem. In addition, even a dedicated server can be mistaken for a workstation if it has a keyboard, floppy disk drive and a screen attached. The more critical your network is to business, the more seriously it must be secured. Removal of the keyboard from each PC-based server is a good first step. One may also put warning signs, secure them behind locked doors. Securing Network Passwords Another point of vulnerability under direct user supervision is the passwords that allow access to the network itself, as well as to specific resources, such as particular servers, programmes, or files. Users must be encouraged to use a bit of creativity when

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selecting their passwords to make them difficult for unauthorized users to guess or discover accidentally. Routines for changing the passwords regularly can be implemented. Taking complete back-up copies of network files if passwords are changed could enhance networks security and reliability. Securing Files and Programmes Network files and programmes should be protected against unauthorized access. The master and boot copies of programmes should be kept on write-protected disks and password should be used to protect work groups network or application software. Files must also be protected while they are in use on a network, otherwise network file directories can become incorrect or corrupted. Network must also be protected from unauthorized programmers, such as game programmers or other personal software. Levels of Security For a local area network the following strategies should be considered: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Physical security Access control Personal identification Encryption The diskless PC Protection against cable radiation Call-back security

4.2.5 Cryptography Cryptography is the branch of cryptology dealing with the design of algorithms for encryption and decryption, which intends to ensure the secrecy and/or authenticity of messages. Traditional Cryptography The messages to be encrypted known as plaintext are transformed by a function that is parameterized by a key. The output of the encryption process, known as the cipher text or messenger or radio then transmits cryptogram, often. The intruder, sometimes can, not only listen to the communication channel, but also record messages and play them back later, inject his own messages before they get to the receiver. The art of breaking ciphers is called cryptanalysis. The art of devising ciphers and breaking them is collectively known as cryptology. Encryption methods have historically been divided into two categories: Substitution Ciphers and Transposition Ciphers. Substitution Cipher

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In a substitution cipher another letter or group of letters to disguise it replaces each letter or group of letters. In the oldest cipher known as the Caesar cipher, a becomes D, b becomes E, c becomes F . Z becomes C. A slight generalization of the Caesar cipher allows the cipher text alphabet to be shifted k letters, instead of always 3. The next improvement is to have each of the symbols in the plaintext, say the 26 letters map onto some other letters. This general system is called monoalphabetic substitution. To make the cryptanalysts job more difficult, it is necessary to smooth out the frequencies of the cipher text, so the frequently appearing letters do not stand out so clearly. One way of achieving this goal is to introduce multiple cipher alphabets, to be used in notation, giving what is known as polyalphabetic cipher. As the units encrypted becomes longer and longer, the cipher begins to resemble a code. The main difference between a cipher and a code is that the former encrypted a fixed-size unit of a plaintext with each operation, whereas the latter encrypts a single variable-length linguistic unit, typically a single word or phrase. Prior to computers, code came in two distinct flavors: one-part codes and two-part codes. In a one-part code both the plaintext word and the code symbol are arranged in the same order. Transposition Cipher Substitution cipher and codes preserve the order of the plaintext symbols but disguise them. But transposition cipher, in contrast, reorders the letters but do not disguise them. The cipher is keyed by a word or phrase not containing any repeated letters. The purpose of the key is to number the columns, column 1 being under the key letter closest to the start of the alphabet and so on. The plaintext is written horizontally in rows. Columns read out the cipher text, starting with the column whose key letter is lowest. To break a transposition cipher, the cryptanalyst must first be aware that he is dealing with a transposition cipher. By looking at the frequency of the letters, it is easy to see if they fit the normal pattern for plaintext. If so, the cipher is clearly a transposition cipher, because in such a cipher every letter represents itself. The next step is to make a guess at the number of columns. In many cases a probable word or phrase may be guessed at from the context or message. The remaining step is to order the columns. When the number of columns, k, is small each of the k (k 1) column pairs can be examined to see if its diagram frequencies match that for English plaintext. The pair with the best batch is assumed to be correctly positioned. Now each remaining column is tentatively tried as the successor to this pair. The column whose digram and trigram frequencies give the best match is tentatively assumed to be correct. The predecessor column is found in the same way. The entire process is continued until a potential ordering is found. Chances are that the plain text will be recognizable at this point. 4.2.6 Classification of Cryptography Cryptographic systems are generically classified along three independent dimensions:

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1. The type of operations used for transforming plaintext to cipher text: All encryption algorithms are based on two general principles: substitution, in which each element in the plaintext (bit, letter, group of bits or letters) is mapped into another element, and transposition, in which elements in the plaintext are rearranged. The fundamental requirements are that no information is lost (that is, that all operations be reversible). Most systems, referred to as product systems, involve multiple stages of substitutions and transpositions. 2. The number of keys used: If both sender and receiver used the same key, the system is referred to as symmetric, single-key, secret-key, or conventional encryption. If the sender and receiver each use a different key, the system is referred to as asymmetric, two-key, or Public Key encryption. 3. The way in which the plaintext is processed: A block cipher processes the input one block of elements at a time, producing an output block for each input block. A stream cipher processes the input elements continuously, producing output one element at time, as it goes along. 4.2.7 Encryption The conversion of plain text or data into unintelligible form by means of reversible translation, based on a translation table or algorithm. It is also called enciphering. Two Types of Encryption are: 1. Conventional or Symmetric Encryption: Conventional or symmetric encryption is a form of cryptosystem in which encryption is performed using the same key. The key used is called the secret key. Both participants must share the same key and it must remain as the secret to protect the communication. 2. Public Key Encryption or Asymmetric Encryption: Public key or Asymmetric encryption is a form of cryptosystem in which encryption is performed using two different keys, called the private key and the public key. Private Key One of the two keys used in asymmetric encryption system. communication, only its creator should know the private key. Public Key One of the two keys used in an asymmetric encryption system. The public key is made public, to be used in conjunction with a corresponding private key. Encryption with Private and Public Keys The development of Public Key cryptography is the greatest and perhaps the only true revolution in the entire history of cryptography. Public Key algorithms are based on mathematical functions rather than on substitution and permutation. This Public Key cryptography is asymmetric involving the use of two separate keys. This has profound consequences in the area of confidentiality, authentication and key distribution. Principles of Public Key Cryptosystem For secure

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Public Key algorithms rely on one key for encryption and a different but related key for decryption. These algorithms have the following important characteristic: It is computationally infeasible to determine the decryption key given only the knowledge of the cryptographic algorithm and the encryption key. In addition, some algorithms, such as RSA, also exhibit the following characteristic: Either of the two related keys can be used for encryption, with the other used for decryption. Figure 4.3 (a) illustrates the Public Key encryption process. The essential steps are the following: 1. Each end system in a network generates a pair of keys to be used for encryption and decryption of messages that it will receive. 2. Each system publishes its encryption key by placing it in a public register or file. This is the public key. The companion key is kept private. 3. If A wishes to send a message to B, it encrypts the message using Bs public key. 4. When B receives the message. B decrypts it using Bs private key. No other recipient can decrypt the message because only B knows Bs private key.

Figure 4.3: Public Key Encryption With this approach, all participants have access to public keys, and private keys are generated locally by each participant and therefore never be distributed. As long as a

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system controls its private key, its incoming communication is secure. At any time, a system can change its private key and publish the companion public key to replace its old public key. The following Table summarizes some of the important aspects of conventional and Public Key encryption. To discriminate between the two, one generally refers to the key used in conventional encryption as a secret key. The two keys used for Public Key encryption are referred to as the public key and the private key. Conventional Encryption Needed to Work: 1. The same algorithm with the same key is used for encryption and decryption. Public Key Encryption Needed to Work: 1. One algorithm is used for encryption and decryption with a pair of keys, one for encryption and one for decryption. 2. The sender and receiver must each have one of the matched pair of keys (not the same one). Needed for Security: 1. One of the two keys must be kept secret. 2. It must be impossible or at least impractical to decipher a message if no other information is available. 3. Knowledge of the algorithm plus one of the keys plus samples of cipher text must be insufficient to determine the other key.

2. The sender and receiver must share the algorithm and the key.

Needed for Security: 1. The key must be kept secret. 2. It must be impossible or at least impractical to decipher a message if no other information is available.

3. Knowledge of the algorithm plus samples of cipher text must be insufficient to determine the key.

Let us take a closer look at the essential elements of a Public Key encryption scheme, using Figure 4.4. There is some source A for a message, which produces a message in plaintext, X = [X1, X2, , XM]. The M elements of X are letters in some finite alphabet. The message is intended for destination B

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Figure 4.4: Public Key Cryptosystem: Secrecy B generates a related pair of keys: a public key, KUb, and a private key, KRb. KRb is know only to B, whereas KUb is publicly available and therefore accessible by A. With the message X and the encryption key KUb as input, A forms the cipher text Y = [Y1, Y2, ., YN]: Y = EKUb (X) The intended receiver, in possession of the matching private key, is able to invert the transformation: X = DKRb (Y) An opponent, observing Y and having access to KUb but not having access to KRb or X, must attempt to recover X and/or KRb. It is assumed that the opponent does have knowledge of the encryption (E) and decryption (D) algorithms. If the opponent is interested only in this particular message, then the focus of effort is to recover X, by Page 120

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generating a plaintext estimate X. Often, however, the opponent is interested in being able to read future messages as well, in which case an attempt is made to recover KRb by generating an estimate KRb. Either of the two related keys can be used for encryption, with the other being used for decryption. This enables a rather different cryptographic scheme to be implemented. Whereas the scheme illustrated in Figure 4.4 provides confidentiality, Figures 4.3(b) and 4.5 show the use of Public Key encryption to provide authentication: Y = EKRa (X) X = DKUa (Y) In this case, A prepares message to B and encrypts it using As private key before transmitting it. B can decrypt the message using As public key. Because the message was encrypted using As private key, only A could have prepared the message. Therefore, the entire encrypted message serves as a digital signature. In addition, it is impossible to alter the message services as a digital signature. In addition, it is impossible to alter the message without access to As private key, so the message is authenticated both in terms of source and in terms of data integrity. Applications for Public Key Cryptosystem Public Key systems are characterized by the use of a cryptographic type of algorithm with two keys, one held private and one available publicly.

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Figure 4.5: Public Key Cryptosystem: Authentication

Figure 4.6: Public Key Cryptosystem: Secrecy and Authentication Depending on the application, the sender uses either the senders private key or the receivers public key, or both, to perform some type of cryptographic function. In broad terms, one can classify the use of Public Key cryptosystems into three categories: Encryption / Decryption: The sender encrypts a message with the recipients into three categories: Digital Signature: The sender signs a message with its private key. Signing is achieved by a cryptographic algorithm applied to the message or to a small block of data that is a function of the message. Key Exchange: Two sides cooperate to exchange a session key. Several different approaches are possible, involving the private key(s) of one or both parties. Requirements for Public Key Cryptosystems 1. It is computationally easy for a part B to generate a pair (public key KUb, private key KRb ). 2. It is computationally easy for a sender A, knowing the public key and the message to be encrypted, M, to generate the corresponding cipher text: C = EKUb (M) 3. It is computationally easy for the receiver B to decrypt the resulting cipher text using the private key to recover the original message: M = DKRb = DKRb [EKUb (M)]

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4. It is computationally infeasible for an opponent, knowing the public key, KUb, to determine the private key, KRb. 5. It is computationally infeasible for an opponent, knowing the public key, KUb, and a cipher text, C, to recover the original message, M. 6. The encryption and decryption functions can be applied in either order. M = EKUb = [DKRb (M)] Public Key Cryptanalysis A Public Key encryption scheme is vulnerable to a brute-force attack. The countermeasure is to use large keys. Public Key systems depend on the use of some sort of invertible mathematical function. The complexity of calculating these functions may not scale linearly with the number of bits in the key but grow more rapidly than that. Thus, the key size must be large enough to make brute-force attack impractical but small enough for practical encryption and decryption. The MIT Algorithm Due to the potential advantages of public key cryptography, many researches are at work, and some algorithms have already been published. A method discovered by a group at MIT is based on some principles from number theory. The steps are as follows: 1. Choose two large primes, p and q, each greater than 10100. 2. Compute n = p * q and z = (p 1) * (q 1). 3. Choose a number relatively prime to z and call it d. 4. Find e such that e * d =1 mod z. With these parameters computed in advance, one is ready to begin encryption. Divide the plaintext into blocks, so that each plaintext message P falls in the interval 0 P n. This can be done by grouping the plaintext into blocks of k-bits, where k is the largest integer for which 2k < n is true. To encrypt a message P, compute C = Pe (mod n). To decrypt C, compute P = Cd (mod n). It can be proven that for all P in the specified range, the encryption and decryption functions are inverses. To perform the encryption, one needs e and n. Therefore, the public key consists of the pair (e,n) and the secret key consists of (d,n) or just d, actually. 4.2.8 The Data Encryption Standard The most wisely used encryption scheme is based on the Data Encryption Standard (DES) adopted in 1977 by the National Bureau of Standards. For DES, data are encrypted in 64-bit input in a series of steps into a 64-bit output. The algorithm transforms 64-bit input in a series of steps into a 64-bit output. The same steps, with the same key, are used to reverse the encryption. Using the key, the 64-bit input is transformed in a series of steps involving transposition and exclusive-or operations. The result is a 64-bit output in which each bit Page 123

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of output is a function of each bit of the input and each bit of the key. At the receiver, using the same key and reversing the steps recover the plaintext. The DES has enjoyed widespread use. Unfortunately, it has also been the subject of much controversy as to how secure the DES is. The main concern is in the length of the key, which some observers consider to be too short. To appreciate the nature of the controversy, let us quickly review the history of the DES. The DES is the result of a request for proposals for a national cipher standard released by the NBS in 1973. At that time, IBM was in the final stages of a project called Lucifer to develop its own encryption capability. IBM proposed the Lucifer scheme, which was by far the best system submitted. It was, in fact, so good that it considerably upset some people at the National security Agency (NSA), which until now is an art of cryptography. DES, as eventually adopted, was essentially the same as Lucifer, with one crucial difference; Lucifers key size was originally 128 bits, whereas the final standard uses a key of 56 bits. There are basically two ways to break a cipher. One way is to exploit properties of whatever mathematical functions form the basis of the encryption algorithm to make a cryptoanalytic attack on it. It is generally assumed that DES is immune to such attacks, although the role of NSA in shaping the final DES standard leaves lingering doubts. The other way is a brute force attack in which one tries all possible keys in an exhaustive search. That is, one attempts to decrypt cipher text with every possible 56-bit key until something intelligible pops out. With only 56 bits in the DES key, there are 2x56 different keys-a number that is uncomfortably small and becoming smaller as computers get faster. Whatever the merits of the case, DES has flourished in recent years and is widely used, especially in financial applications. Except in areas of extreme sensitivity, the use of DES in commercial applications should not be a cause for concern by responsible managers. Implementing Transposition and Substitution Ciphers in DES Transpositions and substitutions can be implemented with simple circuits. Consider the figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7: P-Box

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It shows a device known as the P-Box (P stands for permutation), used to effect a transposition on an 8-bit input. If the 8 bits are designated from top to bottom as 01234567, the output of this particular P-box is 36071245. By appropriate internal wiring, a P-box can be made to perform any transposition. Substitutions are performed by S-boxes as shown in figure 4.8

Figure 4.8: S-Box In this example a 3-bit plaintext is entered and a 3-bit cipher text is output. The 3bit input selects one of the eight lines exiting from the first stage and sets it to 1; all the other lines are 0. The second stage is P-box. The third stage encodes the selected input line in binary again. With the wiring shown, if the eight octal numbers 01234567 were input one after another, the output sequence would be 24506713. In other words, 0 has been replaced by 2, 1 has been replaced by etc. The real poser of these basic elements only becomes apparent when one cascades a whole series of ciphers as shown in figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9: Product Cipher In this example, 12 input lines are transposed by the first stage. The input is broken into four groups of 3 bits, each of which is substituted independently of the others. Although this method is less general, it is still powerful. By including a sufficiently large number of stages in the product cipher, the output can be made to be a nonlinear function of the input. In January 1977, the U.S. Government adopted a product cipher developed by IBM as its official for unclassified information. The adoption has stimulated a number of manufactures to implement the encryption algorithm, known as Data Encryption Standard (DES). DES Encryption

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The overall scheme for DES encryption is illustrated in Figure 4.10. As with any encryption scheme, there are two inputs to the encryption function: the plaintext to be encrypted and the key. In this case, the plaintext must be 64 bits in length and the key is 56 bits in length. Looking at the following figure 4.10, one can see that the processing of the plaintext proceeds in three phases.

Figure 4.10: General Depiction of DES Encryption Algorithm First, the 64-bit plaintext passes through an initial permutation (IP) that rearranges the bits to produce the permuted input. This is followed by a phase consisting of 16 rounds of the same function, which involves both permutation and substitution functions. The output of the last (sixteenth) round consists of 64 bits that are a function of the input plaintext and the key. The left and right halves of the output are swapped to produce the preoutput. Finally, the preoutput is passed through a permutation (IP-1) that is the inverse of the initial permutation function, to produce the 64-bit cipher text. The right-hand portion of Figure 4.10 shows the way in which the 56-bit key is used. Initially, the key is passed through a permutation function. Then, for each of the 16 rounds, a subkey (Ki) is produced by the combination of a left circular shift and a Page 126

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permutation. The permutation function is the same for each round, but a different subkey is produced because of the repeated iteration of the key bits. 4.2.9 ISO Security Recommendations

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) recommends that encryption be provided in the presentation layer of an OSI model implementation. The ISO explains its reasons for this recommendation: It is generally agreed that encryption services should be at a higher layer in a network to give an easier end-to-end encryption capability. The transport layer is the lowest possible layer where end-to-end services are provided; consequently, encryption should be performed at the fourth level or above. However, encryption services should be higher than the transport layer in order to minimize the amount of software that must be secure or trusted with plaintext. That is, the less software that deals with vulnerable plaintext, the better. This rationale would move encryption processes up to a higher level than the transport layer. Encryption must be implemented below the application layer because syntax transformations on encrypted data would be quite difficult. Moreover, if syntax transformations are performed at the presentation layer, they must be done before encryption occurs. Because selective protection is desirable (not all fields or records need to be encrypted), that ISO believes selection can best be done at the presentation level or higher, since knowledge of the actual fields in a user data stream is transparent below the presentation layers level. While encryption can be performed at every level, the resulting overhead does not appear to be worth the additional protection given to the user data.

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4.3

Revision Points

Security Threats Network security features such as access controls help protect data and other resources from unauthorized access. Every object (directory, file, or other resource) has an access control list that contains entries specifically identifying which users and groups can access the object and the permissions they have on that object. These controls allow file owners to grant specific users different levels of access such as read, write, or execute. Threats are the reason you need to be concerned about security. Internal users may try to access unauthorized data systems. Internet users may try to attack systems that are connected to the Internet. Cryptography Cryptography is concerned with keeping information, usually sensitive information, private. Information is encrypted to make it private and decrypted to restore it to humanreadable form. Cipher A cipher is a character-for-character or bit-for-bit transformation, without regard to the linguistic structure of the message. In contrast, a code replaces one word with another word or symbol. Data Encryption Standard Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a private-key symmetrical cryptosystem, meaning that both sender and receiver must know the same key. This method is also called secretkey or symmetrical cryptography.

4.4

Intext Questions
1. What are the potential security threats? Explain passive and active security threats. 2. What is cryptography? 3. Encrypt the following message by using substitution and transposition method COMPUTER NETWORKS. 4. Discuss in detail about DES algorithm. 5. Write down the various security recommendations given by ISO.

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4.5

Summary
Network security can be defined as the protection of network resources against unauthorized disclosure, modification, utilization, restriction or distraction. Cryptography is the branch of cryptology dealing with the design of algorithms for encryption and decryption intended to ensure the secrecy and/or authenticity of messages. Encryption is the conversion of plaintext or data into unintelligible form by means of a reversible translation, based on a translation table or algorithm. Conventional encryption is the form of cryptosystem in which encryption and decryption are performed using the same key. Private key is one of the two keys used in Public Key encryption system. For secure communication, the private key should only be known to its creator. Public key is one of the two keys used in Public Key encryption system. The public key is made public, to be used in conjunction with a corresponding private key. Public Key encryption is a form of cryptosystem in which encryption and decryption are performed using two different keys, one of which is referred to as the public key and the other referred to as the private key. The most widely used encryption scheme is based on the Data Encryption Standard (DES). For DES, data are encrypted in 64-bit blocks using a 56-bit key. The algorithm transforms 64-bit input in a series of steps into a 64-bit output. ISO has given various recommendations for encryption to be provided in the presentation layer of an OSI model. Network security for LAN can be provided by securing workstations, servers, passwords, files and programs.

4.6

Terminal Exercises
1. An encryption method by the U.S government for nonmilitary use is _____________ 2. In the conventional method of encryption and decryption, which key is publicly known?

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3. In the public key method of encryption and decryption, only the receiver has possession of the _____________ 4. DES stands for _______________ 5. ISO stands for ________________

4.7

Supplementary Materials
1. Andrew S.Tannenbaum, Computer Networks, 4th Edition, Pearson Education. 2. Behrouz A.Forouzan, Data Communication and Networking, Tata McGraw Hill Edition. 3. William Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, Pearson Education. 4. Douglas C.Comer, Computer Networks and Internet, Pearson Education.

4.8

Assignments
1. Why are conventional encryption/decryption methods not suitable for a bank? Justify your answer. 2. Encrypt the following message using transposition cipher with key = NETWORK DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

4.9

Suggested Reading/Reference Books/Set Books

1. http://www.cs.wm.edu/~hallyn/des 2. http://www.rsa.com/rsalabs/newfaq 3. http://www.w3.org

4.10 Learning Activities

Collect research reports and information on Cryptography available in the Internet and in Networking Journals.

4.11 Keywords
Cryptography Plaintext Decryption Ciphertext Encryption Data Encryption Standard (DES)

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